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Lesson 1 Introduction TO Computers

Information Technology (Mount Kenya University)

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SCHOOL OF COMPUTING AND INFORMATICS

Department of Information technology

DIT 1105 / CIT 1101: INTRODUCTION TO

COMPUTERS & PROGRAMMING

Additional Instructional materials for Introduction to

Computers

@JAN - APRIL 2023

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LESSON ONE

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

1.1 What is a computer.

 A computer is an electronic device that accepts data as inputs process it by performing
arithmetic and logical operations in accordance with the predefined instructions and
produces information as output to the user.

 The computer performs operations in a matter of fractions of seconds and therefore it said
to be of very high speed as it manipulates data compared to human beings. Computers are
by far more accurate while performing various operations compared to human beings.

 They can store very huge amount of data and information which compared to the manual
filling system occupy a very small space.

 Computers are composed of hardware and software. Hardware consists of the

physical/tangible parts of a computer e.g. monitor, keyboard, mouse, hard disk etc while
software are programs, routines, and symbolic languages that control the functioning of the
hardware and direct its operation.

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1.2 Historical Development Of Computing

Computing is also called processing therefore computing of data which include arithmetic and
logic operations carried out on data. These operations take place at very high speed.
1. The first computing machine was abacus used in small volumes in china and Japan
many years before Christ. This was a simple traditional calculation aid.
This device allowed its users to make computations using a system of sliding beads
arranged on a rack. Early shopkeepers used the abacus to keep up with
transactions. The use of pencil and paper spread, the abacus lost its importance.
2. In 1614 logarithm as an aid of calculation as invented by a Scottish mathematician
known as john Napier who subsequently invented as rod of bones, the idea which was in
use three years later after his logarithm invention and was employed in carrying out
multiplication.
3. In 1620 William oughtred an English man invented the slide rule.
4. In 1642 Blaise Pascal son of a French tax collector, invented what he called a numerical
wheel calculator to help his father with his duties. The calculating machine had both the
ability to add and to subtract numbers .The Pascaline, a brass rectangular box, used eight
movable dials to add sums up to eight figures long. Pascal's device used a base of ten to
achieve this. The disadvantage to the Pascaline, was its limitation to addition
5. In 1694, Gottfried Wilhem von Leibniza a German mathematician and philosopher
improved the Pascaline by creating a machine that could also multiply. Like its
predecessor, Leibniz's mechanical multiplier worked by a system of gears and dials.
6. In 1802 jacquard loom was invented by jacquard. It was used to store instructions for
weaving on punched cards. This formed the basis for the programmable computer.
7. In 1820, A Frenchman, Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar, invented a machine that
could perform the four basic mathematic functions. The arithometer presented a more
systematic approach to computing because it could add, subtract, multiply and divide.
With its enhanced versatility, the arithometer was widely used up until World War I.
8. In 1822, Charles Babbage a professor of mathematics invented the Babbage's steam-
powered Engine which outlined the basic elements of a modern general purpose
computer and was a breakthrough concept. This design did not complete but later in 134
used the same idea to develop a general purpose calculator (analytical engine) whose

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design was very to the design of the computers today. The Analytical Engine consisted of
over 50,000 components. The basic design included input devices in the form of
perforated cards containing operating instructions and a "store" for memory of 1,000
numbers of up to 50 decimal digits long. The machine is recognized as a milestone
because it signifies the start of computer age and therefore Charles is said to be the father
of computing. Lady Ada produced programs to be used by this analytical engine. Lady
Ada is claimed to be possibly the first programmer.
9. Between 1847-1854 George Boole discovered Boolean algebra whose principles are the
basis of the today’s computer logic gates used as logical elements.
10. In mid 1880s the tabulator machine was discovered by the Herman Hollerith that used
cards to store data information which was fed into a machine and compiled the results
mechanically. Each punch on a card represented one number, and combinations of two
punches represented one letter. As many as 80 variables could be stored on a single
card. Hollerith brought his punch card reader into the business world, founding
Tabulating Machine Company in 1896, later to become International Business Machines
(IBM) in 1924 after a series of mergers. Other companies also manufactured punch
readers for business use. Both business and government used punch cards for data
processing until the 1960's.
11. When World War II started, the governments started to develop computers to
accomplishment their potential strategic importance. This increased funding for computer
development projects and hastened technical progress. In 1941, a German engineer
Konrad Zuse had developed a computer to design airplanes and missiles. The Allied
forces, made greater strides in developing powerful computers. In 1933, Howard H.
Aiken, a Harvard engineer working with IBM, produced an all-electronic calculator. The
purpose of the computer was to create ballistic charts for the U.S. Navy. It was about half
as long as a football field and contained about 500 miles of wiring. It used
electromagnetic signals to move mechanical parts. The machine was slow taking 3-5
seconds per calculation and inflexible in that sequence of calculations could not change,
but it could perform basic arithmetic as well as more complex equations. The calculating
machine Z3 and Z4 machines had the ability to use programs. The development of
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was also spurred by the War. It

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consisted of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors and 5 million soldered joints, the
computer was such a massive piece of machinery that it consumed 160 kilowatts of
electrical power. ENIAC was developed by John Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchl. It
was a general-purpose computer.
12. In 1945, Von Neumann designed the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
(EDVAC) with a memory to hold both a stored program as well as data. This stored
memory technique as well as the conditional control transfer, which allowed the
computer to be stopped at any point and then resumed, allowed for greater versatility in
computer programming. The key element to the von Neumann architecture was the
central processing unit, which allowed all computer functions to be coordinated through a
single source.
13. In 1951, the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer), built by Remington Rand,
became one of the first commercially available computers to take advantage of these
advances. The first computers were characterized by the fact that operating instructions
were made-to-order for the specific task for which the computer was to be used. Each
computer had a different binary-coded program called a machine language that told it
how to operate. This made the computer difficult to program and limited its versatility
and speed. Other unique features of first computers were the use of vacuum tubes and
magnetic drums for data storage.
14. In 1948 the invention of the transistor replaced the large, cumbersome vacuum tubes.
The transistor was at work in the computer by 1956. Throughout the early 1960's, there
were a number of commercially successful computers used in business, universities, and
government. These computers also contained transistors in place of vacuum tubes. They
also contained all the components we associate with the modern day computer: printers,
disk storage, memory, tape storage, operating systems, and stored programs.
15. By 1965, most large business processed financial information using computers. The
stored program and programming language gave computers the flexibility to finally be
cost effective and productive for business use. Though transistors were an improvement
over the vacuum tube, they still generated a great deal of heat, which damaging the
computer's sensitive internal parts.

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16. In 1958 Jack Kilby, an engineer, developed the integrated circuit. The IC combined three
electronic components onto a small silicon disc, which was made from quartz. Scientists
later managed to fit even more components on a single chip, called a semiconductor.
17. By 1980’s, very large scale integration squeezed hundreds of thousands of components
onto a chip. Ultra-large scale integration increased that number into the millions. The
ability to fit so much onto a helped diminish the size and price of computers. It also
increased their power, efficiency and reliability. By the mid-1970's, computer
manufacturers sought to bring computers to general consumers. These minicomputers
came complete with user-friendly software packages that offered even non-technical
users an arrangement of applications, most popularly word processing and spreadsheet
programs.
18. In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer (PC) for use in the home, office and
schools. This saw an expansion in computer use in all three arenas as clones of the IBM
PC made the personal computer even more affordable. The number of personal
computers in use more than doubled. As computers became more widespread in the
workplace, new ways to harness their potential developed. As smaller computers became
more powerful, they could be linked together, or networked, to share memory space,
software, information and communicate with each other leading to a global village.
Computers continue to grow smaller and more powerful and even cheaper.

1.3 Classification Of Computers

1. BY THE TYPE OF DATA THEY MANIPULATE
a) Digital computers. A computer that stores data in terms of digits (0’s and 1’s) and
proceeds in discrete steps from one state to the next. The states of a digital computer
typically involve binary digits which may take the form of the presence or absence of
magnetic markers in a storage medium, on-off switches or relays. In digital computers,
even letters, words and whole texts are represented digitally. They have the ability to
store large quantities of data.
b) Analogue computers. A computer that uses electrical or mechanical phenomena to
model the problem being solved, or more generally by using one kind of physical
quantity to represent another. They perform arithmetic operations and logic comparison

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by measuring changes in physical magnitude e.g. electronic voltage, pressure change,

temperature changes etc.
c) Hybrid computers. Are designed by interconnecting the digital computer and analog
computer’s element directly into one processor using a suitable interfacing circuitry. I.e.
both the digital and analog features are built within the same computer processor. They
are advantageous in that they combine both the functional capabilities of the digital and
analogue computers, though they are more expensive
2. BY THE PURPOSE FOR WHICH THEY ARE DESIGNED FOR
a) Special purpose or dedicated computers A computer that is designed to operate on a
restricted class of problems. They carry out special processing tasks in one or more
applications.
b) General purpose computers. A machine that is capable of carrying out some general
data processing under program control. They are designed to be used in a variety of
application s environment as required. A general purpose computer can be dedicated to
carry out word processing tasks

3. BY SIZE, PRICE AND CAPABILITIES

a) Super computers

They are very large in size and use multiple processor and superior technology. Super computers
are biggest in size, the most expensive in price than any other is classified and known as super
computer. It can process trillions of instructions in seconds. This computer is not used as a PC in
a home neither by a student in a college. Governments specially use this type of computer for
their different calculations and heavy jobs. Different industries also use this huge computer for
designing their products.

In most of the Hollywood’s movies it is used for animation purposes. This kind of computer is
also helpful for forecasting weather reports worldwide. They are known for von Newman’s
design i.e. multiple processor system with parallel processing. In such a system a task is broken
down and shared among processes for faster execution. They are used for complex tasks
requiring a lot of computational power.

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b) Mainframe computers
A mainframe is another giant computers after the super computer and can also process millions
of instruction per second and capable of accessing billions of data .They are physically very large
in size with very high capacity of main memory. This computer is commonly used in big
hospitals, air line reservations companies, and many other huge companies prefer mainframe
because of its capability of retrieving data on a huge basis. They can be linked to smaller
computers and handle hundreds of users they are also used in space exploitation. The term
mainframe was mainly used for earliest computers as they were big in size though today this is
used for the large computers. A large number of peripherals can be attached to them. They are
expensive to install.

c) Minicomputers
They are smaller than the main frame but bigger than minicomputers. They support concurrent
users. They can be used as servers in companies. They are slower and less costly compared to
mainframe computers but more powerful, reliable and expensive than micro computers.

d) Micro computers
They are of advanced technology i.e. the micro era based on large scale integration that confines
several physical components per small elements thumb size IC, hence the size reduced. The
smallest of the three computers. They are usually called personal computers since they are
designed to be used by individuals. The micro chip technology has enabled reduction of size of
computers. Microcomputers can be a desktop, laptop, notebooks, or even palmtop
(i) Notebook computer An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook computers
typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside
from size and portability,. Notebook computers use a variety of techniques, known as
flat-panel technologies, to produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen.
(ii) Desktop Computer is an independent personal computer that is made especially for use
on a desk in an office or home. The term is used mainly to distinguish this type of
personal computer from portable computers and laptops, but also to distinguish other
types of computers like the server or mainframe.

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(iii)Laptop A small portable computer light enough to carry comfortably, with a flat screen
and keyboard that fold together. Laptops are battery-operated, often have a thin,backlit or
sidelit LCD display screen, and some models can even mate with a docking station to
perform as a full-sized desktop system back at the office. Advances in battery technology
allow laptop computers to run for many hours between charges, and some models have a
set of business applications built into ROM. Today's high-end laptops provide all the
capabilities of most desktop computers.
(iv) Palmtop A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size
computers, palmtops are severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions such
as phone books and calendars. Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard for input
are often called hand-held computers or PDAs. Because of their small size, most palmtop
computers do not include disk drives. However, many contain PCMCIA slots in which
you can insert disk drives, modems, memory, and other devices.

4. COMPUTER GENERATION
a) First generation computers (1946-1956)
They made use of vacuum tubes to store and process information. The tubes consumed a lot of
power and generate a lot of heat (overheating). They were huge in size and occupy a room. They
used magnetic tape. Storage capacity was very low i.e. 2kb and speed of processing was also
very low. First machine in this category was ENIAC (electronic discrete variable automatic
computer) and later came UNIVAC (universal automatic computers).these computers were
mostly computational machines. Their input /output capabilities were usually limited to the
keyboard and or punched card input and printer and or punched cart output. The speed of these
machines was described in milliseconds (1/1000 of a second)

b) Second generation computers (1957-1967)

These computers used transistors after invention of transistors. The transistor is smaller cheaper
and produced less heat than vacuum tubes and consumed less power. The cost of computers
decreases and the speed increased. The second generation saw the introduction of more complex
ALU and CPU, the use of high level languages and provision of system software with the
computer. Data access time was measured in micro-seconds. Removable disk storage units were

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developed for use on these machines. The speed of these machines was described in
microseconds (1/1000, 000 of a second). These computers had programming languages whose
vocabularies are close to the human natural language, English language.

c) Third generation computers (1965-1980)

Introduced the use of very small electronic circuit called integrated circuits by combining several
transistors together between 3 transistors to make 1 IC. With ic you can house thousands of
transistors in one ic .This change further decreased the size, heat output and the maintenance
complexity of the computers while increasing its speed. The small circuitry that resulted
improved the processing speed i.e. 10 times the past. The speed of these machines was described
in nanoseconds (1/1,000,000,000 of a second). They have higher main memory capacity, reliable
and increased processing power (have the capability of holding more than one set of instructions
and operate on them) than the second generation computers. Invention of IC revolutionalised
electronics and started the error of micro-electronics. The IBM 360 is an example of third
generation computers.

d) Fourth generation computers (1980s)

Use large scale integration circuits which housed hundreds of transistors and very large IC which
are between 200,000 to 400, 000 in one IC. Memory used includes magnetic disc and optical
disc. Memory size expanded up to several MB and speed was 10 times faster. This generation
marked the origin of mini computers in use today

e) Fifth generation computers (1990-current)

The design of these computers was based on VLSI (very large scale integration) technology, the
micro chip technology that gave rise to the smaller computers known as the micro computers in
use today. These computers are used in networking .examples of micro computers are IBM PCs
BBC micro etc. the micro computers are usually described as PCs or stand alone or desktop
computers because they were designed primarily to serve single person at a time. The fifth
generation is still a state of the art technology that relies on predictions and further technological
refinements.

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Summary
Research shows that the trend in computer technology revolution is that there is;
o Continual decrease in computer size
o Improved speed and power processing
o Decrease in computers and the related facilities cost
o Number of components in computer per circuit (IC) greatly increased over 500,000
physical elements e.g. transistors, capacities, diodes etc per chip(IC).

1.4 IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTERS.

1) Personal and Home Uses
Computers allow people with disabilities to do normal activities
 Shopping online
 Playing games with other people
 Work from home
2) Business Uses
Computers allow companies to keep large amounts of information at hand
 Databases
Makes ordering and tracking resources quicker and easier
Allows people to have meetings from different locations
3) Educational Uses
The Internet allows access to hundreds of online research materials
Allows colleagues to correspond quickly about ongoing research
4) Communication Uses
Computers allow people across the world to communicate easily

Basic characteristics about computer are:

1. Speed: - computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we take
hours to complete. You will be surprised to know that computer can perform millions
(1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second.

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Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second)
or nanosecond (10 to the power -9 part of a second). From this you can imagine how fast your
computer performs work.

2. Accuracy: - The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is
performed with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is 7.

determined on the basis of design of computer. The errors in computer are due to human and
inaccurate data.

3. Diligence: - A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work
for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer
will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers
human being in routine type of work.

4. Versatility: - It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use
your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management
or to prepare electric bills.

5. Power of Remembering: - Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or
data. Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of
years. It depends entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and when to
lose or retrieve these data.

6. No IQ: - Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the
user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide what
you want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own decision as you can.

7. No Feeling: - It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it
does not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.

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8. Storage: - The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data.
You can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside
your computer and can be carried to other computers.

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