D

UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCE AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

A TECHNINCAL REPORT ON THE STUDENTS’ INDUSTRIAL WORK

EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

UNDERTAKEN
AT
TENCHARIS GLOBAL

BY
WISDOM, ANACHOR ABEL
U2021/5545121

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR DEGREE IN PLANT SCIENCE AND BIOTECHNOLOGY.

COURSE CODE: PSB 309.2

COURSE TITLE: STUDENTS’ INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE

(SIWES)
COURSE COORDINATOR: DR. JOSEPHINE AGOGBUA
DR. CHIKA WAHUA
DR. PETER EREMENA
JANUARY, 2025.

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 DEDICATION

This Industrial Training Report is wholeheartedly dedicated to the Almighty God,

acknowledging His grace and strength that enabled the completion of this work.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I express sincere gratitude to my supervisor for offering invaluable guidance and instructions

that played a crucial role in the success of this report. I am also thankful to my parents and

siblings for their ongoing encouragement throughout my Industrial Training. A heartfelt thank

you is extended to Tencharis Global, and to my friends, your unwavering support is truly

appreciated.

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 ABSTRACT
This extensive report provides a detailed overview of the diverse range of activities I engaged
in during my six-month Industrial Training at Tencharis Global. Rooted in the fundamental
objectives of the Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES), which aims to equip
students with vital skills and familiarity with the industrial work landscape they are poised to
encounter post-graduation, this document encapsulates the essence of my experiences across
various units at Tencharis Global. These encompass the industrial, phytochemistry,
cosmetology, and agronomy sectors. Beyond a mere account of activities, this document serves
as a repository of recommendations, advice, and suggestions meticulously crafted to enhance
the overall efficacy of SIWES programs.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page i

Dedication ii

Acknowledgements iii

Abstract iv

Table of Contents v

List of Tables vii

List of Plates viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Historical Background of SIWES 1

1.2 Objective of SIWES 1

1.3 History of Tencharis Global 2

1.4 Vision and Mission Statement of Tencharis Global 3

1.5 Organizational Chart of Tencharis Global 3

1.6 Functions of various Departments in Tencharis Global 4

CHAPTER TWO: ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT

2.1 Orientation 5

2.2 Safety Precautions 5

2.3 Departments/Units Assigned 5

2.4 Biofuel Unit 6

2.5 Farming Unit 14

2.6 Industrial Unit 19

2.7 Other Activities 22

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CHAPTER THREE: PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

3.1 Challenges Encountered 27

3.2 Relevance of the SIWES programme 28

CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION AND GENERAL APPRAISAL OF THE PROGRAMME

4.1 Ways of improving the programme 29

4.2 Advice for the future participants 29

4.3 Advice for the SIWES managers 30

4.4 Conclusion 30

REFERENCES 31

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Historical Background of SIWES

The Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a structured training program

designed by the Nigerian government to expose students in tertiary institutions to practical

work experience in their chosen fields of study. The program was established to bridge the gap

between theoretical knowledge acquired in the classroom and practical skills required in the

workplace.

The historical background of SIWES can be traced back to the need for a more practical and

hands-on approach to education in Nigeria. Prior to the establishment of SIWES, there was a

growing concern that graduates were not adequately equipped with the practical skills needed

in the workforce. To address this gap, the Nigerian government, in collaboration with various

stakeholders, initiated the SIWES program.

The SIWES program was officially launched in 1973 by the Nigerian government under the

administration of General Yakubu Gowon. The program was initially introduced in four higher

institutions in the country, and it has since expanded to cover a wide range of disciplines and

institutions across Nigeria.

1.2 Aims and Objectives of SIWES

The objectives of the Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) according to the

Industrial Training Fund (ITF) 2013 are to:

1. Provide an avenue for students in institutions of higher learning to acquire industrial

skills and experience during their course of students.

2. Prepare students for industrial work situations that they are likely to meet after

graduation.

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 3. Expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment’s and

machinery that may not be available in their institutions.

4. Make the transition from school to the world of work easier and enhance students’

contact for later job placement.

5. Provide students with the opportunity to apply their educational knowledge in real

work situations, thereby bridging the gap between theory and practice.

6. Enlist and strengthen employer’s involvement in the entire educational process

through SIWES.

1.3 History of Firm (Tencharis Global)

Tencharis I.T World functions as a subsidiary under the ownership of Dr. Stella Nwigbo within

the broader scope of Tencharis Global. The establishment of Tencharis Global was driven by

a twofold objective – the pursuit of technological progress and the resolution of unemployment

challenges in Africa. Witnessing the unfortunate scenario of graduates leaving educational

institutions only to encounter prolonged unemployment, the founder, in strategic collaboration

with the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC), initiated a program to train corps members in

various cutting-edge technologies. This initiative aimed not only to alleviate poverty but also

to foster entrepreneurship among young individuals.

Recognizing another pressing issue, where university students faced difficulties securing

relevant spaces for industrial attachments, often leading to prolonged unemployment or

attachments in unrelated fields, Tencharis I.T World decided to intervene. The organization

aimed to address the predicament of graduates with incomplete training resulting from such

experiences, a concern for society at large. Consequently, Tencharis I.T World has taken the

initiative to accommodate these students, providing them with a platform to acquire essential

skills and knowledge. This undertaking serves the dual purpose of bridging the gap between

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industry requirements and the academic environment, ultimately contributing to the

development of well-rounded professionals.

1.4 Vision of Mission Statement of the Firm

Tencharis I.T world is set out to build human capacity by equipping Africans with requisite

skills to meet up the global standard.

1.5 Organizational Chart of the Firm (Tencharis Global)

Plate 1: Organizational Chart/Organogram

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1.6 Functional Department in Tencharis Global

Tencharis Global distinguishes itself as a vibrant and youthful enterprise, focusing on a range

of areas including photochemistry, laboratory technology, organic farming, hydroponic

farming, mushroom farming, and various branches of biotechnology such as biogas, biodiesel,

bioethanol, charcoal briquettes, biocosmetics, and activated carbon. In addition to its dedication

to creating a supportive environment for personal growth, Tencharis Global prides itself on a

team of skilled instructors proficient in diverse academic disciplines, encompassing computer

science, biotechnology, engineering, and agriculture.

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 CHAPTER TWO

ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT

2.1 Orientation

Several activities were carried out during my SIWES course, which was both theoretical and

practical at Tencharis Global. My Industrial training began with an orientation from the

Industrial Supervisor on the rules and regulations governing the firm, he mentioned that

punctuality should be cultured among the trainees. However, lateness and absenteeism was

highly prohibited.

2.2 Safety Precautions

1. Safety boots must be worn to protect the feet during work

2. Hand gloves must be worn to protect the hands during practical work and should be

disposed of if broken or damaged

3. Laboratory coats must be worn to protect clothes and skin from stains or spills

4. Eating or drinking while working in any unit is absolutely prohibited.

5. All damaged glasses and/or equipment should be appropriately disposed of.

6. Nose masks should be used when working in regions that have unpleasant smell.

7. No machine or equipment shall be handled in the absence of the supervisor.

2.3 Departments/Units Assigned

1. Farming Unit

• Hydroponics Farming

• Mushroom Cultivation

• Organic farming

2. Industrial Unit

• Phytochemistry

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 3. Biofuel Unit

• Biogas Production

• Biodiesel Production

• Charcoal Briquettes

2.4.1 Biogas Production

Biogas consists of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2), and is formed when naturally

occurring intestinal bacteria in oxygen-free environments digest organic material. Biogas is

produced when livestock manure and organic residues from industry and households are fed

into biogas plants, which consists of a series of tanks without oxygen. The biomass used comes

primarily from livestock manure but can also consist of residues from the food industry,

including slaughterhouse waste, and other sources such as household waste. In addition,

residues from agriculture are used, including straw.

2.4.1.1 Biodigester

A biodigester is a system that biologically digests organic material, either anaerobic (without

oxygen) or aerobically (with oxygen). Microbes and other bacteria break down organic

materials in a biodigester. Most food, including fat, greases, and even animal manure, can be

processed in a biodigester.

Biodigesters are a closed system; therefore, it gives off no odor from food waste; this will

eliminate flies and rodents from the facility, increasing hygiene. Also, eliminating food waste

on-site saves money by reducing hauling costs. The capacity of food a biodigester can process

depends on the size; larger the digester more food it can handle. Biodigesters are a living system

and do require maintenance. However, they are easy to use and maintain.

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Of course, one of the great benefits of biodigesters is they are eco-friendly and will reduce a

facility’s carbon footprint significantly. Food scraps and other organic materials decaying in

landfills release methane and carbon dioxide contributing to climate change. Food waste is

estimated to be 30-40 percent in the United States and represents the largest category of

materials in landfills. Diverting food scraps and other organic materials from landfills,

methane, and carbon dioxide can be captured and used efficiently.

2.4.1.2 Different Types of Biodigester

• Batch Biodigester: In a batch biodigester, organic materials are loaded at once, and the

digestion process occurs in a closed system until it is completed. After digestion, the

effluent is removed, and new feedstock is added for the next batch.

• Plug Flow Biodigester: A plug flow biodigester is designed to allow the continuous

flow of substrate from the inlet to the outlet. It is characterized by a gradual reduction

in the concentration of organic material along the length of the reactor.

• Fixed Dome Biodigester: The fixed dome biodigester is a popular design for small-

scale biogas production. It consists of a fixed, dome-shaped digester that captures the

biogas produced during the anaerobic digestion process. The dome rises as gas

accumulates.

• Floating Drum Biodigester: Similar to the fixed dome design, the floating drum

biodigester also captures biogas, but it uses a floating drum that rises and falls with the

production of gas. This design allows for the storage of gas at a constant pressure.

2.4.1.3 Operational Factors that can influence Biogas Production

Several operational factors can significantly influence the production of biogas in a biodigester.

Understanding and optimizing these factors are crucial for maximizing biogas yield and the

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overall efficiency of the anaerobic digestion process. Here are some key operational factors

that can influence biogas production:

1. Temperature: Anaerobic digestion is a temperature-sensitive process. The microbial

activity responsible for biogas production is most effective within a certain temperature

range, typically between 35°C and 40°C. Lower temperatures can slow down the

digestion process, while higher temperatures may lead to the inhibition of microbial

activity.

2. Substrate Composition: The type and composition of organic materials used as

feedstock significantly impact biogas production. A balanced mix of carbon-rich and

nitrogen-rich materials is essential for optimal microbial activity. Different substrates

contribute varying amounts of nutrients and organic matter to the biodigester.

3. Retention Time: The retention time, or the duration of organic material inside the

biodigester, is critical for effective digestion. Longer retention times can enhance gas

production, but they may require larger digester volumes. Short retention times may

not allow for complete digestion of the organic matter.

4. Carbon-to-Nitrogen (C/N) Ratio: Maintaining an appropriate carbon-to-nitrogen

ratio in the feedstock is crucial for microbial activity. The ideal C/N ratio varies

depending on the type of organic materials used, but a balanced ratio supports efficient

digestion and prevents issues such as ammonia inhibition.

5. pH Level: The pH level of the biodigester is a critical factor that influences the activity

of methanogenic bacteria. Most biodigesters operate optimally within a neutral pH

range of 6.5 to 7.5. Fluctuations in pH can inhibit microbial activity and affect biogas

production.

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 6. Mixing and Agitation: Proper mixing and agitation ensure uniform distribution of

microbes and nutrients within the biodigester. This helps prevent the formation of

stratified layers and enhances the overall efficiency of the anaerobic digestion process.

2.4.1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Biogas

Advantages of Biogas

1. Renewable source of energy: Organic materials that are derived from plants, animals, and

humans are the basic raw materials for producing biogas which is plentiful and not going

to be exhausted. This makes biogas a renewable energy source.

2. Utilization of waste: The production of biogas is an advantageous method to utilize waste

and turn them into an energy source. It also lessens the damaging impact of waste on

landfills and the problem of improper wastes disposal. Wastes are turned into energy to

utilize for electricity, heating, as well as fertilizers through this process.

3. Eco-friendly: Biogas is a green and clean source of energy. Biogas combustion doesn’t

cause any harmful emission of greenhouse gasses and helps to reduce pollution.

4. Alternative source of energy: The areas which have limited access to electricity or fuel

due to infrastructure or cost constraints, biogas can be a very effective and reliable source

to generate electricity and fuel for cooking, etc. It allows energy diversification by reducing

dependence on conventional energy source.

Disadvantages of Biogas

1. Little technological advancement

2. Effect of Temperature: Biogas generation requires an optimal temperature for bacteria to

digest the waste which is around 37°C. So, in cold climates, biogas production requires

external heat to function properly in maintaining a consistent supply of biogas.

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3. Flammability: Biogas contains about 50% to 70% of methane, which is extremely

flammable. Due to the high content of methane, biogas is unstable and is prone to

explosions in mixture with air so needs to be handled very carefully.

2.4.2.4 Visuals of all other Biogas Production Activities

Plate 2: Biodigester Plate 3: Combustion of biogas

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2.4.3 Charcoal Briquettes

Charcoal briquettes are a popular and efficient alternative to traditional charcoal. They are

made by compressing a mixture of charcoal fines, binders, and additives into compact, uniform

shapes. These briquettes are designed to provide a consistent and controlled burn, making them

suitable for various applications, including grilling, cooking, and heating.

2.4.3.1 Composition of Charcoal Briquettes

• Charcoal Fines: Fine particles of charcoal, often obtained from various sources, such

as wood, coconut shells, or other biomass materials.

• Binders: Agents that hold the charcoal fines together and facilitate the briquette-

forming process. Common binders include starch, clay, or other natural binders.

• Additives: Optional components like ignition enhancers, accelerants, or flavorings may

be included to enhance performance or cater to specific uses.

2.4.3.2 Production Process

• Mixing: Charcoal fines are thoroughly mixed with binders and additives to create a

homogeneous mixture.

• Compression: The mixture is compressed under high pressure into specific shapes

using a briquetting machine. The compression process gives the briquettes their

characteristic shape and density.

• Drying: The newly formed briquettes are dried to remove moisture, ensuring improved

combustion efficiency.

• Packaging: Once dried, the briquettes are packaged and ready for distribution and use.

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Advantages of Charcoal Briquettes

• Consistent Quality: Charcoal briquettes are manufactured to have a consistent

composition, resulting in a uniform burn rate and temperature during use.

• Longer Burning Time: The compact and dense nature of briquettes contributes to a

longer burning time compared to traditional lump charcoal.

• Stable Heat Output: Briquettes provide a stable and controlled heat output, making

them suitable for precise cooking or grilling.

• Easy Ignition: Many charcoal briquettes are designed for easy ignition, often requiring

minimal starter fuel.

• Reduced Smoke: The controlled combustion of briquettes typically produces less

smoke than traditional charcoal, contributing to a cleaner cooking experience.

Applications

1. Grilling and Barbecuing: Charcoal briquettes are commonly used for outdoor grilling

and barbecuing due to their consistent heat output and long burning time.

2. Cooking and Heating: Briquettes can also be used in cooking stoves and as a source

of heat for various applications, such as camping or emergency situations.

3. Environmental Considerations: While charcoal briquettes can be made from

sustainable sources, there are environmental concerns related to deforestation and

habitat loss. It is essential to choose products made from responsibly sourced materials

or explore alternative options like coconut shell briquettes, which utilize waste from

coconut production.

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2.4.3.4 Visuals of all Charcoal Briquettes Activities

Plate 4: Charcoal briquetting

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2.5 FARMING UNIT

2.5.1 Hydroponics Farming

Hydroponics is a method of growing plants without soil, using nutrient-rich water to deliver

essential minerals directly to the plant roots. Various hydroponic systems exist, each with its

own set of advantages and considerations.

2.5.1.1 Basic Components of a Hydroponic System

• Growing Medium: While hydroponics eliminates the need for soil, a growing medium

provides physical support for the plant roots and helps retain moisture. Common

growing mediums include coconut coir, perlite, vermiculite, rockwool, and hydroton

(expanded clay pellets).

• Nutrient Solution: Instead of extracting nutrients from soil, plants in hydroponic

systems receive a nutrient solution directly. This solution typically consists of water

and a balanced mix of essential nutrients needed for plant growth, including nitrogen,

phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and trace elements.

• Water Reservoir: The water reservoir holds the nutrient solution and ensures a

continuous supply to the plant roots. It may include a pump for recirculating systems

or be gravity-fed in simpler setups.

• pH Control: Maintaining the correct pH level of the nutrient solution is crucial for

nutrient absorption by plants. pH control measures, such as pH meters and pH-adjusting

solutions, are used to regulate acidity or alkalinity.

• Oxygenation: Plant roots in hydroponics require oxygen, and systems may incorporate

aeration techniques to ensure sufficient oxygen levels. This can involve air stones,

diffusers, or other oxygenation methods.

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 • Lighting: While not unique to hydroponics, proper lighting is essential for plant

growth. Indoor hydroponic systems often use artificial lighting, such as LED or high-

intensity discharge (HID) lamps, to provide the necessary spectrum for photosynthesis.

Plate 5: Reservoir Plate 6: Coco coir Growing Medium

Types of Hydroponic Systems

1. Deep Water Culture (DWC): Plants are suspended in a nutrient solution with their

roots submerged. An air pump provides oxygen to the roots, and the nutrient solution

is continuously or intermittently circulated.

2. Nutrient Film Technique (NFT): A thin film of nutrient solution flows over the plant

roots, which are supported by a sloping, inclined surface. This method ensures a

constant flow of nutrients while allowing oxygen to reach the roots.

3. Aeroponics: Plant roots are suspended in air, and a nutrient solution is misted onto the

roots. This method allows for high oxygen levels and efficient nutrient absorption.

4. Drip System: A drip system delivers a nutrient solution directly to the base of each

plant through a network of tubes and emitters. It can be either recirculating or non-

recirculating.

5. Wick System: This is a passive system where a wick transports the nutrient solution

from a reservoir to the growing medium, providing a simple and low-maintenance

approach.

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2.5.2 Mushroom Production/Cultivation

Mushrooms are fungi belonging to the kingdom Fungi. They are distinctive organisms that

have a complex structure and life cycle. Unlike plants, mushrooms do not contain chlorophyll

and cannot produce their own food through photosynthesis. Instead, they obtain nutrients by

decomposing organic matter or forming symbiotic relationships with other organisms.

2.5.2.1 Classification of Mushroom

Mushroom (White oyster)

Kingdom - fungi

Division - Basidiomycota

Class - Agarimycotes

Order - Agaricales

Family - Pleurotaceae

Genus- Pleurotus

Species - ostreatus

Edible mushroom- Pleurotus spp, Bisporus spp, Agaricus spp

Medicinal mushroom- Gandoderum spp, Lucidium spp, letriulaedodes spp

Poisonous mushroom – Amarita museria, Amarita phalloides

2.5.2.1 Techniques/Processes Involved in Oyster Mushroom Production

Spawn Production: Spawn production is a crucial step ensuring the availability of a healthy

and robust mycelial culture for inoculating larger substrate batches in commercial mushroom

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cultivation. Maintaining sterile conditions during spawn production is essential to prevent

contamination and ensure successful mushroom cultivation.

Methods of Spawn Production:

a. Tissue Culture

b. Replication/Multiplication Method

a. Tissue Culture: Tissue culture is the original method of spawn production. The steps

involved in tissue culture are as follows:

• Prepare a Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium.

• Peel and weigh 200g of Irish potato.

• Boil the potato in at least ½ liter of water; filter when soft.

• Add 20g of glucose and 20g of agar (powder form) to the filtered water.

• Stir and sterilize for 15 – 20 minutes.

• Allow it to cool and solidify in a petri dish.

• Cut the internal tissue of a matured mushroom and place it on the solidified PDA (tissue

culture).

• The tissue culture gives rise to spawn and can be multiplied.

Grain Sterilization: Guinea corn is used for grain sterilization in five steps:

• Washing: Rinse the guinea corn 4 – 5 times; remove floating seeds.

• Parboiling: Boil the guinea corn until soft; filter out the water.

• Air Drying: Dry the parboiled guinea corn.

• Bottling: Place in a transparent bottle, cover with cotton wool, and secure with paper

and a rubber ring.

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Final Sterilization: Place the bottle in a pressure pot or autoclave for 1hr 30mins at 120°C.

Substrate Preparation: Sawdust is the preferred substrate for oyster mushroom growth. For

every 93kg of sawdust, add 7kg of wheat bran, 400g of lime, and 70-80 liters of water. Wheat

bran acts as a fertilizer, promoting mushroom growth.

Inoculation: Before inoculation, sterilize the bag using ethanol or methylated spirit for 3 – 4

hours. Plant the seed or spawn on the sterilized substrate.

Colonization: The gradual growth of the spawn on the substrate occurs during colonization,

lasting 3 – 4 weeks until the entire substrate turns white.

Fruiting and Harvesting: After colonization, fruiting occurs. Cut and open the bag, allowing

fruiting after 3 days. The spent substrate lasts for 3 – 4 months during mushroom fruiting, with

continuous harvesting until it becomes spent.

Plate 7: Grain Sterilization Plate 8: Fruiting

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2.5.2.2 Contamination

This is the biggest challenge in mushroom production. The contamination might be via;

1. Improper sterilization

2. Using contaminates spawn/seed

3. Excessive discussion which causes inoculation of microbes into the medium.

2.5.2.3 Preservation Mechanism

1. Drying using solar dryer (Dried mushroom can stay for 6 months – 1 year)

2. Refrigeration (3 – 4 days).

2.5.2.4 Daily Routine Management Practices

1. Harvest matured mushrooms on a daily basis as they are highly perishable due to the

high-water content, 70% - 80%.

2. Remove the spent substrate from the new ones because they can attract maggots.

3. As soon as you harvest, add clean water to surface of the substrate because, it is very

stiffed.

2.5.5 Equipment/Materials Needed to Set-Up Mushroom Farm

1. Three rooms are needed in setting up mushroom farming are:

a. Laboratory: This is where tissue culture processes is carried out and other

biological stuffs.

b. Inoculation Room: This is where colonization takes place.

c. Fruity/Harvesting Room/Cropping Room: This is where the fruiting and

harvesting takes place.

2. Pressure Pot

3. Constant Water Supply

4. Metallic Drum

5. Shovel, Gas, Cotton wool and Thermometer.

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2.6 INDUSTRIAL UNIT

2.6.1 Phytochemistry

Phytochemistry is the study of the chemicals produced by plants, particularly the secondary

metabolites which are synthesized as a measure for self-defense against insects, pests,

pathogens, herbivores, UV exposure and environmental hazards. There are over 400,000

species of plants in the world (Pitman and Jørgensen, 2002), out of which only a small fraction

of about 35,000–70,000 species of plants have been screened for their medicinal use

(Veeresham, 2012).

• Active compounds: A plant extracts a substance or an active substance with desirable

properties removed from the tissues of a plant, frequently by treating it with a solvent,

to be used for a particular purpose. The term “bioactive compounds” is generally

referred to as biologically significant chemicals but not established as essential

nutrients. Bioactive compounds are essential (e.g., vitamins) and non-essential (e.g.,

polyphenols, alkaloids, etc.) compounds that occur in nature, are part of the food chain,

and can affect human health. They are derived from various natural sources such as

plants, animals, microorganisms (e.g., fungi) and marine organisms (e.g., lichens).

Some common active compounds (Phytochemicals) includes: Polyphenols, Flavonoids,

Carotenoids, Fibers, Terpenoids etc.

• Solvents of Extraction: The solvent used for the extraction of plants is also known as

the menstruum. The choice of solvent depends on the type of plant, part of plant to be

extracted, nature of the bioactive compounds, and the availability of solvent. In general,

polar solvents such as water, methanol, and ethanol are used in extraction of polar

compound, whereas nonpolar solvents such as hexane and dichloromethane are used in

extraction of nonpolar compounds. Furthermore, solvent used in extraction is classified

according to their polarity.

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Table 1: solvents of extractions arranged according to the order of increasing polarity
S/N Solvents Polarity
1. n-Hexane 0.009
2. Petroleum ether 0.117
3. Ethyl acetate 0.228
4. Dichloromethane 0.309
5. Acetone 0.355
6. n-Butanol 0.586
7. Ethanol 0.654
8. Methanol 0.762
9. Water 1.000

2.6.1.1 Factors to be considered in selecting solvents of extraction

Various factors enumerated below should be taken into consideration when choosing a solvent

of extraction.

1. Selectivity: The ability of a chosen solvent to extract the active constituent and leave the

inert material.

2. Reactivity: Suitable solvent of extraction should not react with the extract.

3. Recovery: The solvent of extraction should be quickly recovered and separated from the

extract.

4. Boiling temperature: Solvent boiling temperature should be as low as possible to prevent

degradation by heat.

2.6.1.2 Methods of Phytochemical Extraction

1. Maceration: This is an extraction procedure in which coarsely powdered drug material,

either leaves or stem bark or root bark, is placed inside a container; the menstruum is

poured on top until completely covered the drug material. The container is then closed

and kept for at least three days. At the end of extraction, the micelle is separated from

marc by filtration or decantation.

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 2. Infusion: The drug material is grinded into fine powder, and then placed inside a clean

container. The extraction solvent hot or cold is then poured on top of the drug material,

soaked, and kept for a short period of time. This method is suitable for extraction

bioactive constituents that are readily soluble. In addition, it is an appropriate method

for preparation of fresh extract before use.

3. Decoction: This is a process that involves continuous hot extraction using specified

volume of water as a solvent. A dried, grinded, and powdered plant material is placed

into a clean container. Water is then poured and stirred. Heat is then applied throughout

the process to hasten the extraction. The process is lasted for a short duration usually

about 15min.

4. Soxhlet extraction: This method is suitable for plant material that is partially soluble

in the chosen solvent and for plant materials with insoluble impurities. However, it is

not a suitable method for thermolabile plant materials.

2.6.1.3 Principle of a Soxhlet Extractor

This process is otherwise known as continuous hot extraction. The apparatus is called Soxhlet

extractor made up of glass. It consists of a round bottom flask, extraction chamber, siphon tube,

and condenser at the top. This method is suitable for plant material that is partially soluble in

the chosen solvent and for plant materials with insoluble impurities.

2.7 OTHER ACTIVITIES

2.7.1 Gasification

Gasification is a process that converts carbon-containing materials, such as coal, biomass, or

waste, into a gas called synthesis gas, or syngas. The process involves heating the materials in

a controlled environment, typically with a limited supply of oxygen or steam, which results in

22
the partial combustion of the material. The produced syngas contains hydrogen, carbon

monoxide, carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of other gases.

Gasification is often used as a means of converting solid materials into more valuable forms of

energy or chemicals. The syngas can be utilized as a fuel for power generation, used as a

feedstock for the production of synthetic fuels or chemicals, or further processed to remove

impurities before use.

Gasification has several benefits, including the ability to generate a versatile fuel gas, the

potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions compared to traditional combustion methods,

and the potential for utilizing low-value feedstocks, such as agricultural residues or waste

materials. However, gasification also requires specialized infrastructure and is more complex

than traditional combustion processes.

2.7.1.1 Types of Gasifiers

There are several types of gasifiers used in gasification processes. The choice of gasifier

depends on factors such as the feedstock used, the desired syngas composition, and the specific

application. Here are some common types of gasifiers:

1. Fixed-Bed Gasifier: In a fixed-bed gasifier, the feedstock is loaded into a fixed bed, and the

gasification reactions occur as the gasification medium (such as air or steam) flows through the

bed. The feedstock is typically arranged in a downward or upward direction to facilitate the

gasification process.

2. Fluidized-Bed Gasifier: In a fluidized-bed gasifier, the feedstock is fluidized by a

gasification medium (usually air or steam) flowing through it at high velocities. This creates a

bed of solids that behaves like a fluid. The fluidized bed provides better heat and mass transfer,

allowing for efficient gasification.

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3. Entrained-Flow Gasifier: In an entrained-flow gasifier, the feedstock is pulverized into a

fine powder and then suspended in a gasification medium (usually oxygen or steam) that flows

at high speeds. The feedstock particles are "entrained" in the gas flow, and the gasification

reactions occur in the high-temperature environment.

4. Downdraft Gasifier: In a downdraft gasifier, the feedstock is fed into the gasifier from the

top, and the gasification medium (typically air or steam) enters from the bottom, flowing in the

opposite direction. The gasification reactions progress from top to bottom, and the syngas is

collected at the bottom of the gasifier.

5. Updraft Gasifier: In an updraft gasifier, the feedstock is fed into the gasifier from the top,

and the gasification medium (usually air or steam) is introduced from the bottom and flows

upward. The gasification reactions occur as the feedstock descends through the gasifier, and

the syngas is collected at the top.

2.7.1.2 Uses of gasification

1. Power generation.

2. Synthetic fuels production.

3. Chemical production.

4. Wast management.

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2.7.2 Excursion to International Institute of Tropical Agriculture

This excursion has broadened my horizons and deepened my appreciation for my field of study,

providing me with invaluable firsthand experience in the macro propagation of banana and

plantain. Additionally, it has equipped me with insights into identifying superior varieties of

cassava, should I decide to pursue cassava entrepreneurship in the future. The excursion has

not only exposed me to new information about familiar plants like cassava, plantain, and

banana but has also introduced me to the practical operations of a permanent nursery,

enhancing my understanding of equipment usage.

I have been further exposed to the vast potential of this field. By witnessing various techniques

employed in both pre-planting and post-planting processes, I have gained valuable knowledge

on plant preservation and protection. Consequently, the excursion has deepened my

understanding of biotechnological practices and has instilled in me the confidence to explore

opportunities in agriprenuership.

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Plate 9: Plantain Wine Plate 10: Plantain and banana improvement unit

Plate 11: Group picture at IITA, Onne

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 CHAPTER THREE

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED DURING THE STUDENTS’ INDUSTRIAL WORK

EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES) PROGRAMME

3.1 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED

The challenges I encountered during my industrial attachment period include:

1. Placement Issues: Difficulty in securing suitable and relevant placements can be a

significant challenge. Some students may struggle to find organizations that align with

their academic disciplines, leading to delays or compromises in the quality of the

experience.

2. Mismatch of Skills and Tasks: In some cases, students may find that the tasks assigned

during the SIWES placement do not align well with their academic or career interests.

This mismatch can limit the learning experience and the application of theoretical

knowledge gained in the classroom.

3. Limited Exposure to Industry Practices: Some SIWES placements may not provide

students with a comprehensive exposure to industry practices. This limitation can arise

from factors such as organizational constraints, project timelines, or the nature of the

tasks assigned.

4. Logistical Issues: Students may face logistical challenges related to transportation,

accommodation, and other aspects of daily life during the SIWES period. These

challenges can distract from the learning experience and impact overall satisfaction

with the program.

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3.2 RELEVANCE OF THE SIWES PROGRAMME

The significance of SIWES programs cannot be overstated, encompassing:

Application of Theoretical Knowledge: SIWES provides students with the opportunity to put

theoretical knowledge acquired in the classroom into practice in real-world work settings. This

hands-on experience effectively bridges the gap between theory and practice, enriching their

overall comprehension of their field.

Skill Acquisition: Through SIWES, students develop practical skills, learn workplace

etiquette, hone problem-solving capabilities, and gain valuable teamwork experience. These

acquired skills are indispensable for their future professional endeavors.

Industry Exposure: It exposes students to industry practices, technologies, and work

environments, offering insights into the dynamics and demands of their chosen field.

Enhanced Employability: The experience garnered through SIWES significantly boosts a

student's employability upon graduation. Employers often prioritize candidates with practical

experience and the ability to apply knowledge in real-world situations.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

CONCLUSION AND GENERAL APPRAISAL OF THE SIWES PROGRAMME

4.1 WAYS OF IMPROVING THE SIWES PROGRAMME

1. Strengthening Industry-Academia Collaboration: Foster stronger partnerships

between educational institutions and industries to ensure that SIWES placements align

closely with academic curricula and industry needs.

2. Regular Training for Industry Supervisors: Provide training sessions for industry

supervisors to equip them with the necessary skills for mentoring and guiding students

effectively during their SIWES experience.

3. Integration of Emerging Technologies: Incorporate training on emerging

technologies and industry trends to ensure that students gain exposure to the latest

developments in their respective fields.

4. Diversification of Placement Opportunities: Expand the range of available SIWES

placements to include a diverse set of industries, allowing students to explore various

sectors related to their field of study.

4.2 ADVICE TO FUTURE PARTICIPANTS

• Make an effort to promptly enroll in the SIWES program to acquire the industrial

training letter from the SIWES unit, which will be necessary for securing a placement.

• Attend the SIWES orientation program organized by the respective institution before

commencing your attachment.

• Document all training activities and assignments in the logbook, and complete all

required forms to facilitate accurate assessments.

• Participants are strongly encouraged to approach the SIWES program with seriousness,

as the training may serve as a direct or indirect opportunity for employment after

graduation, either at the placement site or elsewhere.

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 • Above all, maintain honesty, diligence, and conscientiousness, taking pride in

safeguarding the employer's property throughout the entire attachment period.

• Familiarize yourself with the company's rules and regulations, ensuring strict adherence

to them.

4.3 ADVICE TO SIWES MANAGERS

• Managers overseeing the SIWES program should extend the introduction of this

initiative to additional institutions, as well as to departments that are currently not

partaking in the program.

4.4 CONCLUSION

The SIWES initiative serves as a forum that has provided students with opportunities to put

theoretical knowledge into practice. This program equips students with skills that are not only

employable but also commercially valuable, offering potential enhancements to their lives.

During my participation in Industrial Training Programs at Tencharis, I have acquired valuable

expertise in various areas such as biogas production, mushroom cultivation, and herbicide

spraying. Furthermore, this experience has proven to be instrumental in refining my

communication skills while instilling a sense of discipline and responsibility. The SIWES

program stands as a pivotal, essential, and indispensable component in the academic journey

of students.

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ignition dual-fuel engine”. Biomass 1989, pp 53–59.

Leif G, Pal B, Bengt J, Per S. “Reducing CO2 emission by substituting biomass for fossil

fuels”. Energy 1995, 1097 –1113.

Okhuoya J. A, Akpaja E. O, Osemwegie O. O, Ogherekano A. O and Ihayere C. A. (2010).

Nigerian mushrooms: underutilized non-wood forest resource.

Pitman, N. C. A.; Jørgensen, P. M. Estimating the Size of the World’s Threatened Flora. Brevia

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Reganold JP, Palmer AS, Lockhart JC and Macgregor AN. 1993. Soil quality and

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Taiz, L., & Zeiger, E. (1998). Plant Physiology.

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