NPTEL – Mechanical – Principle of Fluid Dynamics

Module 6 : Lecture 1
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
(Part – I)
Overview

Many practical flow problems of different nature can be solved by using equations
and analytical procedures, as discussed in the previous modules. However, solutions
of some real flow problems depend heavily on experimental data and the refinements
in the analysis are made, based on the measurements. Sometimes, the experimental
work in the laboratory is not only time-consuming, but also expensive. So, the
dimensional analysis is an important tool that helps in correlating analytical results
with experimental data for such unknown flow problems. Also, some dimensionless
parameters and scaling laws can be framed in order to predict the prototype behavior
from the measurements on the model. The important terms used in this module may
be defined as below;
Dimensional Analysis: The systematic procedure of identifying the variables in a
physical phenomena and correlating them to form a set of dimensionless group is
known as dimensional analysis.
Dimensional Homogeneity: If an equation truly expresses a proper relationship among
variables in a physical process, then it will be dimensionally homogeneous. The
equations are correct for any system of units and consequently each group of terms in
the equation must have the same dimensional representation. This is also known as
the law of dimensional homogeneity.
Dimensional variables: These are the quantities, which actually vary during a given
case and can be plotted against each other.
Dimensional constants: These are normally held constant during a given run. But,
they may vary from case to case.
Pure constants: They have no dimensions, but, while performing the mathematical
manipulation, they can arise.

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Let us explain these terms from the following examples:

1 2
- Displacement of a free falling body is given as, S = S0 + V0t + gt , where, V0 is the
2
initial velocity, g is the acceleration due to gravity, t is the time, S and S0 are the
final and initial distances, respectively. Each term in this equation has the dimension
of length [ L ] and hence it is dimensionally homogeneous. Here, S and t are the

1
dimensional variables, g , S0 and V0 are the dimensional constants and arises due
2
to mathematical manipulation and is the pure constant.
p 1
- Bernoulli’s equation for incompressible flow is written as, + V 2 + gz =
C . Here,
ρ 2
p is the pressure, V is the velocity, z is the distance, ρ is the density and g is the
acceleration due to gravity. In this case, the dimensional variables are p, V and z , the
1
dimensional constants are g , ρ and C and is the pure constant. Each term in this
2
equation including the constant has dimension of  L2 T −2  and hence it is

dimensionally homogeneous.

Buckingham pi Theorem
The dimensional analysis for the experimental data of unknown flow problems leads
to some non-dimensional parameters. These dimensionless products are frequently
referred as pi terms. Based on the concept of dimensional homogeneity, these
dimensionless parameters may be grouped and expressed in functional forms. This
idea was explored by the famous scientist Edgar Buckingham (1867-1940) and the
theorem is named accordingly.
Buckingham pi theorem, states that if an equation involving k variables is
dimensionally homogeneous, then it can be reduced to a relationship among ( k − r )

independent dimensionless products, where r is the minimum number of reference

dimensions required to describe the variable. For a physical system, involving k
variables, the functional relation of variables can be written mathematically as,
y = f ( x1 , x2 .........., xk ) (6.1.1)

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In Eq. (6.1.1), it should be ensured that the dimensions of the variables on the left side
of the equation are equal to the dimensions of any term on the right side of equation.
Now, it is possible to rearrange the above equation into a set of dimensionless
products (pi terms), so that
Π1 = ϕ ( Π 2 , Π 3 .........., Π k − r ) (6.1.2)

Here, ϕ ( Π 2 , Π 3 .........., Π k − r ) is a function of Π 2 through Π k − r . The required number

of pi terms is less than the number of original reference variables by r . These

reference dimensions are usually the basic dimensions M , L and T (Mass, Length
and Time).

Determination of pi Terms
Several methods can be used to form dimensionless products or pi terms that arise in
dimensional analysis. But, there is a systematic procedure called method of repeating
variables that allows in deciding the dimensionless and independent pi terms. For a
given problem, following distinct steps are followed.
Step I: List out all the variables that are involved in the problem. The ‘variable’ is any
quantity including dimensional and non-dimensional constants in a physical situation
under investigation. Typically, these variables are those that are necessary to describe
the “geometry” of the system (diameter, length etc.), to define fluid properties
(density, viscosity etc.) and to indicate the external effects influencing the system
(force, pressure etc.). All the variables must be independent in nature so as to
minimize the number of variables required to describe the complete system.
Step II: Express each variable in terms of basic dimensions. Typically, for fluid
mechanics problems, the basic dimensions will be either M , L and T or F , L and T .

Dimensionally, these two sets are related through Newton’s second law ( F = m.a ) so

that F = MLT −2 e.g. ρ = ML−3 or ρ = FL−4T 2 . It should be noted that these basic
dimensions should not be mixed.
Step III: Decide the required number of pi terms. It can be determined by using
Buckingham pi theorem which indicates that the number of pi terms is equal to
( k − r ) , where k is the number of variables in the problem (determined from Step I)

and r is the number of reference dimensions required to describe these variables

(determined from Step II).

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Step IV: Amongst the original list of variables, select those variables that can be
combined to form pi terms. These are called as repeating variables. The required
number of repeating variables is equal to the number of reference dimensions. Each
repeating variable must be dimensionally independent of the others, i.e. they cannot
be combined themselves to form any dimensionless product. Since there is a
possibility of repeating variables to appear in more than one pi term, so dependent
variables should not be chosen as one of the repeating variable.
Step V: Essentially, the pi terms are formed by multiplying one of the non-repeating
variables by the product of the repeating variables each raised to an exponent that will
make the combination dimensionless. It usually takes the form of xi x1a x2b x3c where

the exponents a, b and c are determined so that the combination is dimensionless.

Step VI: Repeat the ‘Step V’ for each of the remaining non-repeating variables. The
resulting set of pi terms will correspond to the required number obtained from Step
III.
Step VII: After obtaining the required number of pi terms, make sure that all the pi
terms are dimensionless. It can be checked by simply substituting the basic dimension
( M , L and T ) of the variables into the pi terms.
Step VIII: Typically, the final form of relationship among the pi terms can be written
in the form of Eq. (6.1.2) where, Π1 would contain the dependent variable in the
numerator. The actual functional relationship among pi terms is determined from
experiment.

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Illustration of Pi Theorem

Let us consider the following example to illustrate the procedure of determining the
various steps in the pi theorem.
Example (Pressure drop in a pipe flow)
Consider a steady flow of an incompressible Newtonian fluid through a long,
smooth walled, horizontal circular pipe. It is required to measure the pressure drop per
unit length of the pipe and find the number of non-dimensional parameters involved
in the problem. Also, it is desired to know the functional relation among these
dimensionless parameters.
Step I: Let us express all the pertinent variables involved in the experimentation
of pressure drop per unit length ( ∆pl ) of the pipe, in the following form;

∆pl =f ( D, ρ , µ , V ) (6.1.3)

where, D is the pipe diameter, ρ is the fluid density, µ is the viscosity of the fluid
and V is the mean velocity at which the fluid is flowing through the pipe.
Step II: Next step is to express all the variables in terms of basic dimensions i.e.
M , L and T . It then follows that

∆p=
l ML−2T −2 ; D= L; ρ= ML−3 ; µ= ML−1T −1 ; V= LT −1 (6.1.4)
Step III: Apply Buckingham theorem to decide the number of pi terms required. There
are five variables (including the dependent variable ∆pl ) and three reference

=
dimensions. Since, k 5=
and r 3 , only two pi terms are required for this problem.
Step IV: The repeating variables to form pi terms, need to be selected from the list
D, ρ , µ and V . It is to be noted that the dependent variable should not be used as
one of the repeating variable. Since, there are three reference dimensions involved, so
we need to select three repeating variable. These repeating variables should be
dimensionally independent, i.e. dimensionless product cannot be formed from this set.
In this case, D, ρ and V may be chosen as the repeating variables.
Step V: Now, first pi term is formed between the dependent variable and the repeating
variables. It is written as,
Π1 =∆pl D a V b ρ c (6.1.5)
Since, this combination need to be dimensionless, it follows that

( ML ) ( L ) ( LT ) ( ML )
b c
−2
T −2 −1 −3
a
= M 0 L0T 0 (6.1.6)

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The exponents a, b and c must be determined by equating the exponents for each of
the terms M , L and T i.e.
For M : 1 + c = 0
For L : − 2 + a + b − 3c =0 (6.1.7)
For T : − 2 − b =0
The solution of this algebraic equations gives a =
1; b =
−2; c =
−1 . Therefore,
∆p D
Π1 = l 2 (6.1.8)
ρV
The process is repeated for remaining non-repeating variables with other additional
variable ( µ ) so that,

Π 2 =µ .D d .V e .ρ f (6.1.9)
Since, this combination need to be dimensionless, it follows that

( ML T ) ( L ) ( LT ) ( ML )
e f
−1 −1 d −1 −3
= M 0 L0T 0 (6.1.10)

Equating the exponents,

For M : 1 + f = 0
For L : − 1 + d + e − 3 f =0 (6.1.11)
For T : − 1 − e =0
The solution of this algebraic equation gives d =
−1; e =
−1; f =
−1 . Therefore,
µ
Π2 = (6.1.12)
ρVD
Step VI: Now, the correct numbers of pi terms are formed as determined in “Step III”.
In order to make sure about the dimensionality of pi terms, they are written as,

=
Π1
∆pl D
=
( ML T ) (=
L)
−2 −2

M LT 0 0 0

ρV 2 ( ML )( LT )
2
−3 −1

(6.1.13)
=
Π2
µ
=
( ML T ) ( L=
)
−1 −1

M LT 0 0 0

ρV D ( ML )( LT ) ( L )
−3 −1

Step VII: Finally, the result of dimensional analysis is expressed among the pi terms
as,

D ∆pl  µ   1 
= φ=  φ  (6.1.14)
ρV 2
 ρV D   Re 
It may be noted here that Re is the Reynolds number.

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Remarks
- If the difference in the number of variables for a given problem and number of
reference dimensions is equal to unity, then only one Pi term is required to describe
the phenomena. Here, the functional relationship for the one Pi term is a constant
quantity and it is determined from the experiment.
Π1 =Constant (6.1.15)
- The problems involving two Pi terms can be described such that
Π1 = φ ( Π 2 ) (6.1.16)

Here, the functional relationship among the variables can then be determined by
varying Π 2 and measuring the corresponding values of Π1 .

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