Fluid Mechanics: Lecture Notes of Dr. Elhassen Ammr
Fluid Mechanics: Lecture Notes of Dr. Elhassen Ammr
Fluid Mechanics: Lecture Notes of Dr. Elhassen Ammr
Fluid Mechanics
Dr. Elhassen Ammr
`
8
Dimensional analysis is one of the most important mathematical tools in the study of fluid
mechanics. It is a mathematical technique and procedure of identifying the variables in a physical
phenomena and correlating them to form a set of dimensionless group, which makes use of the
study of dimensions as an aid to the solution of many engineering problems.
The main advantage of a dimensional analysis of a problem is that it reduces the number of
variables in the problem by combining dimensional variables to form non-dimensional
parameters.
Allows testing models instead of expensive large full‐scale prototypes. There are rules for finding scaling
laws or conditions of similarity.
By far the simplest and most desirable method in the analysis of any fluid problem is that of direct
mathematical solution. But, most problems in fluid mechanics such complex phenomena that
direct mathematical solution is limited to a few special cases. Especially for turbulent flow, there
are so many variables involved in the differential equation of fluid motion that a direct
mathematical solution is simply out of question. In these problems dimensional analysis can be
used in obtaining a functional relationship among the various variables involved in terms of non-
dimensional parameters.
Dimensional constants: These are normally held constant during a given run. But, they may
vary from case to case.
Pure constants: They have no dimensions, but, while performing the mathematical manipulation,
they can arise.
Now, it is possible to rearrange the above equation into a set of dimensionless products (pi
terms), so that
Π1 = Φ ( Π2 . Π3 . ⋯ ⋯ . Π𝑘−𝑟 ) (8.2)
Pressure drop in a pipe Consider a steady flow of an incompressible Newtonian fluid through a
long, smooth walled, horizontal circular pipe. It is required to measure the pressure drop per
unit length of the pipe and find the number of non-dimensional parameters involved in the
problem. Also, it is desired to know the functional relation among these dimensionless
parameters.
Step I: Let us express all the variables involved in the experimentation of pressure drop per unit
length of the pipe, in the following form;
Δ𝑃𝑙 = 𝑓( 𝐷. 𝜌. 𝜇. 𝑉)
where,
D is the pipe diameter,
ρ is the fluid density,
µ is the viscosity of the fluid and
V is the mean velocity at which the fluid is flowing through the pipe.
Step II: Next step is to express all the variables in terms of basic dimensions
Δ𝑃𝑙 D ρ µ V
M L-2 T-2 L M L-3 M L-1 T-1 LT-1
Step III: Apply Buckingham theorem to decide the number of pi terms required. There are five
variables (including the dependent variable ) and three reference dimensions. Since, k = 5 and
r = 3 , only two pi terms are required for this problem.
Π1 = ϕ ( Π2 )
Step IV: The repeating variables to form pi terms, need to be selected from the list . It is to be
noted that the dependent variable should not be used as one of the repeating variable. Since,
there are three reference dimensions involved, so we need to select three repeating variable.
These repeating variables should be dimensionally independent, i.e. dimensionless product
cannot be formed from this set. In this case, D. V and ρ may be chosen as the repeating variables.
Step V: Now, first pi term is formed between the dependent variable and the repeating
variables. It is written as,
Π1 = Δ𝑃𝑙 𝐷𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐
For M : 1 + c = 0 c = -1
For T : -2 + - b = 0 b = -2
For L : -2 + a + b -3c = 0 a=1
The second group : The process is repeated for remaining non-repeating variables with other
additional variable μ so that,
Π2 = 𝜇 𝐷𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐
𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = (M L−1 T −1 ) ( L )𝑎 ( L T −1 )𝑏 (M L−3 )𝑐
The exponents a, b and c must be determined by equating the exponents for each of the terms
i.e.
For M : 1 + c = 0 c = -1
For T : -1 + - b = 0 b = -1
For L : -1 + a + b -3c = 0 a = -1
Step VI: Now, the correct numbers of pi terms are formed as determined in “Step III”. In order to
make sure about the dimensionality of pi terms, they are written as,
Δ𝑃𝑙 𝐷 (M L−2 T−2 )( L )
Π1 = = = 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
𝜌𝑉 2 (M L−3 )( L T−1 )2
𝜇 (M L−1 T−1 )
Π2 = = (M L−3 )( L )( L T−1 )
= 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
𝜌𝑉𝐷
Step VII: Finally, the result of dimensional analysis is expressed among the pi terms as,
Δ𝑃𝑙 𝐷 𝜇 1
= ϕ (𝜌𝑉𝐷) = ϕ (𝑅𝑒)
𝜌𝑉 2
It may be noted here that is the Reynolds number. Re
At higher speeds where compressibility effects are to be taken into account the performance
of a propeller in terms of force exerted is influenced by the diameter, forward speed,
rotational speed, density, viscosity and bulk modulus of the fluid. Evaluate the dimensionless
parameters for the system.
𝐹 = 𝑓( 𝐷. 𝜌. 𝑁. 𝑉. 𝜇. 𝐸)
F D N ρ µ V E
M L-1 T-2 L T-1 M L-3 M L-1 T-1 LT-1 M L-1 T-2
There are seven variables and three dimensions, So four terms are possible.
Π1 = ϕ ( Π2 . Π3 . Π4 )
Selecting D, V and ρ as repeating parameters,
Calculating of 1
Π1 = 𝐹 𝐷𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐
𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = (M L−1 T −2 ) ( L )𝑎 ( L T −1 )𝑏 (M L−3 )𝑐
The exponents a, b and c must be determined by equating the exponents for each of the
terms i.e.
For M : 1 + c = 0 c = -1
For T : -2 + - b = 0 b = -2
For L : -1 + a + b -3c = 0 a=0
𝐹
Then Π1 = 𝐹 𝐷0 𝑉 −2 𝜌−1 = 𝜌𝑉 2
Calculating of 2
Π2 = 𝜇 𝐷𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐
−1 −1 −1 𝑏 −3 𝑐
𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = (M L T ) ( L )𝑎 ( L T ) (M L )
Exponents calculation
For M : 1 + c = 0 c = -1
For T : -1 + - b = 0 b = -1
For L : -1 + a + b -3c = 0 a = -1
Then the second group is
𝜇
Π2 = 𝜇 𝐷1 𝑉 −1 𝜌−1 = 𝜌𝑉𝐷
Calculating of 3
Π3 = 𝑁 𝐷𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐
−1 −1 𝑏 −3 𝑐
𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = ( T ) ( L )𝑎 ( L T ) (M L )
Calculating of 4
Π4 = 𝐸 𝐷𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐
𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = (M L−1 T −2 ) ( L )𝑎 ( L T −1 )𝑏 (M L−3 )𝑐
The exponents a, b and c terms i.e.
For M : 1 + c = 0 c = -1
For T : -2 + - b = 0 b = -2
For L : -1 + a + b -3c = 0 a=0
Then
𝐸
Π4 = 𝐸 𝐷0 𝑉 −2 𝜌−1 = 𝜌𝑉 2
Dimensional checking
−1
𝐹 (M L T−2 )
Π1 = = = 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
𝜌𝑉 2 −3 −1 2
(M L )( L T )
−1
𝜇 (M L T−1 )
Π2 = = −3 −1 = 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
𝜌𝑉𝐷 (M L )( L )( L T )
−1
𝑁𝐷 (T )( L )
Π3 = = −1 = 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
𝑉 (LT )
−1
𝐸 (M L T−2 )
Π4 = = = 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
𝜌𝑉 2 −3 −1 2
(M L )( L T )
Finally, the result of dimensional analysis is expressed among the pi terms as,
Π1 = ϕ ( Π2 . Π3 . Π4 )
𝐹 𝜇 𝑁𝐷 𝐸
= ϕ (𝜌𝑉𝐷 . . )
𝜌𝑉 2 𝑉 𝜌𝑉 2
Since, inertia forces are very important in fluid mechanics problems, the ratio of the inertia force
to each of the other forces listed above leads to fundamental dimensionless groups. Some of
them are defined as given below;
Reynolds number Re :
It is defined as the ratio of inertia force to viscous force. Mathematically,
𝜌𝑉𝐿
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
If Re is very small, there is an indication that the viscous forces are dominant compared to inertia
forces. Such types of flows are commonly referred to as “creeping/viscous flows”. Conversely,
for large Re viscous forces are small compared to inertial effects and such flow problems are
characterized as inviscid analysis. This number is also used to study the transition between the
laminar and turbulent flow regimes.
Euler number Eu :
In most of the aerodynamic model testing, the pressure data are usually expressed
mathematically as, the ratio of pressure force to inertial force
∆𝑃
𝐸𝑢 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉
8.4 –Similitude
A “model” is a representation of a physical system which is used to predict the behavior of the
system in some desired respect. The physical system for which the predictions are to be made is
called “prototype”. Usually, a model is smaller than the prototype so that laboratory
experiments/studies can be conducted. It is less expensive to construct and operate. However,
in certain situations, models are larger than the prototype e.g. study of the motion of blood cells
whose sizes are of the order of micrometers. “Similitude” is the indication of a known relationship
between a model and prototype. In other words, the model tests must yield data that can be
scaled to obtain the similar parameters for the prototype.
In order to achieve similarity between model and prototype behavior, all the corresponding pi
terms must be equated to satisfy the following conditions.
Geometric similarity : A model and prototype are geometric similar if and only if all body
dimensions in all three coordinates have the same linear-scale ratio. In order to have geometric
similarity between the model and prototype, the model and the prototype should be of the same
shape, all the linear dimensions of the model can be related to corresponding dimensions of the
Kinematic similarity : The motions of two systems are kinematically similar if homogeneous
particles lie at same points at same times. In a specific sense, the velocities at corresponding
points are in the same direction (i.e. same streamline patterns) and are related in magnitude by
a constant scale factor.
Dynamic similarity : When two flows have force distributions such that identical types of forces
are parallel and are related in magnitude by a constant scale factor at all corresponding points,
then the flows are dynamic similar. For a model and prototype, the dynamic similarity exists,
when both of them have same length-scale ratio, time-scale ratio and force-scale (or mass-scale
ratio).
In order to have complete similarity between the model and prototype, all the similarity flow
conditions must be maintained. This will automatically follow if all the important variables are
included in the dimensional analysis and if all the similarity requirements based on the resulting
pi terms are satisfied. For example, in compressible flows, the model and prototype should have
same Reynolds number, Mach number and specific heat ratio etc. If the flow is incompressible
(without free surface), then same Reynolds numbers for model and prototype can satisfy the
complete similarity.
Incomplete similarity : The problem is that it is not always possible to match all the ’s of a
model to the corresponding ’s of the prototype, even if we are careful to achieve geometric
similarity. This situation is called incomplete similarity. Fortunately, in some cases of
incomplete similarity, we are still able to extrapolate model tests to obtain reasonable full-scale
predictions.
The ratio of like quantities for the model and prototype arises from the similarity requirements.
In a given problem, if there are two length variables L1 and L2 , the resulting requirement based
on the pi terms obtained from these variables is
𝐿1 𝐿1𝑚
= (8.3)
𝐿2 𝐿2𝑚
Rearranging
𝐿1𝑚 𝐿2𝑚
= = 𝜆𝑙 (8.4)
𝐿1 𝐿2
This ratio is defined as the “length scale”. For true models, there will be only one length scale and
all lengths are fixed in accordance with this scale. There are other ‘model scales’ such as
𝑉𝑚
𝜆𝑉 = (8.5)
𝑉
𝜌𝑚
𝜆𝜌 = (8.6)
𝜌
The selection of scaling parameters is left to the user, but there are some guidelines:
The scaling variables must not form a dimensionless group among themselves, but adding one
more variable will form a dimensionless quantity.
Do not select output variables for your scaling parameters.
If convenient, select popular, not obscure, scaling variables because they will appear in all of
your dimensionless groups. For example, select density not surface tension.
Note: the two following criteria must be satisfied before performing dimensional analysis:
1) the proposed physical relation is dimensionally homogenous, and
2) all the relevant variables have been included in the proposed relation.
Example 8.2
A long structural component of a bridge
has an elliptical cross section shown in
figure. It is known that when a steady
wind blows past this type of bluff body,
vortices may develop on the downwind
side that are shed in a regular fashion at
some definite frequency.
Since these vortices can create harmful periodic forces acting on the structure, it is important to
determine the shedding frequency. For the specific structure of interest, D = 0.1m and H = 0.3m
and a representative wind velocity is 50 km/hr. Standard air can be assumed.
The shedding frequency is to be determined through the use of a small-scale model that is to be
tested in a water tunnel. For the model Dm = 20 mm and the water temperature is 20 °C.
FIND Determine the model dimension, and the velocity at which the test should be performed. If the
shedding frequency for the model is found to be 49.9 Hz, what is the corresponding frequency
for the prototype?
We expect the shedding frequency ω , to depend on the lengths D and H, the approach velocity, V,
and the fluid density ρ, and viscosity µ, Thus,
𝜔 = 𝑓( 𝐷. 𝐻. 𝑉. 𝜌. 𝜇)
ω D H ρ µ V
T-1 L L M L-3 M L-1 T-1 LT-1
There are 6 variables and three dimensions, So four terms are possible.
Π1 = ϕ ( Π2 . Π3 )
Use the Pi procedure to find the Pi's as
𝜔𝐷 𝐷 𝜌𝑉𝐷
= ϕ (𝐻 . )
𝑉 𝜇
The second similarity requirement indicates that the Reynolds number must be the same for model
and prototype so that the model velocity must satisfy the condition
𝐷 𝜌 𝜇𝑚
𝑉𝑚 = 𝐷 𝑉
𝑚 𝜌𝑚 𝜇
With the two similarity requirements satisfied, it follows that the Strouhal numbers for prototype
and model will be the same so that
𝜔𝐷 𝜔𝐷
=( )
𝑉 𝑉 𝑚
8. The drag force, F, on a smooth sphere depends on the relative speed, V, the sphere
diameter, D, the fluid density, ρ, and the fluid viscosity, μ. Obtain a set of dimensionless
groups that can be used to correlate experimental data.
9. The pressure drop, ΔP, for steady, incompressible viscous flow through a straight
horizontal pipe depends on the pipe length, L, the average velocity, V, the fluid viscosity,
μ, the pipe diameter, D, the fluid density, ρ, and the average “roughness” height, e.
Determine a set of dimensionless groups that can be used to correlate data.
10. To predict the drag on an aircraft at a flight speed of 150 m/s, where the condition of air
is such that the local speed of sound is 310 m/s, a pressurised low temperature tunnel is
used. Density, viscosity and local sonic velocity at tunnel condition are 7.5 kg/m3, 1.22 ×
10–5 Ns/m2 and 290 m/s. Determine the flow velocity and the scale of the model. Assume
full dynamic similarity should be maintained. Density and viscosity at the operating
conditions are 1.2 kg/m3 and 1.8 × 10–5 Ns/m2.
11. The performance of an aeroplane to fly at 2400 m height at a speed of 290 kmph is to be
evaluated by a 1/8 scale model tested in a pressurised wind tunnel maintaining similarity.
The conditions at the flight altitude are temperature = – 10 C, pressure = 75 kN/m2.
μ = 17.1 × 10–6 kg/ms. The test conditions are 2150 kN/m2, and 150 C. μ = 18.1 × 10–6
kg/ms. The drag resistance on the model measured at 18 m/s and 27 m/s. are 4.7N and
9.6N. Determine the drag on the prototype.