Fluid Mechanics: Lecture Notes of Dr. Elhassen Ammr

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Lecture Notes of

Fluid Mechanics
Dr. Elhassen Ammr

SIMILARITY AND DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS


Contents

8.1 – Basic Concepts .....................................................................................................................3


8.2 – Buckingham Pi Theorem ......................................................................................................3
8.2.1 – Determination of pi terms............................................................................................4
8.2.2 – Illustration of Pi theorem ..............................................................................................5
8.3 – Significant Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics .......................................................9
8.4 –Similitude ............................................................................................................................11
Exercise (8) .................................................................................................................................15

`
8

Similarity and Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional analysis is one of the most important mathematical tools in the study of fluid
mechanics. It is a mathematical technique and procedure of identifying the variables in a physical
phenomena and correlating them to form a set of dimensionless group, which makes use of the
study of dimensions as an aid to the solution of many engineering problems.

The main advantage of a dimensional analysis of a problem is that it reduces the number of
variables in the problem by combining dimensional variables to form non-dimensional
parameters.

Allows testing models instead of expensive large full‐scale prototypes. There are rules for finding scaling
laws or conditions of similarity.

By far the simplest and most desirable method in the analysis of any fluid problem is that of direct
mathematical solution. But, most problems in fluid mechanics such complex phenomena that
direct mathematical solution is limited to a few special cases. Especially for turbulent flow, there
are so many variables involved in the differential equation of fluid motion that a direct
mathematical solution is simply out of question. In these problems dimensional analysis can be
used in obtaining a functional relationship among the various variables involved in terms of non-
dimensional parameters.

The three primary purposes of dimensional analysis are


 To generate nondimensional parameters that help in the design of experiments
(physical and/or numerical) and in the reporting of experimental results
 To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be predicted from model
performance.
 To (sometimes) predict trends in the relationship between parameters
Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 2
8.1 – Basic Concepts
Dimensional Homogeneity: If an equation truly expresses a proper relationship among variables
in a physical process, then it will be dimensionally homogeneous.
The equations are correct for any system of units and consequently each group of terms in the
equation must have the same dimensional representation. This is also known as the law of
dimensional homogeneity.
Dimensional variables: These are the quantities, which actually vary during a given case and
can be plotted against each other.

Dimensional constants: These are normally held constant during a given run. But, they may
vary from case to case.

Pure constants: They have no dimensions, but, while performing the mathematical manipulation,
they can arise.

For example : Bernoulli’s equation for incompressible flow is written as, .


𝑃 𝑣2
+ + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶
𝜌 2
Here, P is the pressure, V is the velocity, Z is the distance, ρ is the density and g is the acceleration
due to gravity.
In this case, the dimensional variables are P, V and z , the dimensional constants are ρ, g and C,
and 1/2 is the pure constant. Each term in this equation including the constant has dimension
of L2 T-2 and hence it is dimensionally homogeneous.

8.2 – Buckingham Pi Theorem


The dimensional analysis for the experimental data of unknown flow problems leads to some
non-dimensional parameters. These dimensionless products are frequently referred as pi terms.
Buckingham pi theorem, states that if an equation involving k variables is dimensionally
homogeneous, then it can be reduced to a relationship among ( k – r ) independent dimensionless
products, where r is the minimum number of reference dimensions required to describe the
variable. For a physical system, involving k variables, the functional relation of variables can be
written mathematically as :
𝑦 = 𝑓( 𝑥1 . 𝑥2 . ⋯ ⋯ . 𝑥𝑘 ) (8.1)

Now, it is possible to rearrange the above equation into a set of dimensionless products (pi
terms), so that
Π1 = Φ ( Π2 . Π3 . ⋯ ⋯ . Π𝑘−𝑟 ) (8.2)

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 3


The required number of pi terms is less than the number of original reference variables by r .
These reference dimensions are usually the basic dimensions M, L. T and K (Mass, Length Time
and temperature ).

8.2.1 – Determination of pi terms


Several methods can be used to form dimensionless products or pi terms that arise in dimensional
analysis. But, there is a systematic procedure called method of repeating variables that allows in
deciding the dimensionless and independent pi terms. For a given problem, following distinct
steps are followed.
Step I: List out all the variables that are involved in the problem. The ‘variable’ is any quantity
including dimensional and non-dimensional constants in a physical situation under investigation.
Typically, these variables are those that are necessary to describe the “geometry” of the system
(diameter, length etc.), to define fluid properties (density, viscosity etc.) and to indicate the
external effects influencing the system (force, pressure etc.). All the variables must be
independent in nature so as to minimize the number of variables required to describe the
complete system.
Step II : Select a set of fundamental (primary) dimensions, e.g., MLT, (Note that for heat transfer
problems you may also need K for temperature), then express each variable in terms of basic
dimensions.
Step III: Decide the required number of pi terms. It can be determined by using Buckingham pi
theorem which indicates that the number of pi terms is equal to (k-r) , where k is the number of
variables in the problem (determined from Step I) and is r the number of reference dimensions
required to describe these variables (determined from Step II).
Step IV: Amongst the original list of variables, select those variables that can be combined to
form pi terms. These are called as repeating variables. The required number of repeating
variables is equal to the number of reference dimensions. Each repeating variable must be
dimensionally independent of the others, i.e. they cannot be combined themselves to form any
dimensionless product. Since there is a possibility of repeating variables to appear in more than
one pi term, so dependent variables should not be chosen as one of the repeating variable.
Step V : Set up dimensional equations, combining the parameters selected in Step 4 with each of
the other parameters in turn, to form dimensionless groups. (There will be n –m equations.) Solve
the dimensional equations to obtain the n−m dimensionless groups.
Step VI : After obtaining the required number of pi terms, make sure that all the pi terms are
dimensionless. It can be checked by simply substituting the basic dimension of the variables into
the pi terms.
Step VII: Typically, the final form of relationship among the pi terms can be written in the form
of equation (8.2) where, would contain the dependent variable in the numerator. The actual
functional relationship among pi terms is determined from experiment. 1Π

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 4


8.2.2 – Illustration of Pi theorem
Let us consider the following example to illustrate the procedure of determining the various
steps in the pi theorem.

Pressure drop in a pipe Consider a steady flow of an incompressible Newtonian fluid through a
long, smooth walled, horizontal circular pipe. It is required to measure the pressure drop per
unit length of the pipe and find the number of non-dimensional parameters involved in the
problem. Also, it is desired to know the functional relation among these dimensionless
parameters.

Step I: Let us express all the variables involved in the experimentation of pressure drop per unit
length of the pipe, in the following form;
Δ𝑃𝑙 = 𝑓( 𝐷. 𝜌. 𝜇. 𝑉)

where,
D is the pipe diameter,
ρ is the fluid density,
µ is the viscosity of the fluid and
V is the mean velocity at which the fluid is flowing through the pipe.

Step II: Next step is to express all the variables in terms of basic dimensions

Δ𝑃𝑙 D ρ µ V
M L-2 T-2 L M L-3 M L-1 T-1 LT-1

Step III: Apply Buckingham theorem to decide the number of pi terms required. There are five
variables (including the dependent variable ) and three reference dimensions. Since, k = 5 and
r = 3 , only two pi terms are required for this problem.
Π1 = ϕ ( Π2 )

Step IV: The repeating variables to form pi terms, need to be selected from the list . It is to be
noted that the dependent variable should not be used as one of the repeating variable. Since,
there are three reference dimensions involved, so we need to select three repeating variable.
These repeating variables should be dimensionally independent, i.e. dimensionless product
cannot be formed from this set. In this case, D. V and ρ may be chosen as the repeating variables.

Step V: Now, first pi term is formed between the dependent variable and the repeating
variables. It is written as,
Π1 = Δ𝑃𝑙 𝐷𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐

Since, this combination need to be dimensionless, it follows that


𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = (M L−2 T −2 ) ( L )𝑎 ( L T −1 )𝑏 (M L−3 )𝑐

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 5


The exponents a, b and c must be determined by equating the exponents for each of the terms
i.e.

For M : 1 + c = 0 c = -1
For T : -2 + - b = 0 b = -2
For L : -2 + a + b -3c = 0 a=1

Then the first group is


Δ𝑃𝑙 𝐷
Π1 = Δ𝑃𝑙 𝐷1 𝑉 −2 𝜌−1 = 𝜌𝑉 2

The second group : The process is repeated for remaining non-repeating variables with other
additional variable μ so that,
Π2 = 𝜇 𝐷𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐

𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = (M L−1 T −1 ) ( L )𝑎 ( L T −1 )𝑏 (M L−3 )𝑐

The exponents a, b and c must be determined by equating the exponents for each of the terms
i.e.
For M : 1 + c = 0 c = -1
For T : -1 + - b = 0 b = -1
For L : -1 + a + b -3c = 0 a = -1

Then the second group is


𝜇
Π2 = 𝜇 𝐷1 𝑉 −1 𝜌−1 = 𝜌𝑉𝐷

Step VI: Now, the correct numbers of pi terms are formed as determined in “Step III”. In order to
make sure about the dimensionality of pi terms, they are written as,
Δ𝑃𝑙 𝐷 (M L−2 T−2 )( L )
Π1 = = = 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
𝜌𝑉 2 (M L−3 )( L T−1 )2

𝜇 (M L−1 T−1 )
Π2 = = (M L−3 )( L )( L T−1 )
= 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
𝜌𝑉𝐷

Step VII: Finally, the result of dimensional analysis is expressed among the pi terms as,
Δ𝑃𝑙 𝐷 𝜇 1
= ϕ (𝜌𝑉𝐷) = ϕ (𝑅𝑒)
𝜌𝑉 2
It may be noted here that is the Reynolds number. Re

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 6


Example 8.1

At higher speeds where compressibility effects are to be taken into account the performance
of a propeller in terms of force exerted is influenced by the diameter, forward speed,
rotational speed, density, viscosity and bulk modulus of the fluid. Evaluate the dimensionless
parameters for the system.
𝐹 = 𝑓( 𝐷. 𝜌. 𝑁. 𝑉. 𝜇. 𝐸)
F D N ρ µ V E
M L-1 T-2 L T-1 M L-3 M L-1 T-1 LT-1 M L-1 T-2
There are seven variables and three dimensions, So four  terms are possible.
Π1 = ϕ ( Π2 . Π3 . Π4 )
Selecting D, V and ρ as repeating parameters,

Calculating of 1
Π1 = 𝐹 𝐷𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐
𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = (M L−1 T −2 ) ( L )𝑎 ( L T −1 )𝑏 (M L−3 )𝑐
The exponents a, b and c must be determined by equating the exponents for each of the
terms i.e.
For M : 1 + c = 0 c = -1
For T : -2 + - b = 0 b = -2
For L : -1 + a + b -3c = 0 a=0
𝐹
Then Π1 = 𝐹 𝐷0 𝑉 −2 𝜌−1 = 𝜌𝑉 2

Calculating of 2
Π2 = 𝜇 𝐷𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐
−1 −1 −1 𝑏 −3 𝑐
𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = (M L T ) ( L )𝑎 ( L T ) (M L )
Exponents calculation
For M : 1 + c = 0 c = -1
For T : -1 + - b = 0 b = -1
For L : -1 + a + b -3c = 0 a = -1
Then the second group is
𝜇
Π2 = 𝜇 𝐷1 𝑉 −1 𝜌−1 = 𝜌𝑉𝐷

Calculating of 3
Π3 = 𝑁 𝐷𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐
−1 −1 𝑏 −3 𝑐
𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = ( T ) ( L )𝑎 ( L T ) (M L )

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 7


The exponents a, b and c terms i.e.
For M : c = 0 c=0
For T : -1 + - b = 0 b = -1
For L : a + b -3c = 0 a=1
𝑁𝐷
Then Π3 = 𝑁 𝐷1 𝑉 −1 𝜌0 = 𝑉

Calculating of 4
Π4 = 𝐸 𝐷𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐
𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = (M L−1 T −2 ) ( L )𝑎 ( L T −1 )𝑏 (M L−3 )𝑐
The exponents a, b and c terms i.e.
For M : 1 + c = 0 c = -1
For T : -2 + - b = 0 b = -2
For L : -1 + a + b -3c = 0 a=0
Then
𝐸
Π4 = 𝐸 𝐷0 𝑉 −2 𝜌−1 = 𝜌𝑉 2

Dimensional checking
−1
𝐹 (M L T−2 )
Π1 = = = 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
𝜌𝑉 2 −3 −1 2
(M L )( L T )

−1
𝜇 (M L T−1 )
Π2 = = −3 −1 = 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
𝜌𝑉𝐷 (M L )( L )( L T )

−1
𝑁𝐷 (T )( L )
Π3 = = −1 = 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
𝑉 (LT )

−1
𝐸 (M L T−2 )
Π4 = = = 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
𝜌𝑉 2 −3 −1 2
(M L )( L T )

Finally, the result of dimensional analysis is expressed among the pi terms as,
Π1 = ϕ ( Π2 . Π3 . Π4 )

𝐹 𝜇 𝑁𝐷 𝐸
= ϕ (𝜌𝑉𝐷 . . )
𝜌𝑉 2 𝑉 𝜌𝑉 2

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 8


8.3 – Significant Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics
Over the years, several hundred different dimensionless groups that are important in engineering
have been identified. Following tradition, each such group has been given the name of a
prominent scientist or engineer, usually the one who pioneered its use. Several are so
fundamental and occur so frequently in fluid mechanics that we should take time to learn their
definitions. Understanding their physical significance also gives insight into the phenomena we
study.
Forces encountered in flowing fluids include those due to inertia, viscosity, pressure, gravity,
surface tension and compressibility. The ratio of any two forces will be dimensionless. These
forces can be written as follows;
𝑑𝑢 𝑉
The viscous force 𝜏𝐴 = 𝜇 𝐴∝ 𝜇 𝐿2 = 𝜇 𝑉 𝐿
𝑑𝑦 𝐿
𝑉
The inertia force defined by Newton second law 𝑚 𝑎 = 𝜌𝐿3 𝑉 𝐿 ∝ 𝜌 𝑉 2 𝐿2
The pressure force ∆𝑃 𝐴 ∝ ∆𝑃 𝐿2
The gravity force 𝑚𝑔 ∝ 𝜌𝑔 𝐿3
The surface tension force 𝜎𝐿
The compressibility force 𝐸𝑣 𝐴 ∝ 𝐸𝑣 𝐿2

Since, inertia forces are very important in fluid mechanics problems, the ratio of the inertia force
to each of the other forces listed above leads to fundamental dimensionless groups. Some of
them are defined as given below;

Reynolds number Re :
It is defined as the ratio of inertia force to viscous force. Mathematically,
𝜌𝑉𝐿
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
If Re is very small, there is an indication that the viscous forces are dominant compared to inertia
forces. Such types of flows are commonly referred to as “creeping/viscous flows”. Conversely,
for large Re viscous forces are small compared to inertial effects and such flow problems are
characterized as inviscid analysis. This number is also used to study the transition between the
laminar and turbulent flow regimes.

Euler number Eu :
In most of the aerodynamic model testing, the pressure data are usually expressed
mathematically as, the ratio of pressure force to inertial force
∆𝑃
𝐸𝑢 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 9


Mach number Ma :
It is the key parameter that characterizes the compressibility effects in a fluid flow and is defined
as the ratio of inertia force to compressibility force. Mathematically

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 10


𝑉 𝑉
𝑀𝑎 = =
𝐶 𝐸𝑣

𝜌
predominantly used in problems in which fluid compressibility is important. When Ma is relatively
small (say, less than 0.3), the inertial forces induced by fluid motion are sufficiently small to cause
significant change in fluid density. So, the compressibility of the fluid can be neglected. However,
this number is most commonly used parameter in compressible fluid flow problems, particularly
in the field of gas dynamics and aerodynamics. Also, Cauchy number defined as :
𝜌𝑉 2
𝐶𝑎 = 𝑀𝑎2 =
𝐸𝑣
Froude number Fr :
It is the ratio of inertia force to gravity force. Mathematically, it is written as,
𝑉
𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔𝐿
This number is very much significant for flows with free surface effects
Weber number We :
It is defined as the ratio of the inertia force to surface tension force. Mathematically,
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿
𝑊𝑒 =
𝜎
This number is taken as an index of droplet formation and flow of thin film liquids in which there
is an interface between two fluids.

8.4 –Similitude
A “model” is a representation of a physical system which is used to predict the behavior of the
system in some desired respect. The physical system for which the predictions are to be made is
called “prototype”. Usually, a model is smaller than the prototype so that laboratory
experiments/studies can be conducted. It is less expensive to construct and operate. However,
in certain situations, models are larger than the prototype e.g. study of the motion of blood cells
whose sizes are of the order of micrometers. “Similitude” is the indication of a known relationship
between a model and prototype. In other words, the model tests must yield data that can be
scaled to obtain the similar parameters for the prototype.

In order to achieve similarity between model and prototype behavior, all the corresponding pi
terms must be equated to satisfy the following conditions.

Geometric similarity : A model and prototype are geometric similar if and only if all body
dimensions in all three coordinates have the same linear-scale ratio. In order to have geometric
similarity between the model and prototype, the model and the prototype should be of the same
shape, all the linear dimensions of the model can be related to corresponding dimensions of the

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 11


prototype by a constant scale factor. Usually, one or more of these pi terms will involve ratios of
important lengths, which are purely geometrical in nature.

Kinematic similarity : The motions of two systems are kinematically similar if homogeneous
particles lie at same points at same times. In a specific sense, the velocities at corresponding
points are in the same direction (i.e. same streamline patterns) and are related in magnitude by
a constant scale factor.
Dynamic similarity : When two flows have force distributions such that identical types of forces
are parallel and are related in magnitude by a constant scale factor at all corresponding points,
then the flows are dynamic similar. For a model and prototype, the dynamic similarity exists,
when both of them have same length-scale ratio, time-scale ratio and force-scale (or mass-scale
ratio).

In order to have complete similarity between the model and prototype, all the similarity flow
conditions must be maintained. This will automatically follow if all the important variables are
included in the dimensional analysis and if all the similarity requirements based on the resulting
pi terms are satisfied. For example, in compressible flows, the model and prototype should have
same Reynolds number, Mach number and specific heat ratio etc. If the flow is incompressible
(without free surface), then same Reynolds numbers for model and prototype can satisfy the
complete similarity.

Incomplete similarity : The problem is that it is not always possible to match all the ’s of a
model to the corresponding ’s of the prototype, even if we are careful to achieve geometric
similarity. This situation is called incomplete similarity. Fortunately, in some cases of
incomplete similarity, we are still able to extrapolate model tests to obtain reasonable full-scale
predictions.

The ratio of like quantities for the model and prototype arises from the similarity requirements.
In a given problem, if there are two length variables L1 and L2 , the resulting requirement based
on the pi terms obtained from these variables is
𝐿1 𝐿1𝑚
= (8.3)
𝐿2 𝐿2𝑚

Rearranging
𝐿1𝑚 𝐿2𝑚
= = 𝜆𝑙 (8.4)
𝐿1 𝐿2

This ratio is defined as the “length scale”. For true models, there will be only one length scale and
all lengths are fixed in accordance with this scale. There are other ‘model scales’ such as
𝑉𝑚
𝜆𝑉 = (8.5)
𝑉
𝜌𝑚
𝜆𝜌 = (8.6)
𝜌

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 12


𝜇𝑚
𝜆𝜇 = (8.7)
𝜇
Each of these scales needs to be defined for a given problem.

The selection of scaling parameters is left to the user, but there are some guidelines:
 The scaling variables must not form a dimensionless group among themselves, but adding one
more variable will form a dimensionless quantity.
 Do not select output variables for your scaling parameters.
 If convenient, select popular, not obscure, scaling variables because they will appear in all of
your dimensionless groups. For example, select density not surface tension.

Note: the two following criteria must be satisfied before performing dimensional analysis:
1) the proposed physical relation is dimensionally homogenous, and
2) all the relevant variables have been included in the proposed relation.

Example 8.2
A long structural component of a bridge
has an elliptical cross section shown in
figure. It is known that when a steady
wind blows past this type of bluff body,
vortices may develop on the downwind
side that are shed in a regular fashion at
some definite frequency.
Since these vortices can create harmful periodic forces acting on the structure, it is important to
determine the shedding frequency. For the specific structure of interest, D = 0.1m and H = 0.3m
and a representative wind velocity is 50 km/hr. Standard air can be assumed.
The shedding frequency is to be determined through the use of a small-scale model that is to be
tested in a water tunnel. For the model Dm = 20 mm and the water temperature is 20 °C.
FIND Determine the model dimension, and the velocity at which the test should be performed. If the
shedding frequency for the model is found to be 49.9 Hz, what is the corresponding frequency
for the prototype?
We expect the shedding frequency ω , to depend on the lengths D and H, the approach velocity, V,
and the fluid density ρ, and viscosity µ, Thus,
𝜔 = 𝑓( 𝐷. 𝐻. 𝑉. 𝜌. 𝜇)
ω D H ρ µ V
T-1 L L M L-3 M L-1 T-1 LT-1

There are 6 variables and three dimensions, So four  terms are possible.
Π1 = ϕ ( Π2 . Π3 )
Use the Pi procedure to find the Pi's as
𝜔𝐷 𝐷 𝜌𝑉𝐷
= ϕ (𝐻 . )
𝑉 𝜇

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 13


We recognize the pi term on the left as the Strouhal number, and the dimensional analysis indicates
that the Strouhal number is a function of the geometric parameter, and the Reynolds number.
Thus, to maintain similarity between model and prototype
𝐷𝑚 𝐷 𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐷𝑚 𝜌𝑉𝐷
= 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝐻𝑚 𝜇𝑚 𝜇
From the first similarity requirement
𝐷𝑚 20×10−3
𝐻𝑚 = 𝐻 = × 0 ∙ 3 = 60 × 10−3 𝑚 = 60 𝑚𝑚
𝐷 0∙1

The second similarity requirement indicates that the Reynolds number must be the same for model
and prototype so that the model velocity must satisfy the condition
𝐷 𝜌 𝜇𝑚
𝑉𝑚 = 𝐷 𝑉
𝑚 𝜌𝑚 𝜇

Data for standard air : 𝜇 = 1 ∙ 79 × 10−5 𝑘𝑔 𝑚⁄𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌 = 1 ∙ 23 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3


and for water at 20 °C. 𝜇 = 1 ∙ 0 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔 𝑚⁄𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌 = 998 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
The fluid velocity for the prototype is
50 ×1000
𝑉= = 13 ∙ 9 𝑚⁄𝑠
3600
Then
0∙1 1∙23 1∙0×10−3
𝑉𝑚 = 20×10−3 × 13 ∙ 9 = 4 ∙ 97 𝑚⁄𝑠
998 1∙79×10−5

With the two similarity requirements satisfied, it follows that the Strouhal numbers for prototype
and model will be the same so that
𝜔𝐷 𝜔𝐷
=( )
𝑉 𝑉 𝑚

and the predicted prototype vortex shedding frequency is


𝐷𝑚 𝑉 20×10−3 13∙9
𝜔 = 𝐷 𝑉𝑚
𝜔𝑚 = 0∙1 4∙97
× 49 ∙ 9 = 29𝐻𝑧

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 14


Exercise (8)
1. List the three primary purposes of dimensional analysis.
2. List and describe the three necessary conditions for complete similarity between a model
and a prototype.
3. List the important variables in fluid mechanics and their units and primary dimensions.
4. Explain the law of dimensional homogeneity in simple terms.
5. Defined the main forces in fluid mechanics then deduce the main dimensionless numbers.
6. Using primary dimensions, verify that the Re, Ma and Fr numbers are dimensionless
7. write the Bernoulli equation as nondimensionalize the equation, and generate an
expression for the pressure coefficient Cp at any point in the flow where the Bernoulli
equation is valid. Cp is defined as

8. The drag force, F, on a smooth sphere depends on the relative speed, V, the sphere
diameter, D, the fluid density, ρ, and the fluid viscosity, μ. Obtain a set of dimensionless
groups that can be used to correlate experimental data.
9. The pressure drop, ΔP, for steady, incompressible viscous flow through a straight
horizontal pipe depends on the pipe length, L, the average velocity, V, the fluid viscosity,
μ, the pipe diameter, D, the fluid density, ρ, and the average “roughness” height, e.
Determine a set of dimensionless groups that can be used to correlate data.
10. To predict the drag on an aircraft at a flight speed of 150 m/s, where the condition of air
is such that the local speed of sound is 310 m/s, a pressurised low temperature tunnel is
used. Density, viscosity and local sonic velocity at tunnel condition are 7.5 kg/m3, 1.22 ×
10–5 Ns/m2 and 290 m/s. Determine the flow velocity and the scale of the model. Assume
full dynamic similarity should be maintained. Density and viscosity at the operating
conditions are 1.2 kg/m3 and 1.8 × 10–5 Ns/m2.
11. The performance of an aeroplane to fly at 2400 m height at a speed of 290 kmph is to be
evaluated by a 1/8 scale model tested in a pressurised wind tunnel maintaining similarity.
The conditions at the flight altitude are temperature = – 10 C, pressure = 75 kN/m2.
μ = 17.1 × 10–6 kg/ms. The test conditions are 2150 kN/m2, and 150 C. μ = 18.1 × 10–6
kg/ms. The drag resistance on the model measured at 18 m/s and 27 m/s. are 4.7N and
9.6N. Determine the drag on the prototype.

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 15

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