Microwaves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from 1

millimeter to 1 meter and frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz ¹. They are used
in communication systems due to their several advantages over other electromagnetic
waves:

1. **High operating frequency**: Microwaves have a high operating frequency of 3 to

10 GHz, which allows them to carry large quantities of data due to their large
bandwidth ¹⁵.

2. **Short wavelength**: Microwaves have a shorter wavelength than radio waves,

which allows for the use of short antennas ¹⁴.

3. **Easy passage through the ionosphere**: Microwaves can easily pass through the
ionosphere, which makes them suitable for satellite and space communication ¹⁵.

4. **Few repeaters are needed**: Microwaves require fewer repeaters than other
electromagnetic waves, which makes them more cost-effective ¹.

5. **Highly reliable**: Microwaves are highly reliable and have minimum cross-talk
¹.

6. **Increased bandwidth**: Microwaves have a larger bandwidth than other

electromagnetic waves, which allows them to carry more information ¹.

In summary, microwaves are preferred over other electromagnetic waves in

communication systems due to their high operating frequency, short wavelength, easy
passage through the ionosphere, fewer repeaters needed, high reliability, and
increased bandwidth.

2.

The carrier concentration in a semiconductor is determined by the intrinsic carrier

concentration, which is dependent on the bandgap energy and temperature ². The
curvature of the valence band is related to the effective mass of the holes in the
valence band ¹.

If the curvature of the valence band is increased, the effective mass of the holes
will decrease ¹. This will result in an increase in the intrinsic carrier
concentration ¹.

However, it is important to note that the curvature of the valence band is not the
only factor that affects the intrinsic carrier concentration. Other factors such as
temperature and doping concentration also play a significant role ².

3.
A tunnel diode is a heavily doped p-n junction diode that exhibits negative
resistance ¹. The concentration of doping in a tunnel diode is much higher than
that of a PN junction diode, resulting in a narrow depletion region ⁵. The tunnel
diode works based on the tunneling effect, which is a direct flow of electrons
across the small depletion region from the n-side conduction band into the p-side
valence band ¹.

The tunnel diode has a unique characteristic of negative resistance, which means
that when the voltage value increases, the current flow decreases ¹. This property
makes it useful in applications such as oscillators, amplifiers, and switching
circuits ¹.

Tunnel diodes are made of materials such as germanium, gallium arsenide, and other
silicon materials ¹. They are used in applications that require high-speed
switching, such as in microwave oscillators and amplifiers ¹.

4.
The Ridley-Watkins-Hilsum (RWH) theory explains the mechanism by which differential
negative resistance is developed in a bulk solid-state semiconductor material when
a voltage is applied to the terminals of the sample ¹. The RWH mechanism is the
transfer of conduction electrons in a semiconductor from a high mobility valley to
lower-mobility, higher-energy satellite valleys ¹². This phenomenon can only be
observed in materials that have such energy band structures ². Normally, in a
conductor, increasing electric field causes higher charge carrier (usually
electron) speeds and results in higher current consistent with Ohm's law. In a
multi-valley semiconductor, though, higher energy may push the carriers into a
higher energy state where they actually have higher effective mass and thus slow
down. In effect, carrier velocities and current drop as the voltage is increased.
While this transfer occurs, the material exhibits a decrease in current – that is,
a negative differential resistance ¹². At higher voltages, the normal increase of
current with voltage relation resumes once the bulk of the carriers are kicked into
the higher energy-mass valley. Therefore the negative resistance only occurs over a
limited range of voltages ¹.

5.
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the primary memory used in a computer. It is divided
into two categories: Static RAM (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM) ¹.

SRAM uses transistors to store a single bit of data and does not need to be
periodically refreshed, while DRAM uses a separate capacitor to store each bit of
data and needs to be periodically refreshed to maintain the charge in the
capacitors ¹.

SRAM is faster and more expensive than DRAM, but less dense, so SRAM sizes are
orders of magnitude lower than DRAM ¹. SRAM is used to create the CPU's speed-
sensitive cache, while DRAM forms the larger system RAM space ⁴.
6.

ROM (Read-Only Memory) is a type of memory that stores data permanently and cannot
be modified after it has been manufactured ⁵. It is used to store firmware, which
is software that is embedded in hardware devices ⁵. ROM is non-volatile, meaning
that it retains its data even when the power is turned off ⁵.

EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) is a type of ROM that can be erased
and reprogrammed multiple times ². EPROM is programmed electrically and erased by
exposing it to ultraviolet light ². It is used in applications where the firmware
needs to be updated frequently, such as in video game cartridges and computer BIOS
².

7.
The first Brillouin zone is a uniquely defined primitive cell in reciprocal space
¹. It is the smallest volume entirely enclosed by planes that are the perpendicular
bisectors of the reciprocal lattice vectors drawn from the origin ¹. The concept of
Brillouin zone is particularly important in the consideration of the electronic
structure of solids ¹.

The velocity of electrons and holes in the first Brillouin zone depends on the band
structure of the material ². In general, the velocity of electrons and holes is
highest at the center of the Brillouin zone and decreases as the edge of the zone
is approached ².

The velocity of electrons and holes can be calculated using the effective mass
approximation, which assumes that the electrons and holes behave like free
particles with an effective mass ². The effective mass is a measure of how much the
electrons or holes are influenced by the crystal lattice ².

In summary, the velocity of electrons and holes in the first Brillouin zone depends
on the band structure of the material and can be calculated using the effective
mass approximation.

8.
The anomalous behavior of holes is related to their effective mass ⁴. The effective
mass of a hole is the mass that it seems to have when responding to forces or
interacting with other identical particles in a thermal distribution ³. The
effective mass of holes is larger than that of electrons due to the curvature of
the valence band ¹⁴.

In some materials, the effective mass of holes can be negative, which means that
the holes respond to electric and magnetic forces by gaining velocity in the
opposite direction compared to normal ³. This explains the existence of valence-
band holes, which are positive-charge, positive-mass quasiparticles that can be
found in semiconductors ³.

In summary, the anomalous behavior of holes is related to their effective mass,

which is larger than that of electrons due to the curvature of the valence band.
The effective mass of holes can be negative in some materials, which explains the
existence of valence-band holes.