Name_____________________________________________ Date_______________

FIRST TERM E-LEARNING NOTE

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY CLASS: SSS

1

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC
1. Biology and LivingThings
2. Living things and Non Living Things, Classification
3. Classification of Living Things
4. Classification of Animals and Organization of Life
5. The cell (Definition, Forms, Structure, Functions and Theory)
6. The cell and ItsEnvironment (Osmosis, Diffusion, Biological Significance)
7. Properties and Functions of the Cell (Cellular Respiration)
8&9. Mode of Nutrition and Plant Nutrition (Photosynthesis and Chemosynthesis)
10. Growth (Basis and Aspects of Growth)
11. Revision and Examination

REFERENCES
 Modern Biology for Senior Secondary Schools by S.T. Ramlingam
 Essential Biology by M.C Michael
 New Biology by H. Stone and Cozen
 SSCE, Past Questions and Answers
 New System Biology by Lam and Kwan
 College Biology by IdodoUmeh
 UTME, SSCE and CAMBRIDGE Past Questions and Answers
 Biology Practical Text

WEEK ONE
BIOLOGY AND LIVING THINGS
CONTENT
 Biology as Inquiry inScience
 Process or Method of Science
 Microscope Parts and Functions

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BIOLOGY AS AN INQUIRY IN SCIENCE
Science is the study of nature (living and non-living things). Biology is a science that
studies living things in nature. Biology was formed from the Greek words "Bio" (meaning
life) and “logos" (meaning, study of).
The organisms studied in biology are generally classified into plants and animals.
Therefore, biology is a science subject that can be subdivided into two main branches or
subjects namely:
(a) Botany –the study of plants.
(b) Zoology - the study of animals.
Other branches of biology include zoology, botany, microbiology, parasitology, anatomy,
physiology, biotechnology, etc.

RELEVANCE OF BIOLOGY
Biology has found great applications in many areas of human life, some of which
include:
a. Medicine: Production of drugs and vaccines for preventing and curing many
diseases e.g. penicillin, organ transplant e.g. kidney (renal) transplant, in-vitro
fertilization in infertile couples.
b. Agriculture: Production of hybrid (crops and animals with desired qualities), use
of biological pestic.ides to control agricultural pests
c. Bioremediation i.e. use of naturally occurring bacteria to clean up oil spills and
toxic chemicals.
d. Biotechnology: Use of genetic engineering to fight genetic diseases.
e. Food production: Production of single cell protein (SCP) to reduce protein
deficiency problem, food storage and preservation

EVALUATION
1. What is biology.
2. Describe the following branches of Biology (a) parasitology (b) anatomy (c)
physiology.

PROCESS OR METHOD OF SCIENCE

This is a systematic approach used to investigate enquiries arising from any observation
made in nature. Therefore, the scientific method is the tool used to unravel the
mysteries of life. The scientific methods include the following steps:
 Observation
 Classification
 Inference
 Measurement and Identification
 Hypothesis
 Experiment
 Control or Conclusion
 Theory or Law
The starting point of scientific method is observation which involves the use of the
senses to describe what one has seen or felt about an object. The observation then
leads to classification, then to inference (logical reasoning) and later to measurement
and identification of the existing problem. This is followed by hypothesis which is a
reasonable explanation for an observation made and which can be tested
experimentally. A tested hypothesis may be accepted, rejected or modified to form a
new hypothesis. A tested hypothesis that is found to be repeatedly true within the limits
of available evidence becomes a theory. A theory is therefore an aggregate of many
verified hypotheses. An extensively tested and proven theory becomes a law or
principle which is still subject to change due to continual experimentation or research.
To carry out a successful experiment (void of false conclusions), a parallel experiment
called controlled experiment is usually set up. This is done by keeping constant all
factors affecting the result of the main experiment and varying the factor being tested.
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Experiments should be reported following a generally accepted pattern laid down by
scientists. The pattern includes:
a. Aim: the purpose of the experiment.
b. Apparatus/ materials required.
c. Method /procedure followed
d. Observation made.
e. Conclusion based on observation made and final result got.
Note: Precaution or care that should be taken against dangers/hazards can also feature
during experimentation.

EVALUATION
1. Define (a) Hypothesis (b) Theory (c) Principle
2. List the steps in scientific methods.

MICROSCOPE PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

A microscope is an instrument used in magnifying and viewing organisms smaller than
0.1mm that is too tiny to be seen by the human eyes. A compound light microscope
consists of the following parts:
a. Revolving nose piece: it is used for selecting lens to be used and to be in line with
the eye piece.
b. Objective lenses (low, medium and high power): for magnification of object
c. Eye piece lens or ocular: for viewing magnified object.
d. Body tube: provides attachment to eyepiece, revolving nose piece, low-power,
medium-power and high-power objective lens.
e. Coarse focus knob: for focusing on object at low power.
f. Fine adjustment knob: for focusing on object at medium and high power
magnification so that object is sharper at focus.
g. Arm: for lifting or carrying the microscope.
h. Clip: for holding glass slide on stage.
i. Stage: for displaying slide and specimens under focus.
j. Condenser: regulates the amount of light rays entering the microscope and object.
k. Knob: to raise and lower the condenser.
l. Base: for balancing the microscope on the table.
m. Mirror: for collecting light rays and directing them to condenser and object.

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EVALUATION
1. List five major parts of a microscope and their functions.
2. Mention two other types of microscopes.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. “Biology is a science that studies life”. Explain.
2. State the various professions practicable with adequate knowledge of biology.
3. How relevant is biology to you as a living organism?
4. What is a scientific method?
5. Describe the pattern followed during experimentation in a scientific study.

READING ASSIGNMENT
Modern Biology, chapter 1, page 1 – 5.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Biology is a subject concerned with the study of ____ (a) living things (b) non-living
things (c) living and non-living things (d) climate.
2. A parallel experiment done alongside a laboratory experiment is said to be _______
(a) side experiment (b) certainty experiment (c) controlled experiment (d)
emergency experiment.
3. A reasonable explanation for any observation made in nature is scientifically termed
____ (a) idea (b) theory (c) hypothesis (d) notion.
4. _____ is a scientific fact (a) observation (b) theory (c) idea (d) hypothesis
5. The part that regulates the amount of light entering a microscope is the (a) knob
(b) fine adjustment (c) condenser (d) objective lens

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THEORY
1. State four relevance of biology to life.
2. List five careers in biology.

WEEK TWO
LIVING THINGS AND NON LIVING THINGS
CONTENT
 Characteristics of Living Things
 Differences between Plants and Animals
 Classification of Living Things

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

Everything in nature can be classified into two groups: living and non -living things.
The living things can be distinguished from their nonliving counterparts through the
following characteristics observable in all living things:
1. MOVEMENT: Animals can move from place to place on their own in search of
food. Higher plants move certain parts of their body in response to growth or
external stimuli
2. RESPIRATION: In order to perform the numerous life processes, living things need
much energy. The energy can only be obtained when the organism respires.
Therefore, respiration is the oxidation of food substances in the presence of
oxygen to produce energy with carbon (iv) oxide and water released as by
products.
3. NUTRITION: The act of feeding is called nutrition. All organisms need food to
carry out their biological activities. Green plants can manufacture their food.
Hence, they are autotrophs while animals are dependent on plants for their food,
so they are heterotrophs.
4. IRRITABILITY: Is the ability of living things to respond to external and internal
stimuli in order to survive. External stimuli may be light, heat, water, sound or
chemical substances.
5. GROWTH: this is the tendency of organisms to increase irreversibly and rapidly in
length and size and in mass. The essence of growth is to enable organisms to
repair or replace damaged or old tissues in their bodies. The food eaten by an
organism provides the basis of growth.
6. EXCRETION: Toxic waste products of metabolism & other unwanted materials
have to be eliminated to ensure proper functioning of the bodies of organisms.
Such wastes include water, carbon (iv) oxide etc.
7. REPRODUCTION: Is the ability of a living organism to give birth to young ones (off
springs). The essence is to ensure life continuity. Reproduction can be sexual
(involving two organisms) or asexual (involving one organism)
8. LIFE SPAN / DEATH: Every organism has a definite and limited period of
existence. Life , for all organism has five main stages , namely : origin ( birth ) ,
growth, maturity, decline and death.
9. COMPETITION: Living things tend to struggle for the basic things of life in order to
survive. Hence, they compete for food, water, light, mates and space.
10. ADAPTATION: To survive, every organism possesses ability to get used to change
in its environment.
EVALUATION
1. State the characteristics that must be possessed by an organism to be referred to as
living things.
2. Which of these characteristics does a virus possess.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

All living organisms can be generally classified as plants or animals. However, plants
can be distinguished from animals in the following ways:
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PLANTS ANIMALS
1. Undergo passive movement. Undergo free or active movement with
well developed organs of locomotion.
2. Gaseous exchange takes place Gaseous exchange is through special
through the entire body. organs.
3. Green plants photosynthesize i. Animals do not photosynthesize i. e. they
e. they are autotrophs. are heterotrophs.
4. They exhibit slow response to They exhibit fast response to stimuli.
stimuli.
5. Growth is apical and indefinite Growth is uniform and definite (limited).
(continuous).
6. No specialized sense organs. Possess specialized sense organs.
7. No specialized excretory They have special and well developed
systems. excretory systems.
8. Cell has rigid non living cellulose Have thin, flexible cell membrane.
cell wall which provides Mechanical support is provided by
mechanical support. external exoskeleton or internal
endoskeleton.
9. They store food (carbohydrates) They store carbohydrates as glycogen
as starch except fungi which
store food as glycogen.

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between autotrophs and heterotrophs
2. State four differences between plants and animals

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISIMS

Nature comprises millions of organisms, hence the need for identification, naming and
classifying them in a meaningful manner. The present and widely accepted method of
classification of organism was introduced by Carolus Linnaeus. The study of the general
principles of classification is called taxonomy or systematic. Classification is an
arrangement of organisms into groups, each group is then split into smaller groups and
the members of each group have certain features in common which distinguish them
from other groups. The largest group of organisms is the kingdom. The arrangement of
living organisms from the highest to the lowest (with decreasing variety of organisms) is
as follows:
KINGDOM PHYLUM OR DIVISION CLASS ORDER FAMILY GENUS
SPECIES

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BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
This is the standard system of naming living organisms. Each type of organism is given
two names:
(i) The name of the genus (generic name) to which the organism belongs.
(ii) The name of the species (specific name) to which it belongs.
The generic name is always written first using initial capital letter (underlined or
italicized) e.g. Homosapiens is man’s scientific name.

EVALUATION
1. Define taxonomy.
2. What is binomial nomenclature.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Explain the differences between growth in plants and animals
2. Define the following characteristics of living things (a) respiration (b) irritability
(c) excretion
3. What are the similarities between living and non-living things
4. What are the similarities between plants and animals
5. Define (a) species (b) genus (c) phylum in classification of organisms

READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology, chapter 1, page 1 - 6.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The ability of living things to get used to their environment is ____ (a) survival
(b) adaptation (c) adjustment (d) photosynthesis
2. Response to stimuli in animals can be said to be _______ (a) very slow (b) very flow
(c) fast (d) steady.
3. Fungi store their food (carbohydrate) as _____ (a) starch (b) glycogen (c) hormone
(d) antibody
4. Sensitivity of a living organism to external factor around it is technically known as
________ (a) alertness (b) irritability (c) sense organ (d) knowledge
5. Which of the following is the lowest in the category of classification? (a) Class
(b) Species (c) Family (d) Genus

THEORY
1. With five of the characteristics above, distinguish between plants and animals.
2. Classify human being fully.

WEEK THREE
CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS
CONTENT
 Modern Classification of Living Organisms
 Kingdom Monera, Protista, Fungi
 Kingdom Plantae
 Kingdom Animalia

MODERN CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS

All organisms cannot be suitably classified as either plants or animals based on
CarolusLinneaus classification. Therefore five kingdoms have been generally accepted
for all living organisms, these include Monera, Protista, fungi, plantae and animalia.

KINGDOM MONERA (Prokaryotes)

This group consists of simplest living organisms (bacteria, blue-green anabaena).
- They are microscopic single-celled.
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- The cell wall does not contain cellulose. It is made up of protein and fatty
materials.
- They have no definite nucleus. Nucleus lack nuclear membrane and DNA are
scattered in the cytoplasm.
- They lack most cell organelles except the ribosome.
- Reproduction is asexual by binary fission.

KINGDOM PROTISTA
- They are unicellular organisms.
- The organisms are all eukaryotes i. e. cell have definite nucleus.
- Most protists are aquatic organisms.
- They move either by cilia, flagella or pseudopodia.
- Some are free living while few are parasitic.
Protists can be broadly divided into two groups;
a. Protozoa: animal-like protists e.g. amoeba, paramecium, plasmodium,
trypanosome.
b. Protophyta: Plant-like protists e. g. Diatoms, chlorella, chlamydomonas.
Note: Euglena is a protist with plant and animal like features.

KINGDOM FUNGI
- They are non-green organisms which do not photosynthesize (lack chlorophyll).
- All fungi except slime moulds are non-motile.
- They have rigid cell wall made up of chitin and polysaccharides.
- They reproduce asexually by producing spores and sexually as well.
- Most of them are saprophytes while some are parasites.
- They lack true roots, stem and leaves.
- Few are unicellular (yeast) while most are multicellular (rhizopus, mushroom).
Multicellular fungi have filamentous bodies that are made up of a network of fine,
branching filaments called hyphae (singular: hypha). This mass of hyphae is known as
mycelium (plural: mycelia).

EVALUATION
1. Describe the features of a named (a) Animal like protist (b) Fungi (c)
Bacteria
2. State the phyla of fungi.

KINGDOM PLANTAE
This consists of organisms with cellulose cell wall and chlorophyll for manufacturing
their food. It consists of three major phyla i. e thallophyta, bryophyta and tracheophyta.
a. THALLOPHYTA (ALGAE)
Examples include spirogyra, volvox, sargassum and kelp
- These are simple aquatic photosynthetic plants
- They are non vascular plants
- They lack true root, stem and leaves.
- They are either unicellular or multicellular and may be green, brown or red.
- They reproduce asexually (by cell division, fragmentation, spore) or sexually.
- They exhibit alternation of generation.
b. BRYOPHTA
These include hornworts, liverworts and mosses
- Bryophytes are multicellular, non vascular plants.
- They also lack true roots, stems and leaves.
- They have chlorophyll as the only photosynthetic pigment.
- They are terrestrial but live in moist place.

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- They produce spores asexually and also reproduce sexually. Hence, they also
show a distinct alternation of generation.
c. TRACHEOPHYTA
- They are green multicelluar, terrestrial vascular plants i.e. they have tissues for
conducting water and food.
- They have true roots, stem, and leaves.
It is the largest group of plants and can be subdivided into two i. e. pteridophytes and
spermatophytes.
i. PTERIDOPHYTA (FERNS)
Examples include Dryopteris, platycerium, ferns etc
- They are spore bearing plants.
- They possess well developed vascular tissues and chlorophyll
- Asexual and sexual reproductive organs are referred to as sori and prothalus
respectively
- The stem grows horizontally and is referred to as rhizome
ii. SPERMATOPHYTA
These are seed bearing plants. They can be grouped into two
(i) GYMNOSPERMS
Examples are cycads (whistling pine, fir), conifers and gingkos
- Their seeds are borne naked in special structures called cones. They don’t have
flowers e.g conifers, cycads.
- These are trees or shrubs with needle, broad or scale like leaves.
(ii) ANGIOSPERMS
They form the largest group in the plants kingdom and are adapted to almost every
kind of habitat. Examples are oil palm tree, water leaf, maize plant etc.
- They bear true flowers for sexual reproduction.
- They have more abundant water conducting vessels than gymnosperms.
- They bear seeds enclosed in fruits.
- They show more specialized and complex reproductive mechanism involving
pollination and fertilization.
Angiosperms are grouped into two, monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
 MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS
Examples include maize, guinea grass, rice, oil palm etc.
- They have seeds with one seed leaf (cotyledon).
- They are generally herbs with scattered vascular bundles in their stem.
- They have leaves with parallel venation and fibrous root system.
- They undergo hypogeal germination (i.e. their cotyledons remain below the
ground at germination.)
- They do not undergo secondary growth.
 DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS
Examples include orange, hibiscus plants etc.
- They are more primitive angiosperms having seeds with two seed leaves
- They have tap root system
- They usually undergo secondary growth
- The leaves have veins arranged in branched network
- They undergo epigeal germination (i.e the cotyledons are borne above the soil).

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between thallophytes and bryophytes
2. Differentiate between angiosperms and gymnosperms

KINGDOM ANIMALIA

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This consists of multicellular organisms with no cell wall; they have no chloroplasts in
their cell therefore they feed heterotrophically. Animals can be classified into two main
groups:
a. Invertebrates – animals without backbones.
b. Vertebrates – animals with backbones.
These two groups can further be divided and subdivided based on body symmetry, body
design and body cavity.

INVERTERBRATES
a. Phylum Porifera (sponges):
- They are primitive multicellular, aquatic animals (colonies of cells)
- They lack true tissues and nervous system
- Reproduce asexually and sexually (hermaphrodites
b. Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria: Hydra, jelly fish, sea anemones):
- They have two layered bodies surrounding a central hollow cavity called enteron.
- They have tentacles and most of them are marine
- Possession of stinging cells called nematocysts
- There is only one opening called mouth. No anus.
c. Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms: Tapeworm, planaria, liver fluke)
- They have soft, flat, unsegmented elongated bodies
- They lack body cavity.
- They are bilaterally symmetrical and mainly parasites in man and other animals
- They possess alimentary canal. No anus
d. Phylum Nematoda (roundworm, hookworm, guinea worm)
- They have thread like, cylindrical, unsegmented body with no body cavity.
- They are bilaterally symmetrical.
- They have alimentary canal with mouth and anus
- Some are parasitic, while others are free living
e. Phylum Annelida (earthworm, leeches)
- They have internal and external segmented bodies which are long and
cylindrical.
- They have true body cavity (ceoloma).
- The appendages (setae) are not jointed
f. Phylum Mollusca (snail, squid, octopus)
- They have soft unsegmented bodies
- Tentacles are present in most members
- Some have shells e.g snails, squid etc while others have no shell e. g. octopus,
slug
g. Phylum Echinodermata (star fish, bristle star, sae lily)
- They possess tough, spiny and calcerous exoskeleton
- The head is not usually distinct
- They are all marine
- Most of them are star shaped
Examples are britle star, star fish, sea urchin, sea lily etc
h. Phylum Arthropoda (the largest group in the animal kingdom)
- They have segmented bodies
- They have exoskeleton made up of chitin
- Their appendages are jointed.
- They have body divisions
- They are bilaterally symmetrical.
They can be subdivided into four classes
i. Insectae.g cockroach, housefly, grasshopper etc.
ii. Arachnida e.g. spider, scorpion, tick etc.
iii. Crustaceans e.g. crab, crayfish, prawns etc.
iv. Myriapoda e.g. centipedes and millipedes.

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EVALUATION
1. Define the following in relation to body symmetry (a) asymmetrical (b)
radially symmetrical (c) bilateral symmetrical
2. Write short note on body cavity

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between an algae and a fungi
2. Describe the structural features of a named algae
3. Differentiate between pteridophytes and spermatophytes
4. What do you understand by alternation of generation
5. State four differences between mollusca and arthropoda

READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology, chapter 1, page 20 – 24, chapter 2, page 25 – 28, 38 - 57

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WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Angiosperms and gymnosperms belong to the plant group known as A.
scizophyta B. bryophyta C. pteridophyta D. spermatophyte
2. Sting cells are normally found in A. Flatworms B. Hydra C. Snails D.
Paramecium
3. Which of the following are differentiated into true roots, stems and leaves?
A. Schizophyta B. Bryophyta C. Pteridophyta D. Algae
4. Each of the following is an arthropod EXCEPT A. crab B. millipede C. spider D.
snail
5. In which of the following groups of animals are flagella and cilia found A.
Flatworms B. Protozoa C. Nematodes D. Coelenterates

THEORY
1. State two distinguishing features each of the four classes of the phylum
arthropoda
2. In a tabular form, state four differences between monocot and dicot plants

WEEK FOUR
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS AND ORGANIZATION OF LIFE
CONTENT
 The vertebrates
 Level of organization of life
 Complexity of organization in higher organization

THE VERTEBRATES (PHYLUM CHORDATA)

All vertebrates have the following features:
a. A bilaterally symmetrical body which is divided into a head, trunk and a tail with
a neck joining the head to the trunk in most vertebrates.
b. An internal skeleton (endoskeleton)
c. Well developed central nervous system and sense organs.
d. A closed blood system
e. Skin covered with scales, feather or hair.
The phylum chordata (animals with notochord) can be subdivided into five classes. Thee
include
a. Class Pisces (tilapia, shark, dogfish)
- These are fishes which are aquatic, cold blooded (poikilothermic) i.e. the body
temperature varies with that of the surrounding).
- Their bodies are covered with scales.
- They breathe through their gills
- Fertilization is external
- They posses fins for locomotion
- Their bodies are streamlined in shape
b. Class Amphibians (toad, frog, newt)
- They are cold blooded animals.
- They spend most of their time on land but reproduce (lay eggs) in water.
- They carry out gaseous exchange using gills, lungs, skin or mouth living.
- They have naked moist skin
- Fertilization is external
- They have two pairs of limbs with webbed toes
c. Class Reptilia (lizards, snakes, crocodiles etc)
- Their skin is covered with dry scales which prevent water loss from the body.
- Gaseous exchange is carried out through their lungs
- Fertilization is internal and eggs are laid on land.

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- They are cold-blooded
d. Class Aves (birds)
- They are warm- blooded (homoiothermic) i.e. they are able to keep their body
temperature more or less constant.
- Their body is covered with feathers
- They have toothless beak for feeding.
- Fore limbs modified into wings for flight
- Fertilization is internal.
e. Class Mammalia (rats, bats, dogs, whales, monkey, kangaroos, man etc)
- They are warm-blooded
- They have skin covered with hair.
- They possess heterodont teeth i.e. different sets of teeth.
- They have a well-developed brain
- They give birth to their young ones alive (viviparous)
- They use lungs for gaseous exchange.

EVALUATION
1. State five distinguishing features of the phylum chordata
2. Differentiate between a named amphibian and a reptile

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF LIFE

Every living thing is made up of a cell or a number of cells. A single-celled organism is
called unicellular while a many-celled organism is called multicellular. Organization of
life is therefore the existence of life from a single-celled organism to a multicellular
organism with complex forms that performs different functions. Four levels of
organization of life exist, namely: cell, tissue, organ and system.
1. Cell: A cell is a functional and structural unit of protoplasm bounded by a
membrane and containing nuclear and cytoplasmic materials. Some living things
exist as cells which have cytoplasmic structures such as pseudopodia, cilia, flagella
and vacuoles e.g. Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Paramecium and Euglena. Common
cells that perform distinct functions in plant and animals include sperm cells, nerve
cells, bone cells, red blood cells, root hair cells etc.
2. Tissues: A tissue is a collection of cells which are similar in structure and
functions. Hydra is an example of an animal that is made up of tissues only.
Examples of tissues in animals and plants are epithelial tissue, blood, nerve tissue,
muscle tissue, xylem and phloem tissues etc.
3. Organ: An organ is a collection of different tissues that perform a common
function or functions e.g. Kidney, heart, brain, stem, roots etc. Example of organ in
plant is onion bulb.
4. System: A system is a set of organs which co-operate to carry out one of the vital
functions of life e. g. Digestive system, respiratory system, reproductive system,
transport system etc.

EVALUATION
1. List four types of cells in organisms and their functions
2. State the functions of five types of tissues in man

COMPLEXITY OF ORGANIZATION IN HIGHER ORGANISMS

Higher organisms have bodies that are differentiated into specialised parts performing
different functions. The different specialized parts made up of tissues, organs and
systems make higher organisms more complex and efficient to carry out various
activities of life.

Advantages of complexity
1. It leads to division of labour and specialization

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2. It has led to the efficiency of the various organs of the body.
3. The complexity of higher organism has led to their survival (adaptation) in their
different habitats.
4. Various systems operate side by side without adversely affecting each other
5. Reproduction in complex organisms does not lead to the disintegration of the
parents

Disadvantages of complexity
1. Individual cells are not capable of existing independently and therefore depend
on one another’s activities to exist
2. With complexity, ability to regenerate lost parts decreases.
3. Difficulties in acquisition of food materials and oxygen and loss of waste product
4. Difficulties in reproduction
5. It leads to slower rate of diffusion because the surface area to volume ratio is
small and the distance from exterior to the center of the body is great

EVALUATION
1. Why are higher organisms referred to as ‘complex’
2. State the advantages of complexity.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Distinguish between Pisces, and amphibian.
2. Using their biological features distinguish between a cold-blooded animal and a
warm-blooded animal.
3. How can you recognize a vertebrate?
4. List five systems in flowering plants and their functions
5. State four advantages and three disadvantages of a complex organisms

READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology, Chapter 1, page 15 – 18, chapter 2, page 23 – 24, chapter 4, page 67 -
69

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WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The feature that distinguishes a toad from a fish is the absence of A. scales
B. lungs C. tail D. paired appendages
2. Some of the features of an animal are scales, teeth, nails and backbone. The
animal is likely to be A. bird B. lizard C. toad D. rat
3. Which of the following animal is cold blooded? A. cat B. Lizard C. Whales
D. Bird
4. A peculiar characteristics of mammals is that they A. have teeth B. are warm
blooded C. have sebaceous gland D. have lungs
5. The third level of organization of life is A. cell B. tissue C. system D. organs

THEORY
1. In a tabular form, differentiate between the five classes of mammals under the
following sub headings
(a) Body temperature (b) fertilization (c) dentition (d) type of heart (e) body
covering
2. State four advantages of complexity in higher organisms

WEEK FIVE
THE CELLL
CONTENT
 Definition of cell and forms of cellular existence
 Cell structure and functions of the cell components
 Similarities and Differences between plant and animal cell
 Cell theory

DEFINITION AND FORMS OF CELLULAR EXISTENCE

The cell is the simplest, smallest, basic, structural and functional unit of life. The cell can
carry out all life activities such as growth, respiration e. t. c.
Cells can exist in various forms which include
a. As a single cell (unicellular forms) e. g. Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Chlorella,
Euglena
i. Chlamydomonas(Chlamydomonas rivalries)
Chlamydomonas is a unicellular plant like protist, motile using its flagellum and has a
cup shaped chloroplast. It is sensitive to light using its eye spot. In the presence of light,
starch grains appear in the cytoplasm. These disappear in a dark environment.
Chlamydomonas cells through its flagella (whip like) respond to changes in the
surrounding such as moving from a dark region to a region of light. This organism
disposes off its excess water using its contractile vacuoles. It reproduces asexually and
sexually when it reaches its maximum size.
ii. Amoeba (Amoeba proteus)
Amoeba is a unicellular animal like protest and the simplest organism with
heterotrophic mode of feeding. It is shapeless. It digests its complex food with its food
vacuole. The undigested food materials are got rid of with excess water through its
contractile vacuole. Amoeba moves about and captures its food with the aid of its
pseudopodia (‘’false feet’’). At maximum growth, amoeba reproduces asexually by
dividing into two daughter cells (binary fission)
iii. Paramecium
Paramecium is a more complex unicellular organism compared to Amoeba. It is slipper-
shaped and moves with the aid of its cilia, which also directs food into its gullet. The
undigested food material is removed through the anal pore. Excess water is got rid of
through the anterior and posterior contractile vacuoles. Two types of nucleus are visible
in this organism, the micronucleus and mega nucleus
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iv. Euglena (Euglena viridis)
Euglenaviridis is a protist that has both plant and animal features.
As a plant, it has chloroplasts (star shaped) for photosynthesis, pyrenoid for starch
storage and paramylum granules (form in which starch is stored).
As an animal, it has no cellulose cell wall, but a plasma membrane called pellicle, a
gullet, eye spot, contractile vacuole and flagellum for movement.
b. In colonial forms e. g. Volvox, Sponges, Pandorina
Volvox
Volvox is made up of severalchlamydomonas- like cells which are arranged in angular
layer to form a hollow ball-like structure. The cells are connected by cytoplasm strands.
The cell of Volvox moves about through the beating of the flagella. Most cells of Volvox
lose their ability to reproduce. Only a few of them can reproduce to form two daughter
cells
c. In filamentous forms e. g. Spirogyra, Oscillateria, Oedogonium
Spirogyra
Spirogyra is a filament of identical cells which are joined end to end without branching.
Each cell of spirogyra carries out its function independent of another cell. Spirogyra has
spirally arranged chloroplast for photosynthesis.
The filament grows indefinitely. The break-off cells from the filament have the ability to
reproduce asexually to form a new filament. Spirogyra also has ability to reproduce
sexually.
d. As a part of multicellular organisms
A multicellular organism is made up of interdependent cells carrying out several special
functions. The cells of the multicellular organisms are arranged to perform similar
functions and then form tissues. A group of specialized tissues performing similar
function forms an organ. Organs are further organized to carry out special functions in
form of system or organ system. Ultimately, the interdependent biological system
results in the complex multicellular organisms.

EVALUATION
1. What is a cell, list four forms of cellular existence with examples?
2. Discuss feeding, movement and reproduction in a named unicellular organism

CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

The study of a cell is called cytology. A cell consists of a living material called
protoplasm, which is surrounded by a membrane called plasma membrane. In plants, a
cell wall (non-living part) is also present surrounding the plasma membrane. The
protoplasm is made up of two major parts: a. cytoplasm b. Nucleus

The cytoplasm contains cell organelles or inclusions, which are cellular structures with
specific functions. The cells which contain a nucleus and organelles are called
eukaryotic cells. These show a high level of cellular organization. However, some cells
lack definite nucleus and organelles. In such cells (prokaryotic cells e.g. bacteria),
materials containing instructions for growth and development are found in a particular
part of the cell and so are not enclosed in any membrane.

Nucleus is the largest cellular organelle enclosed by a double-layered nuclear

membrane with many pores. It contains chromosomes and nucleolus which are rich in
proteins and nucleic acids.

The nucleus performs the following functions:

a. Exchange of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm through the
nuclear pores.
b. Storage of hereditary information by the chromosomes
c. Control centre of cellular activities

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Structure of a typical animal cell

CELL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
CELL FUNCTIONS
COMPONENT/ORGANELL
ES
i. Mitochondrion Site of cellular respiration for energy production. It
consists of enzymes and DNA. The enzymes convert ADP
to ATP.
ii. Vacuole Surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast. It contains
cell sap mineral salt and sugar. It act as an osmoregulator
(removing excess water).
iii. Endoplasmic reticulum Aids transport of materials within the cytoplasm. Rough
(ER) endoplasmic reticulum(RER) (having ribosome attached) is
for protein synthesis and transportation. Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is for lipids and steroids
synthesis and transportion.
iv. Golgi bodies/apparatus For synthesis, packaging and distribution of materials.
v. Chloroplast Contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis in green plants
vi. Lysosomes Site for production of enzymes for respiration and
destruction of worn out cells.
vii. Ribosome For protein synthesis
viii. Centrioles Active in cell division by producing spindle fibres to which
chromosomes are attached. (present only in animal cell).
ix. Cell plasma) membrane This is flexible and selectively permeable. It controls the
materials entering or leaving the cell
x. Cell wall It protects the cell, thus providing mechanical support in
plants.

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Structure of a typical plant cell

EVALUATION
List five cell organelles and their functions

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Both plant and animal cells have the following in common
(a)Nucleus (b) golgi bodies (c) mitochondria (d) cytoplasm (e) chromosomes (f)
endoplasmic reticulum (g) nucleolus (h) ribosomes (i) lysosomes (j) cell
membrane

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
1 Has chloroplast No chloroplast
2 Rectangular and definite in shape Usually spherical or shapeless
3 Has rigid cellulose cell wall No cell wall
4 Centrioles are absent Centrioles are present for cell division
5 Cytoplasm is less dense Cytoplasm is dense granular
6 Starch granules present Glycogen granules present
7 Presence of large central permanent Vacuoles are absent or small and
vacuole temporary when presnt

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CELL THEORY
This is the summary of research efforts of many scientist like Robert Hooke, Matthias
Schleidein and Theodore Schwann in 1838 and 1839 likewise, Rudolf Virchow (1855)
etc.
The cell theory states that:
a. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
b. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms i.e. the basic
organizational unit of life.
c. All existing cells come from pre-existing ones.
d. A cell contains information for its structural and functional development in its
nucleic acids. This information is passed down from the parents to the off spring

EVALUATION
1. State three similarities and five differences between plants and animals cell
2. Write short note on the history of the cell

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Describe briefly the history of the cell
2. State the four forms of cell existence.
3. Discuss, with a diagram, a named plant- like unicellular protest.
4. Discuss, with a diagram, a named animal-like protist .
5. Draw the diagram of a named filamentous organism.
6. Differentiate between: (a) cells forming tissues and those forming colonies
(b) Colonial and filamentous organisms

READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology, chapter 3, page 58 – 66

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. A cell that is capable of self existence is a/an A. amoeba B. ovum C.
amoeba D. onion epidermal cell
2. Which of these organelles is common to both plants and animals cells? A.
Chloroplast B. Centriole C. Mitochondrion D. Pyrenoid
3. Which scientist did not contribute to the formation of cell theory? A. Isaac
Newton B. Robert Hooke C. Matthias Schliemann D. Theodor Schwann
4. The organelle which is contractile in function in Euglena is the A. eye spot B.
gullet C. myoneme D. paramylon
5. Which of the following cells are not regarded as specialized? A. Muscle cells
B. Root tip cells C. Somatic cells D. Sperm cells

THEORY
1. Differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
2. Describe and state three functions each of (a) rough endoplasmic reticulum (b)
vacuoles

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WEEK SIX
CELL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
CONTENT
 Environment/Nature and state of matter
 Diffusion (Definition, process and significance)
 Osmosis (Definition, process and significance)
 Relationship between osmosis and diffusion
 Haemolysis and plasmolysis
 Flaccidity and turgidity

Environment/Nature and State of Matter

Living cells are known to be surrounded by a watery environment. This may include:
Fresh/salt water in which the unicellular organisms live, Intercellular fluid that bath the
bodies of cells of higher animals.

The nature of states of matter makes diffusion and osmosis possible.

Matter can be defined as any material that has mass and occupies space. It includes all
the living and non-living things around us. Matter is also made up of tiny particles which
may be molecules or irons and can exist in three forms; solid, liquid, and gas.

EVALUATION
What is a matter, mention the three state of matter

DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the process by which molecules of substances move from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration (through the medium of air or liquid)
until equilibrium is reached. The difference in the concentration of the substances in the
two regions before diffusion occurs is called concentration/diffusion gradient, e.g. If
KMn04 (Potassium tetraoxomanganate VII) is placed in a beaker of water and allowed to
stand, the purple colour of the KMn04 start to spread outward from the crystal.
Eventually, the colour spread evenly throughout the water medium.

Diffusion is also observed in the spread of odour of perfume, insecticide which is used to
spray a room and also in the release of gases from the anus.

Diffusion is affected by the following factors

a. Change in temperature: The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of
diffusion
b. Molecular size: Diffusion increases with decreasing size of molecule
c. State of matter Diffusion of gases is much faster than that of liquid.
d. Difference in concentration: The greater the difference in concentration of
molecules, the faster the rate of diffusion.

IMPORTANCE OF DIFFUSION IN LIVING ORGANISMS

a. The movement of carbon (IV) oxide through the stomata of leaves during the
process of photosynthesis.
b. Movement of oxygen into the leaves during respiration.
c. Movement of water vapour out of the leaf in the process of transpiration
d. Gaseous exchange in the lungs of mammals
e. Intake of oxygen and nutrients and the removal of waste product by the foetus
from its mother through placenta.
f. Movement of digested and soluble food from the villi of small intestine to the
blood stream.
g. Removal of waste product in small organisms such as amoeba

EVALUATION
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1. Define diffusion, state the factors that can affect the rate of diffusion
2. Outline five importance of diffusion

OSMOSIS
Osmosis can be defined as the movement of water molecules from a region of lower
concentration to the region of higher concentration through a semi-permeable
membrane.
A permeable membrane allows molecules to pass through it freely while a selectively
permeable membrane only allows certain molecules to pass through it. Osmosis will
only occur when a semi-permeable membrane separates weak and strong solutions.
Living cells may find themselves in any of the following situation:
 When the fluid surrounding the cell is more concentrated than the inside of the
cell, the surrounding fluid is said to be hypertonic to the content of the cells. A
net movement of water molecules out of the cell into the surrounding fluid occurs
and causes the cell to shrink. This process is known as Exosmosis.
 When the fluid surrounding the cell is less concentrated than the inside of the
cell, the surrounding fluid is said to be hypotonic to the content of the cell.
There is a net movement of water molecules from the surrounding fluid into the
cells. This process is known as Endosmosis.
 When the surrounding fluid and the cell concentration have the same
concentration, they are said to be Isotonic. A net movement of water molecule
in and out of the cells does not occur.

IMPORTANCE OF OSMOSIS
a. It aids the absorption of water from the soil into the vacuole of the root hairs
b. It aids the movement of water from the root hairs into the cells of other parts of
the plants
c. It helps to control the opening and closing of the stomata pores
d. It gives turgidity to the plant cells i.e. it gives support.
e. It aids intracellular movement of water in animals
f. It aids reabsorption of water from the kidney tubules into the blood
g. It causes haemolysis of red blood cells.

EVALUATION
1. What is osmosis, mention three condition necessary for osmosis
2. State three differences between osmosis and diffusion

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PLASMOLYSIS
Plasymolysis is the shrinkage of the vacuole and pulling away of the cytoplasmic lining
from the cell wall when placed in hypertonic solution. When a plant cell is surrounded or
place in hypertonic solution, exosmosis will occur i.e. water moves out of the cell into
the surrounding fluid leading to the shrinking of the vacuole and pulling the cytoplasm
away from the cell wall. When cells are plasmolysed, it eventually leads to wilting or
death of the plant.

HAEMOLYSIS
This is the process whereby red blood cells (corpuscles) splits and burst as a result of
too much water passing into it. Red blood cells and blood plasma are always isotonic i.e.
having the same osmotic concentration, if for some reasons the concentration of blood
plasma falls; endosmosis will occur (water moves from the plasma into the red blood
cells). Continuous absorption of water into the cell makes it turgid and when fully
stretched, it burst.

EVALUATION
1. Define plasmolysis and haemolysis
2. In a tabular form, differentiate between plasmolysis and haemolysis

TURGIDITY AND BIOLOGY SIGNIFICANCE

Turgidity is the condition in which cell absorbs plenty of water up to a point where the
cell is fully stretched. Turgidity is observed in plants where it makes them erect and
support the stem, leaves and flowers.

FLACCIDITY AND BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Flaccidity is the condition in which plant lose water to their surrounding faster than they
can absorb. When a plant loses more water than it absorbs, it becomes flaccid.
Flaccidity usually occurs when there is no water in the soil, especially where there is
drought. The continuous loss of water can result in the death of the plant.

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between flaccidity and turgidity
2. State two application flaccidity and turgidity

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Explain the following terms: Hypertonic, Hypotonic and Isotonic solution
2. State the differences between osmosis and diffusion
3. Define diffusion and state factors that can affect it.
4. How does endosmosis lead to turgidity?
5. Plasmolysis results from exosmosis. Explain.
6. Of what importance is diffusion to life?

READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology, chapter 5, page 70 – 79

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WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Which structures must be present in a cell for osmosis to take place? A. cell
(sap) vacuole and cell wall B. cell wall and cell membrane C. chloroplast
and cytoplasm D. cytoplasm and cell membrane
2. The scent from a bunch of flowers spreads throughout a room. How does the
scent spread? A. by conduction B. by diffusion C. by osmosis D. by
transpiration
3. Which of the following environmental conditions is ideal for plant cells to remain
turgid? A. Hot, dry weather B. Cold, dry weather C. Cool, humid weather
D. Windy weather
4. Osmosis occurs through a membrane that can be _____ permeable A. Fully B.
slowly C. differentially D. freely
5. Which of the following processes takes place when a plant cell is put in a
hypotonic solution? (a) water moves into the cell and the cell bursts (b) water
leaves the cell and the cell becomes flabby (c) water moves into the cell and the
cell becomes turgid (d) the cell becomes plasmolysed

THEORY
1. State the similarities and differences between
(a) Osmosis and Diffusion
(b) Plasmolysis and haemolysis

WEEK SEVEN
SOME PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL
CONTENT
 Cellular respiration
 Mechanism of cellular respiration

CELLULAR (INTERNAL/TISSUE) RESPIRATION

The oxidation of glucose in the cell to release energy is known as cellular respiration
and it occurs in the mitochondria of all living cells. There are two types of cellular
respiration i.e. aerobic and anaerobic respiration

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
When cellular respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen is known as aerobic
respiration. The largest amount of ATP possible is generated through it from one
molecule of glucose with the release of carbon (iv) oxide and water as by product.
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
In some organisms such as bacteria, fungi and endoparasites, the cells gets energy
from breaking down glucose in the absence of oxygen this is known as anaerobic
respiration. In this type of respiration, lesser amount of ATP is produced. The pyruvic
acid produced is converted to alcohol in plants (alcoholic fermentation) while in animals,
lactic acid is produced which leads to muscle fatigue in athletes

In plants
C6 H12 O6 CH2COCOOH C 2H5OH + CO2 +
2ATP

In animals
C6 H12 O6 CH2COCOOH CH 2 CHOHCOOH + CO2 + 2ATP

EVALUATION

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1. What is internal respiration?
2. Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

MECHANISM OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Cellular respiration involve two main stages
a. Glycolysis: this occurs in the cytoplasm of the cells. First the glucose molecule is
phosphorylated by the addition of a phosphate group to the glucose to become
glucose-6-phosphate which is carried out by an enzyme known as hexose kinase.
There are ten steps in this pathway that leads to the breakdown of One molecule of
6 – carbon into two molecules of the 3 carbon pyruvic acid by the enzymes in the
cytoplasm. This process does not require oxygen. Glycolysis takes place in the
cytoplasm. At the end of the pathway, 2 ATP is used to produce 4 ATP (2 ATPs from
each pyruvate) so that a net energy of 2 ATP is generated in glycolysis, this is called
“substrate level phosphorylation”.

b. Kreb’s cycle (also known as citric acid cycle CAC or Tricarboxylic acid cycle TCA):
Here, each pyruvic acid is further oxidized completely to carbon dioxide and water in
the mitochondria. The pyruvic acid from the glycolysis is coverted to acetic acid
through the removal of one molecule of CO2. The acetic is carried into the kreb’s
cycle by co enzyme A. The combination of acetic acid and co enzyme A forms acetyl-
coA. Acetyl-coA combines with oxaloacetatic acid to form citric acid which is an
important started of the kreb’s cycle. Kreb’s cycle takes place in the matrix of the
mitochondrion. Most of the ATP is generated in the cycle. The oxidation process in
kreb’s cycle leads to the production of 36 ATPs (18 ATP from each pyruvate). The
process used in the production of ATP in kreb’s cycle is called Oxidative
phosphorylation. A total of 38 ATP is generated from the aerobic breakdown of
glucose. The kreb’s cycle is particularly important because it is key pathway that
connects protein, fats and carbohydrates.

EVALUATION
Differentiate between glycolysis and kreb’s cycle

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between micro and macro elements
2. State four importance of macro elements in plants
3. Differentiate between external and internal respiration

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4. Explain briefly ‘the Kreb’s cycle
5. What do you understand by (a) muscle fatigue (b) oxygen debt

READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology, chapter 6, page 92 – 93

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The organelle involved in tissue respiration is the A. endoplasmic reticulum B.
golgi body C. mitochondrion D. ribosome
2. In the absence of oxygen, the pyruvic acid produced during glycolysis is
converted to CO2 and A. water B. glycerol C. ethanol D. citric acid
3. Glycolysis takes place in A. lysosome B. Mitochondrion C. Nucleus D. ribosome
4. The starting substance in kreb’s cycle is A. Citric acid B. Acetic acid C. oxalic
acid D. Malic acid
5. A total of __ ATP is produced from one glucose during aerobic respiration A. 34
B. 36 C. 38 D.40

THEORY
1. In a tabular form, differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
2. State three importance of alcoholic fermentation

WEEK EIGHT AND NINE

MODE OF NUTRITION AND PLANT NUTRITION
CONTENT
 Autotrophic nutrition
 Heterotrophic nutrition
 Modes of Autotrophic Nutrition (Photosynthesis and Chemosynthesis)
 Photosynthesis
 Mechanisms of photosynthesis
 Importance of photosynthesis
 Experiments on photosynthesis
 Chemosynthesis
 Mineral Requirements of Plants

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
Plants are referred to as autotrophs, i.e. being able to manufacture their food (Organic
compound from inorganic materials such as water, carbon dioxide)
Autotrophs generally have two modes of nutrition which are chemosynthesis and
photosynthesis (holophytic).

HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
This is a type of nutrition in which organisms depend directly or indirectly on autotrophs
for food. All animals, fungi, protozoa and some bacteria belong to this group and they
are referred to as heterotrophs

HETEROTROPHIC MODES OF FEEDING

(a) Holozoic Nutrition
This is the mode of feeding in which food is ingested in the form of complex
organic substances which is digested and assimilated into the body. Holozoic
organisms are grouped into carnivores, herbivores, omnivores and scavengers.
(b) Parasitic Nutrition
This is the mode of feeding in which certain organisms (parasites) feed on other
organisms (host). Parasites can be endoparasites (tapeworm, liver fluke) or
ectoparasites (lice, ticks) depending on whether they live inside or outside the

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host. Plant parasites include dodder, mistletoe. Parasites have special structures
such as haustoria, sucker, hooks, and muscular lips e. t. c.
(c) Saprophytic Nutrition
This is feeding process in which certain organisms (saprophytes) feed on non
living organic matter i. e. plant and animal remains. Saprophytes secrete
digestive enzymes into the dead organic matter to digest the food (extracellular
digestion) and the soluble food substances are then absorbed into their body.
Examples include fungi i.e. mucor, mushroom, yeast and some bacteria
(d) Symbiotic Nutrition
This is a mode of feeding in which two organisms of different species called
symbionts live together and derive mutual benefits e.g. nutrients or food, shelter,
moisture e. t. c from each other. Examples are nitrogen-fixing bacteria called
Rhizobia, which live in root nodules of legumes, algae and fungi in a lichen.
(e) Carnivorous / Insectivorous Nutrition
This is a feeding process in which some plants that have special devices trap and
digest insects. These plants grow in poor soil and proteins obtained from the
insects are used to supplement their nitrogenous compound requirement. These
plants secrete enzymes which help in digesting their victim. Examples include
bladderwort (Ultricularia), Pitcher plant, sundew and venus fly trap

EVALUATION
1. List five types of heterotrophic nutrition giving two examples of organisms where
each occur
2. What are carnivores, omnivores and herbivores

MODES OF AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

Plants are referred to as autotrophs, i.e. being able to manufacture their food (Organic
compound from inorganic materials such as water, carbon dioxide)
Autotrophs generally have two modes of nutrition which are chemosynthesis and
photosynthesis

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
This is the process by which green plants synthesize organic compounds from inorganic
raw materials in the presence of chlorophyll and light.
light
6C02 + 6H20 C6H12O6 + 602
(Inorganic materials) Chlorophyll (organic compound) (by product)

The main product of photosynthesis is sugar (carbohydrate) while the oxygen given up
is a by-product which is released into the atmosphere.

FEATURES (CHARACTERISTICS) OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

These are as follows:
1. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast of cells in the presence of light.
2. The raw materials required are low energy containing inorganic compound i.e.
CO2 and H2O
3. The final product is a high energy containing compound (C 6H12O6 )n
Photosynthesis, therefore is an anabolic process (metabolic building up process)
4. The energy required is obtained from solar energy through the chlorophyll (the
green pigment present in the chloroplast of green plants.
5. The carbon dioxide and oxygen diffuse in and out (respectively) between the
surrounding air and leaf passing through the stomata opening on the leaf
surface. These gases are stored in insoluble form until the day is dark. Then, the
sugar is converted and transported to other parts of the plants where it is
needed. The movement of the sugar is called translocation.

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6. Leaf is the main photosynthetic organ of the plant although all green parts of a
plant are photosynthetic. The main site of photosynthesis in a leaf is the
pallisade mesophyll.

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EVALUATION
1. What is photosynthesis?
2. Outline four features of photosynthesis
3. Draw a labeled diagram of the internal structure of a leaf

MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis involves two stages
a. Light phase: it takes place during the day. It involves four stages
− Activation of chlorophyll: the chlorophyll trap light energy from the sun and
get energized
− Photolysis of water: splitting of water molecules by light energy
H2O H+ + OH--
OH −
H 2O
− Hydrogen transfer by NADP (NADP + H + NADPH2)
− Formation of ATP from ADP: this takes place to store energy for the dark
phase reaction
b. Dark phase: In the dark phase of photosynthesis (occurring in the stroma of
chloroplast in the presence of NADPH and ATP), neither light energy nor chlorophyll
is needed. This stage takes place in the dark or at night.
During this phase, hydrogen ion and carbon dioxide molecule combine chemically under
the control of enzymes to form the simple sugar.
4H+ + CO2 CH2O + H2O
Simple sugar forms the chemical structural basis for other carbohydrates, lipids and
proteins

IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYTHESIS
The enzyme-rich product of photosynthesis is used by plants and animals in the
following ways:
1. The source of energy for their metabolic activities
2. It is needed in food cycle being the only process that can trap sun energy.
3. All animals and other heterotrophic plants are directly or indirectly dependent on
green plants for food.
4. Photosynthesis assists in the purification of the environment by removing carbon
(iv) oxide from it while oxygen is released into it.
5. Basis for manufacturing other complex organic compounds such as lipids,
proteins

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between the two stages of photosynthesis
2. State two importance of photosynthesis.

EXPERIMENTS IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The occurrence of photosynthesis in plants can be shown by experiments. Experiment is
carried out to show the importance of carbondioxide, sunlight energy, chlorophyll. There
is the need to prove that oxygen is given off.

Testing a leaf for starch

The leaf to be tested is detached from the plant and put into boiling water for about 10-
15mins. This kills the protoplasm of the leaf and makes iodine to easily penetrate the
starch granules.
The boiled leaf is put into alcohol. This is to extract the chlorophyll from the leaf. The
leaf becomes white and brittle. It is then dipped into hot water to soften the tissues.
The bleached leaf is spread on a white tile a few drop of iodine is added to it. The colour
of the leaf is then tested against a light source.

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If the leaf appears blue-black in colour, it contains starch, if the colour is yellowish-
brown, it contains no starch

To show that light is necessary for photosynthesis.

Two potted plants are kept in darkness or 48-72 hours to make it starch-free or carry
out the above experiment in destarching leaves. One of the potted plants remains in
darkness while the other is exposed to sunlight for 4 hours. Leaves from the potted
plants exposed to light turns blue-black when tested with iodine while the leaves kept in
darkness remains brown. This shows that without light, photosynthesis cannot take
place

To show that oxygen is given off as a by-product of photosynthesis

In this experiment, gas is collected in the test tube placed over the green plant and
tested with a glowing splint. If it re-kindles the glowing splint, it shows that oxygen is
given off because it is the only colourless gas that re-kindles a glowing splint.

Experiment to show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis

The same experiment in destarching a leaf is carried out here

Experiment to show that carbon (IV) oxide is necessary for photosynthesis

In this experiment, the leaves are destarched. Two potted plants are placed in two bell
jars labeled A and B. Each of the potted plants is place on a Vaseline glass plate to
prevent air containing carbon (iv) oxide from leaking into the bell jar. A dish containing
lime water is placed in one of the jars to absorb carbon (iv) oxide. Both jars are left
exposed to sunlight for about 4 hours and tested for starch.

CONDITIONS (FACTORS) FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The two major conditions necessary for photosynthesis are
a. External factors which include light, water, carbon (iv) oxide and mineral salt.
b. Internal factors include chlorophyll and enzymes.
Temperature is partly external (from sunlight) and partly internal (from the
chemical reactions taking place in plant

EVALUATION
1. List four factors that affects photosynthesis
2. Describe an experiment to show that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis

CHEMOSYNTHESIS
This is the process by which non-green plants (e.g. Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter, iron
bacteria etc) synthesize organic compound from inorganic materials (carbon dioxide
and water). The energy used in this process is got from inorganic substances such as
ammonia and by hydrogen sulphite.
H2S + O2 S + H2O + chemical energy
chemical
H2O + CO2 CH2O
energy

EVALUATION
1. What is chemosynthesis
2. Give two examples of chemosynthetic plants

MINERAL REQUIREMENTS OF PLANTS

Mineral elements are required for normal growth and development of green plants. In
addition to Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, other mineral requirements are discussed
below. Unlike glucose and other carbohydrates made from carbondioxide and water by
green plants, mineral salts are obtained from the soil.
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Macronutrients
These are mineral nutrients that are required by plants in large quantities. They include
the following;
Macronutrients Importance Deficiency
Nitrogen(N) 1. Protein synthesis 1. Stunted growth and
2. Nucliec acid synthesis chlorosis
3. Proper root development 2. Poor flower and fruit
4. Component of chlorophyll and formation
enzymes
Phosphorus(P) 1. Formation of co-enzymes and 1. Poor root development
proteins 2. Stunted growth
2. Formation of DNA, RNA and ATP
3. Stem, root, fruit and seeds
formation
Sulphur(S) Formation of certain proteins in the 1. Stunted growth
protoplasm 2. Chlorosis
Potassium(K) 1. Protein synthesis 1. Premature death
2. Cell membrane formation 2. Leaf margin turns yellow
3. Activates respiration and and brown
photosynthesis
4. Crop maturation
Magnesium(Mg) 1. Formation of chlorophyll 1. Poor growth
2. Helps in cell division 2. Chlorosis
3. Activates many co-enzymes
Calcium(Ca) 1. Formation of cell wall 1. Death of terminal buds
2. Helps in storage of protein and 2. Roots develops poorly
carbohydrates in roots and tubers 3. Stunted growth
3. Gives rigidity to plants
Iron(Fe) 1. Formation of chlorophyll 1. Poor growth
2. Formation of protein 2. Yellowing of leaves
MICRO NUTRIENTS
These are mineral nutrients required by plants in small quantities. They include the
following;
Micro nutrients Importance Deficiency
Zinc(Zn) 1. Necessary for the synthesis of the 1. Poor growth
starting material of auxin
2. Activates some enzymes
3. Plays a role in the synthesis of
protein
Copper(Cu) Component of respiratory enzymes Poor growth

Manganese(Mn) Activates some enzymes involved in Death of shoot

cellular respiration
Boron(B) Translocation of sugar and calcium Poor growth of pollen tubes
Chlorine(Cl) Necessary for oxygen release during Affects growth
photosynthesis
Molybdenum(Mb) 1. Necessary for nitrogen fixation by Poor growth
nitrogen-fixing bacteria
2. Activates the enzyme that reduces
nitrate to nitrite

EVALUATION
1. What are macro nutrients
2. list three macro elements that are essential for protein synthesis

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GENERAL EVALUATION
1. What is autotrophic nutrition?
2. List the two modes of autotrophic nutrition. (b) Differentiate between the two
modes listed above.
3. State the characteristics of photosynthesis.
4. What is the significance of leaf in photosynthesis?
5. State the two stages involved in the process of photosynthesis.

READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology, chapter 6, page 85 – 90

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The main photosynthetic organ of plant is ----- (a) leaf (b) seed (c) fruit (d) root
2. Which of these is not a macro element needed for plant growth? A. potassium
B. magnesium C. sodium D. molybdenum
3. Yellowing of leaves is a symptoms associated with deficiency of A. iron,
calcium and magnesium B. nitrogen, sulphur and potassium C. sulphur,
phosphorus and iron D. iron, magnesium and nitrogen
4. Trace elements are required by plants mainly for the A. formation of pigments
and enzymes B. production of energy and hormones C. manufacture of
carbohydrates D. manufacture of protein
5. The dark phase of photosynthesis occurs in the ------- of chloroplast (a) cells (b)
tissues (c) fluid (d) stroma

THEORY
1. State five importance of photosynthesis
2. Differentiate between light and dark phase of photosynthesis

WEEK TEN
GROWTH
CONTENT
 Basis of growth
 Aspects of growth
 Regulation of growth by hormones

GROWTH
Growth is the irreversible increase in dry mass, size and complexity of an organism
brought about by the synthesis of new protoplasm.
For growth to be effective, building up of materials (anabolism) must exceed the rate of
breaking down (catabolism).
In plants, growth is indefinite and apical while it is definite and uniform in animals.

BASIS OF GROWTH
The basis of growth involves three major phases i.e. cell division (mitosis), cell
enlargement and cell differentiation.

Life begins as a single fertilized cell, continuous as the cell divides into two daughter
cells then into four and so on. After cell division, the daughter cells increase in mass and
size (enlargement). Eventually, each cell develops into a special type of cell
(specialization) by changing its shape and structure to carry out a particular function.
Most specialized cells, at maturity lose their ability to divide.

TYPES OF CELL DIVISION

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There are two types of cell division: (a) Mitosis (b) Meiosis

Mitosis
Mitosis is a cell division to produce two daughter cells with the same number of
chromosomes and characteristics as those of the parent cell. This cell division takes
place only in somatic cells (i.e. body cells that are not involved in the production of
gametes) such as skin, bone marrow and meristematic tissues in plants.
Mitotic cell division involve five main stages
a. Interphase: This is referred to as the resting stage where the chromosomes
becomes elongated and form a network of fine threads called chromatids
b. Prophase: in early prophase chromosomes become visible, nucleolus shrinks,
centrioles start moving away from each other in opposite direction and the
formation of spindle fibres begins. During the late prophase, chromosomes
become shorter, thicker and visible. Each chromosome now forms two distinct
chromatids joined by a centromere. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear
entirely.
c. Metaphase: paired chromatids arrange themselves along the equator of the
spindle and are attached to the spindle at the centromere.
d. Anaphase: sister chromatids separate and start migrating to the opposite poles
of the cell and eventually reach the poles.
e. Telophase: the cell starts dividing into two by constricting at the equator,
nucleolus and nuclear membrane are reform in each daughter cell, spindle fibres
degenerates and chromosomes eventually regain their threadlike form

Importance of mitosis
a. It brings about growth, development and specialization especially in multicellular
organisms.
b. Asexual reproduction binary and multiple fissions in protozoa, budding in yeasts
are result of mitosis.
c. It ensures the diploid condition of the cells is retained from generation to
generation
d. It aids the repair of damaged cells

Life processes involved in mitosis

a. Formation of new cells in Malpighian layer of the skin
b. Production of red and white blood cells in the bone marrow
c. Healing of wounds
d. Growth in meristem
e. Binary fission

EVALUATION
1. Define growth
2. What is mitosis, state three importance of mitosis

ASPECTS OF GROWTH
Growth varies from one organism to another. To measure growth, the following
parameters are used:
a. Man: the dry mass is more accurate and reliable than the wet mass
b. size and length e.g. height of man
c. increase in number of cells e.g. budding in yeast cell

REGIONS OF FASTEST GROWTH IN PLANTS

The regions of fastest growth in plants are the root and stem apices. Since growth in
plants is apical, the root and stem apices can be divided into
a. Region of cell division (called the apical meritstem) brings about primary growth
of a plant
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b. Region of elongation
c. Region of cell maturation/specialization

GROWTH CURVE
The growth rate of a living organism is measured using a growth a curve. The growth
pattern of man shows a sigmoid curve. The growth pattern consists of three phase:
1. Lag phase: This is the initial stage where slow growth is experienced. At this
stage, the cell is still accumulating the necessary material to begin the process.
2. Log or exponential phase: This is the phase of rapid of rapid growth.
3. Stationary phase: This is a stage where no observable growth is experienced.
The growth curve of insect is like a step. Each growth phase (instar) is interrupted by a
period of molting (ecdysis)

FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH

a. External factors it include availability of nutrients, humidity, light, temperature,
PH and accumulation of metabolic products.
b. Internal factors are mainly hormones. The two major growth hormones in plant
are auxin and gibberellins. In animals, the hormones concerned with growth are
secreted by the anterior pituitary gland, thyroid gland and the gonads. Over or
under secretion of any of these hormones leads to abnormal growth.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. How can growth be measured
2. List four external factors that can affect growth
3. Mention two growth hormones each in plants and animals
4. Discuss the stages involved in mitotic cell division
5. Outline four life processes involving mitosis
6. List four places where mitosis takes place in organisms

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Growth include the following processes except A. differentiation B. meiosis C.
mitosis D. elongation
2. When the zygote of an organism continues to grow, it produces new cells by
A. meiosis B. mitosis C. crossing-over D. gestation

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3. The aspect of growth in living organisms include all the following except A.
increase in dry weight B. irreversible increase in length C. reversible
increase in size D. increase in number of cells
4. The organelle involved in tissue respiration is the A. endoplasmic reticulum B.
golgi body C. mitochondrion D. ribosome
5. In the absence of oxygen, the pyruvic acid produced during glycolysis is
converted to CO2 and A. water B. glycerol C. ethanol D. citric acid

THEORY
1. In a tabular form, differentiate between growth in plants and animals
2. State three importance of alcoholic fermentation

READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology chapter 8, page 176 – 178, chapter 17, page 396 – 408

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