The Hong Kong University of

Science & Technology

Department of Civil Engineering

M.Sc.
M.Sc. Course: CIEM 600B

“Design and Construction of

Long-
Long-Span Bridges”
Bridges”
Lectured by

Eur.
Eur. Ing.
Ing. Dr. WONG, Kai-
Kai-Yuen
Bridges & Structures Division,
Highways Department, The Government of HKSAR
2006-2007 (1st Semester) 1
For the Academic Year of 2006-

Design & Construction of Long-

Long-Span Bridges
Course Outline

1. Structural Forms of Highway and Railway Bridges

2. Design Considerations and Design Loads
3. Static & Dynamic Behaviour of Stay Cables
4. Static & Dynamic Behaviour of Suspension Cables
5. Static & Dynamic Behaviour of Cable-
Cable-Stayed Bridges
6. Static & Dynamic Behaviour of Suspension Bridges
7. Wind Stability Considerations
8. Seismic Stability Considerations
9. Bridge-
Bridge-Deck Design Considerations
10. Cable and Pylon Design Considerations
11. Cable Anchorages and Connections
12. Fabrication and Erection of Steel Components

2
 Course Assessment

Homework: 40%
• A Design Project or A 2-Hour Close
Book Examination – 20 Short
Questions, which are compulsory.

Close Book Examination: 60%
• A 3-Hour Examination – A Selection of
5 Questions from 6 Questions, of
which 1 Question is compulsory.

LIST OF REFERENCES
1. E. Cromwell Mensch, “The Golden Gate Bridge – A technical Description in Ordinary
Language”, 1935.
2. J. L. Durkee, “Advancements in suspension bridge cable construction”, Proceedings
of International Symposium on Suspension Bridge, Lisbon, 1966.
3. Alfred Pugsley, “The Theory of Suspension Bridges”, Second Edition, Edward Arnold
(Publishers) Ltd., 1968.
4. M.S. Troitsky, “Cable-Stayed Bridges – Theory and Design”, Granada Publishing Ltd.
5. Max Irvine, “Cable Structures”, Dover Publications, New York, 1981.
6. George Wilkinson, “Bridging the Humber”, British Bridge Builders, 1981.
7. Blaie Birdsall, “The Design of Stays for Cable Stayed Bridges”, Proceedings of the
sessions at Structures Congress’87 related to Bridges and Transmission Line Structures,
at Orlando Floride, August 1987, American Society of Civil Engineers, pp. 152-163.
8. Carl C. Ulstrup, “Cable-Stayed Bridges”, Proceedings of a seesion sponsored by the
Structural Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers in conjunction with
the ASCE National Convention, Nashville, Tennessee, American Society of Civil
Engineers, May 1988.
9. Rene Walther, Bernard Houriet, Walmar Isler and Pierre Mosia, “Cable-Stayed Bridges”,
Thomas Telford Ltd., 1988.
10. Honshu-Shikoko Bridge Authority – Second Operation Bureau, “The Honshu-Skikoku
Bridges – Kojima-Sakaide Route”, September, 1988, Japan.
4
 LIST OF REFERENCES
(Continued)
11. Louis G. Silano, “Design of Long-Span Bridges”, Parsons Brinckerhoff, April 1990.
12. ASCE Committee on Cable-Stayed Bridge, “Guidelines for the Design of Cable-
Stayed Bridges”, American Society of Civil Engineers, 1992.
13. C. K. Lau and K. Y. Wong, “Tsing Ma Bridge – Stability Analysis of Tsing Yi Tunnel
Anchorage”, Proceedings of the International Civil Infrastructure Symposium, Hong
Kong, 9-12 December 1996, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology.
14. Neils J. Gimsing, “Cable Supported Bridges – Concept and Design”, Second Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, 1997.
15. Neils J. Gimsing, “East Bridge”, The Storebaelt Publication, 1998.
16. Highways Department, “Tsing Ma Bridge”, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region,
1998.
17. Highways Department, “Kap Shui Mun Bridge”, Hong Kong Special Administrative
Region, 1998.
18. Honshu-Shikoko Bridge Authority, “The Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge – Design and
Construction of the World’s Longest Bridge”, 2nd Edition, October 1998, Japan.
19. C. K. Lau and K. Y. Wong, “Design and construction of the Lantau Link bridges”,
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Civil Engineering Special Issue: “Hong
Kong International Airport, Part 2: transport links”, November 1998, pp. 3-15.
5

LIST OF REFERENCES
(Continued)

20. Honshu-Shikoko Bridge Authority, “The Tatara Bridge – Design and Construction
Technology of the World’s Longest Cable-Stayed Bridge”, May 1999, Japan.
21. Honshu-Shikoko Bridge Authority, “The Honshu-Shikoku Bridge”, May 1999, Japan.
22. Neils J. Gimsing, “History of cable-stayed bridge”, Proceedings of IABSE
Conference on Cable-Stayed Bridges – Past, Present and Future, Malmö, Sweden, 2-4
June 1999.
23. António Reis, Armando Pereira, José Pedro and Daniel Sousa, “Cable-Stayed Bridge
for Urban Spaces”, Proceedings of IABSE Conference on Cable-Stayed Bridges –
Past, Present and Future, Malmö, Sweden, 2-4 June 1999.
24. Holger S. Svensson, “The Development of Composite Cable-Stayed Bridge”,
Proceedings of IABSE Conference on Cable-Stayed Bridges – Past, Present and
Future, Malmö, Sweden, 2-4 June 1999.
25. Highways Department, “Ting Kau Bridge”, Hong Kong Special AdministrativeRegion,
2000.
26. Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority, “Honshu-Shikoku Bridges – Steps to the 21st
Century”, March 2001.

6
The Hong Kong University of Science & Technology
Department of Civil Engineering
M.Sc. Course: CIEM 600B
“Design and Construction of Long-Span Bridges”

Topic 1
Structural Forms of
Highway and Railway Bridges

1. Introduction to Bridges
2. Structural Forms of Bridge-
Bridge-Deck
Systems
3. Structural Forms of Highway and
Railway Bridges

Arch Bridges

Girder Bridges

Truss Bridges

Rigid Frame Bridges

Cable-
Cable-Supported Bridges
8
 1. Introduction to Bridges

Categorization of Bridge Structural System:

Superstructures
• Bridge-
Bridge-Deck System, Cable System

Substructures
• Towers, Piers, Anchorages, etc.

Foundations
• Footings, Pile-
Pile-Caps, Piles, Caissons, etc.

Super-structure
Bridge-Deck
Sub-structure

Bearings

Pier/Column
Ground Level
Foundation

Pile-Cap Footing

Piles

Basic Components of A Typical Bridge 10

 Pylon (or Tower)

Cable System

Stiffening Girder (or Stiffening Truss)

Anchor Block (or Anchor Pier)

Main Components of a cable-Supported Bridge

11

The word “pylon”

pylon” refers to the Egyptian temple
gates, which clearly consist of two vertical towers,
gates,
interconnected by a horizontal beam,
beam, leaving a
(small) gate beneath (a) of Next Slide.

A bridge pylon has 2 legs connected in the

transversal direction with a beam or struts and
ties to form a gate. Thus H-support and A-
A- support
should be referred as “pylon”
pylon” (b) of Next Slide.

Any single support is just referred to as towers or a

mast (c) of Next Slide.

12
 (b)

(a)
(c)

Illustration of Pylon and Tower/Mast 13

2. Structural Forms of
Bridge-
Bridge-Deck System
a. Solid Slab
b. Voided Slab
c. Coffered Slab
d. Continuous Voided with Reinforced Concrete
Infilling
e. Solid Beams with Reinforced Concrete
Infilling
f. Monolithic Slab and Beam Construction
g. Drop--in
Continuous Deck with Drop in--Section
h. Detail of Continuous Slab with Beam
Discontinuity 14
 Figure 1 Bridge-Deck
Structural Forms of Structural
Bridge- Systems:
Bridge-Deck Systems
(a) Solid Slab;
(b) Voided Slab;
(c) Coffered Slab;
(d) Continuous Voided with Reinforced Concrete Infilling;
(e) Solid Beams with Reinforced Concrete Infilling;
(f) Monolithic Slab and Beam Construction;
(g) Continuous Deck with Drop-in-Section;
(h) Detail of Continuous Slab with Beam Discontinuity 15

 For continuous span-

span-bridges, the end-
end-spans should be limited
to ≈85%
85% of the internal span length in order to approximately
equal equalize bending moments.

 Continuous deck normally has a higher factor of safety

against collapse than non-
non-continuous deck due to additional
redundancies with the possibility of redistribution of bending
moment from over-
over-stressed section to adjacent sections with
reserve capacity.

 Continued-
Continued-deck systems are normally sensitive to differential
support settlement and these effects must be properly
evaluated.

 Bridge-
Bridge-deck structural system can be designed either
integrated with the primary structural system or
independently as a separated system.

16
3. Structural Forms of Long-
Long-Span Bridges

 Classifications are according to their

structural arrangement and supporting
conditions

 Five Structural Forms:

 Arch Bridges
 Girder Bridges
 Truss Bridges
 Rigid Frame Bridges
 Cable-
Cable-Supported Bridges

17

Illustration of–Arch
Illustration 3.1-1 Principle
Arch Principle
L

P
kL (1-k)L

h H = Rise at 0.5 L
R R

P(1-k) Pk

The flexural moment of a simply supported beam at Point A is: MS = P (1-k) (kL)
The flexural moment of an arch at Point A is: MA = MS – R h
This illustrates the principle that in arch bridge, the flexural moment MS is reduced
by the flexural moment of horizontal thrust, i.e. R h.
18
 Different Types
of Arch Actions

19

(a) Fixed Arch

(b) Two-Hinged Arch

(c) Three-Hinged Arch

(d) Arch-Shaped
Trussed DeckArch
Arch

(e) Truss Arch

Trussed Thorough
Arch
Typical Forms of Arch Bridges 20
 Three-Hinged Arch
(Half-Through)

Two-Hinged Arch

Tied Arch

Fixed-Hinged Arch

21

Arch Bridges
 It is not suitable at locations having geometry
restrictions or lacking firm foundation.
 5 types of arch are: box arch, two-
two-way curved arch,
ribbed arch, trussed arch and rigid framed arch.
 Box arch is suitable for long-
long-span.
 Fixed arch should not be considered unless
foundation having required resistance to arch
reactions.
 Trussed arch with light dead weight performs
effectively on soft sub-
sub-soil foundations.
 Precast segmental construction with tied reactions
is suitable at sites not suitable for false-
false-work.
22
 Arch Bridges (Continued)

 Arch, if rigidly held to its original shape, is

primarily a compression member.
Rise--to
 Rise to--span ratio varies with topography – the
higher the rise, the less the dead load thrust and
temperature moment.
 Thickness at springing lines usually is slightly
more than twice that at the crown.
 Filled spandrels are used only for short spans.
 Open spandrels with roadways carried by columns
– used for medium and long deck spans

23

Arch Bridges (Continued)

 The appearance of arch bridges is graceful and attractive
especially over deep gorges, ravines or large water.
 Arch bridges are usually constructed by cantilever method
or by using false-
false-work.
 When traffic cannot be diverted, cantilever method should
be used in lieu of false-
false-work.
 In building arch bridges of short and medium spans,
precast ribs are used to serve as temporary falsework,
falsework, and
sometimes cantilever paving process is used.
 Large span arch bridges are segmented transversely as
well as longitudinally.
 The construction time for arch bridges is usually longer
than that for other types.
 When shorter time is desired, techniques of prefabricated
segments and post-
post-tensioning should be used.
24
Figure 3 Construction of Arch Bridges (Part 1)
Construction of Arch Bridges (Part 1) 25

Construction
Figure 3 of Arch
Construction Bridges
of Arch (Part 2)
Bridges (Part 2)
26
 包蘭線东
包蘭線东崗鎮黄
崗鎮黄河桥，蘭州市，
蘭州市，甘肅
Donggang Bridge, Lanzhou,
Lanzhou, Gansu Province, China (1956) – Main Span: 53m 27

太焦線丹河桥
太焦線丹河桥

Danhe Bridge, Tai-

Tai-Jiao Railway, China (1959) – Main Span: 88m 28
 丰沙線永定河七号桥
丰沙線永定河七号桥，
号桥，北京市永定河上游

Yongdinghe No. 7 Bridge, Feng-

Feng-Sha Railway, China (1966) – Main Span: 150m 29

高縣桥
高縣桥，汝阳公路，
公路，河省

Songxian Bridge, Songxian,

Songxian, Henan Province, China (1976) – Main Span: 50m 30
 巫山龙门桥
巫山龙门桥，
龙门桥，巫山縣，
巫山縣，四川省

Longmen Bridge, Wushan,

Wushan, Sichuan Province, China (1987) – Main Span: 122m 31

恩施渾水河桥
恩施渾水河桥，恩施市，
恩施市，湖北省

Hunshuihe Bridge, Enshi,

Enshi, Hubei Province, China (1987) – Main Span: 123.1m 32
 同心黑风沟桥
同心黑风沟桥，
风沟桥，同心縣，
同心縣，宁夏

Heifenggou Bridge, Tongxin,

Tongxin, Nigxia Province, China (1990) – Main Span: 85m 33

高明桥
高明桥，高明縣城南，
高明縣城南，廣东省

Gaoming Bridge, Gaoming,

Gaoming, Guangdong Province, China (1991) – Main Span: 100m 34
The General Drawing of the Ohmishima Bridge
35

The Ohmishima Bridge in Spring, Japan

(Completed 1979)
36
 Proposed Schematic Layout of Ning-
Ning-Tit Bridge in Nang Ling, China 37

Summary of Distinctive Features of

Arch-Type Bridges

The arch form is intended to reduce flexural moments (and

hence tensile stress) in the superstructure and should be
economical in material compared with an equivalent straight,
simply supported girder or trusts.

This efficiency is achieved by providing horizontal reactions

to the arch rib. If these are external reactions, they can be
supplied at reasonable cost only if the site is suitable. The
most suitable site for this form of structure is a valley, with
the arch foundations located on dry rock slopes.

The conventional curved arch rib may have fabrication and

erection costs, although these may be controlled to some
extent by the skill of the designer.

38
 Summary of Distinctive Features of
Arch-Type Bridges (Continued)

The erection problem varies with the type of structure, being

easiest for the cantilever arch and possibly most difficult for
the tied arch.
arch. The difficulty with the latter arises from the fact
that the horizontal reactions are not available until the deck
is completed.

The arch is predominantly a compression structure. For

example, the open spandrel arch with the rib below the deck
consists of deck, spandrel columns and arch rib. The last two
are compression members. The design must include accurate
estimates of buckling behaviour and should be detailed so as
to avoid excessive reductions in allowable stress. The classic
arch form tends to favour concrete as a construction material.

39

Summary of Distinctive Features of

Arch-Type Bridges (Continued)

The arch rib is usually shaped to take dead load without

flexural moments. This load is then called the form load. If the
form load is large,
large, the live load becomes essentially a small
disturbance applied to a compressed member. Under these
conditions, the normal first-
first-order elastic theory is inadequate
and errors on the unsafe side. Some form of deflection theory
must used for analysis. The effects of initial imperfections in
the arch shape may become significant.

The conventional arch has two moment-
moment-resistant
components – the deck and the arch rib. Undesirable and
unanticipated distributions of moment may occur, particularly
in regions where the spandrel columns are short, normally
near the crown of the arch,
arch, which may be avoided by careful
detailing; for example, by using pin-
pin-ended columns.
columns.

40
 Summary of Distinctive Features of
Arch-Type Bridges (Continued)

The structure of most arches encroaches on the space

bounded by the abutments and the deck. This encroachment
may restrict clearance for passage beneath the arch and may
involve the risk of collision with the arch rib.

Aesthetically, the arch can be the most successful of all

bridge types. It appears that through experience or familiarity,
the average person regards the arch form as understandable
and expressive.
expressive.

The curved shape is almost always pleasing. This aesthetic

advantage is reduced for cases where the arch rises through
the deck. However, even in these cases, the arch may be
made particularly attractive.

41

Longest Arch Bridges as at 2006

Bridge Name Main Span Year of Location Other Details

Length Completion
Lupu Bridge 550 m 2003 Shanghai, China Six Lanes; Steel Box
New River Gorge 518 m 1977 USA Four Lanes; Truss
Bayonne 510 m 1931 USA Four Lanes; Two Side-walks;
Truss
Sydney Harbour 509 m 1932 Sydney, Australia 48.8 m Wide; Truss
Fremont 483 m 1971 Oregon, USA Tied Arch; Four Lanes;
Orthotropic Deck; Welded
Box Girders
Zdakov 380 m 1967 Orlik, Czechoslovakia Two-hinged Arch
Port Mann 366 m 1964 British Columbia, Tied Arch Similar to Fremont
Canada Bridge
Runcorn 330 m 1961 Mersey, England -
Birchenough 329 m 1935 Sabi, Rhodesia Alloy Steel
Glen Canyon 313 m 1959 Glen Canyon, Arizona, Deck is 213 m above Water
USA Level
Lewiston- 305 m 1962 Niagara River, USA -
Queenston
Hellgate 298 m 1916 New York City, USA Rail Bridge

42
 Girder Bridges

Girder bridges are by far the most widely used form
of bridge construction.

They are applicable to small span bridges as well
as large spans of around 150m in precast
prestressed concrete and spans of around 200m in
steel box girders.

Box girders in majority of case are the most
efficient and economical design for a bridge.

43

Girder Bridges (Continued)

Reinforced Concrete Bridge-
Bridge-Decks (RCBD)

The most popular types of RCBD for short spans

that have been built are:

(1) solid slab normally having a span range of 5-

5-
14m for highway and 4-
4-8m for railway;
(2) voided slab deck normally having a span range
of 12-
12-20m for highway and 6-
6-12m for railway;
(3) slab and girder (T-
(T-beam) normally having a
span range of 9-
9-24m for highway and 6-6-24m for
railway;
(4) box girder normally having a span range of 24-
24-
60m for highway and 15-
15-30m for railway.
44
 (a) Solid Slab Deck

(b) Voided Slab Deck

(c) T-Beam Deck

(d) Inverted T-Beam Deck

(e) Variation of (c) and (d) Hollow Cell Deck

Figure 4
Typical Cross Section of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Decks
Typical Cross Sections of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Decks
45

Girder Bridges (Continued)

Reinforced Concrete Bridge-
Bridge-Decks (RCBD)

The span-
span-to-
to-depth ratios are:
Highway: 15± for simple supports & 20-
Highway: 15± 20- 24 for continuous supports;
supports;
Railway: 12± for simple supports & 16±
12± 16± for continuous supports.
supports.

For reinforced concrete box girders,

girders, minimum bottom flange
thickness should be limited to 1/16 of clear span between girder
140mm. The bottom slab reinforcement
webs or to a minimum of 140mm.
required as a minimum is 4% of flange area in longitudinal direction.
over
The transverse bottom slab reinforcement is to be distributed ov er
both faces of slab and hooked into exterior girder webs. Diaphragms
Diaphragms
transverse
should be provided at main supports for load transfer of transve rse
wind loads to substructures.

For curved structures,

structures, torsion should be considered and exterior
girder shears should be increased to account for torsion. Main
negative moment reinforcement should be placed against the
underside of top transverse reinforcement in top slab. Positive
moment reinforcement should be placed between two layers of
transverse reinforcement. Reinforcement should be spaced equally
across the flanges. 46
 Girder Bridges (Continued)
Reinforced Concrete Bridge-
Bridge-Decks (RCBD)
Table 1
Appearance, Construction, Construction Time and Maintenance of RCBD
RCBD

Item Slab Bridges T-Beam Bridges Box Girder Bridges

Appearance • Neat and simple. • Elevation is neat and simple • Neat and clean lines from all
• Desirable for low • Bottom is cluttered. views.
short spans. • Horizontal widening of • Utilities, pipes and conduits
stems at piers is detracting can be concealed.

Construction • Simple type for • Requires good finish on all • Rough form finish is
details and surfaces. satisfactory on inside surfaces.
formwork. • Formwork may be complex. • Formwork may involve some
difficulties for inexperienced
contractors.

Construction • Shortest of any • Usually somewhat longer • More than required for slab or
Time cast –in-
in-place than required for slab T-beam bridges due to staging
construction. bridges due to forming. of concrete placement, but not
excessively long.

Maintenance • Very little • Low, except that bearing • Low, except that bearing and
except at and transverse deck joint transverse deck joint details
transverse details may require may give some trouble.
deck joints. attention.

47

Girder Bridges (Continued)

Prestressed Concrete Bridge-
Bridge-Decks (PCBD)

The most popular types of PCBD for medium and long spans

• Solid or Voided Slab Deck – Span up to 25m for HW & 12m for RW

• Prescast Girder + In-

In-situ Deck Slab – Span up to 50m for HW and
33m for RW

• Girder + Cellular Cross-

Cross-Section – Span up to 150m for RW

Span-
Span-to-
to-Depth Ratios:

• Highway: 18-
18-22 for Simple Supports & 22-
22- 33 for Continuous
Continuous
Supports

• Railway: 14± for Simple Supports & 18±

18± for Continuous Supports

48
Figure 5
TypicalTypical Cross Sections of Pre-stressed Concrete Bridge Decks
Cross-Section of Prestressed Concrete Bridge-Decks
49

Girder Bridges (Continued)

Prestressed Concrete Bridge-
Bridge-Decks (PCBD)
Table 2
Appearance (A), Construction (C), Construction Time (CT) and Maintenance
Maintenance (M) of PCBD
Item Cast-
Cast-in-
in-Place Post-
Post- Precast Pre-
Pre-tensioned Cast-
Cast-In-
In-Place (CIP) Post
Post-- Precast T-Beam, I-
I-Girder and Box Girder
tensioned Slab Slab Bridges tensioned Girder Bridges Bridges
Bridges
A • Neat and simple. • Neat and simple. • T-beams appear cluttered • I-beam is similar to T-
T-beam except for
• Desirable for low • Desirable for low while box girder is neat and bulbous bottom of standard PCBD sections.
short span. short span. clean, making it more • Spread box-
box-beam is similar to T-
T-beam and
environmentally attractive. butted box girder is similar to CIP box girder.
• Elevation of both types is
neat and simple.
C • More complex • Details and formwork • More complex than RCBD • Fabrication is more complicated than RCBD.
than RCBD very simple. girders • Longer span girders are more difficult to
• Sequence of pre-
pre- • Plant fabrication • Traffic below bridge may be handle after fabrication in plant & at job site.
stressing and methods are suitable. restricted by false-
false-work • Preferring standard girders.
routing should be • Field erection may be unless cantilever • Expensive special sections.
supervised fast construction is used. • Standard forms are stocked by fabricators
by specialists • No false-
false-work required and used as simple spans, but preferably as
• Units are placed by continuous spans for live load.
cranes and have no • Precast girders with deck slab CIP can also
prolonged impediment be used.
to traffic. • No false-
false-work is required except for long-
long-
spans and post-
post-tensioned precast segments.
• Long-
Long-span decks with precast segments
stressed by cantilever method, false-
false-work
may not be needed.
CT • Same as RCBD • Time for erection of • Slightly longer than for • Erection time for precast elements at site is
Slab. Precast elements at RCBD T-
T-beam or box girder minimal, but formwork may be required for
site is minimal. bridges. slabs between girders.
M • Very little except • Very little except at • Very low except that bearing • Low except that bearing and transverse deck
at transverse transverse deck joints. and transverse deck joint joint details usually require attention.
deck joints. details may require attention.
• Addition of proper
transverse and longitudinal
post-
post-tensioning greatly
reduces number of cracks.
50
 Girder Bridges (Continued)
Structural Steel Bridge-
Bridge-Decks

Plate Girders
Plate girders which usually form act composite action with
reinforced concrete deck slabs provide economic bridges in the
range of 22-
22- 100 m.
m.
Universal beams,
beams, in lieu of plate girders, are often more convenient
to use for spans up to 28 m.
m.
Some typical cross sections are shown in following slides.
The composite action is provided by shear connectors, which force
force
the slab to act as an integral part of the beam.
In case of multi-
multi-span bridges, plate girders are designed as
continuous beams.
For long spans, plate girders are fabricated in sections and
assembled on site.
Site splices can be either bolted with high strength friction grip
grip
(HSFG) bolts or welded.
For most plate girders, lateral bracings are needed for erection
stability and during deck concreting. 51

Girder Bridges (Continued)

Structural Steel Bridge-
Bridge-Decks

Steel Box Girders

• Steel box girders usually applied for span-

span-length up to 200m
due to inherent torsional rigidity of boxes.

• Yard fabrication under controlled conditions to minimize lock-

lock-
in stresses and weld distortions.

• Segments are normally erected either by crane or by

winching off the already completed deck.

• Temporary bolting normally used for locating girders in

accurate position.

• In assembly, either welded or bolted using HSFG bolts, or a

combination of two are used.
52
Plate Girder Bridge 53

Box Girder Bridge 54

Box Girder Bridge with Composite Concrete Deck
(Nonmenclature) 55

Types of Cross-Section 56
Intermediate Transverse Elements
Between Boxes 57

Bridge Across Danube, Vienna 58

 Milford Haven Bridge
59

Typical Cross-Section of Melboume Bridge

60
 Detail of Koblenz Bridge 61

The structure is designed in accordance with AASHTO Standard Specifications

for Highway Bridges. Design live load is H-20 and the dead load includes a
Future wearing surface of 30 psf.

Typical Cross Section – Main Span Unit of Fatuxent River Bridge

62
Figure 6
Typical Cross-section of Structural Steel Bridge Decks – Plate Girders
Typical Cross Section of Structural Steel Bridge Decks – Plate Girders
 Typical Bridge Section

Both crossings consist of twin structures with five box girders in each structure.
The two-coated field applied finish, applied to the exterior of the ASTM A588
material, is expected to provide a low maintenance structure.

Elevation of Main Spans

Cross Section
Rio-Niterol Bridge, Orthotropic Deck Box Girder
63
Figure 7
Typical Cross-section of Structural Steel Bridge Decks – Box Girders
Typical Cross Section of Structural Steel Bridge Decks – Box Girders

Girder Bridges (Continued)

Structural Steel Bridge-
Bridge-Decks
Table 3
Appearance, Construction, Construction Time and Maintenance
of Structural Steel Bridge-
Bridge-Decks

Item Plate Girder Bridges Box Girder Bridges

Appearance • Elevation is neat & simple, but • Neat and simple in all views.
bottom view is a bit cluttered. • Desirable for long spans.
• Desirable for medium to long
spans.
Construction • More skilful techniques required • Even more complicated than
than concrete bridges as plate girders.
extensive welding works involved.
Construction • Shorter than concrete bridges. • Erection time may be minimal.
Time
Maintenance • High maintenance efforts, • High maintenance effort, but
particular to corrosion protection. comparatively less than that of
plate girders.

64
 Truss Bridges
 for reducing dead weight and simplifying in casting very deep web
web
sections

 for spans longer than usual with girders in the range of 35-
35-80m
 depth-
depth-span ratio of 1/10 or more used for a deck truss

 use of inclined chords and particularly at end panels

 for about equal quantity, truss due to its greater depth has less
deflection than girder.

 for concrete truss, Vierendeel trusses are preferred to triangular

trusses for avoidance of rebars congestion at joints.

 Vierendeel trusses have parallel or inclined upper chords.

 for smaller bending stresses, inclined end posts or preferred over

upright end posts.
 panel length > truss height is generally more economical than square
square
or upright arrangements.
65

Truss Bridges (Continued)

 Appearance: probably the least attractive of any bridge type

 Complicated Forming – slowing construction and normally requiring

extensive false-
false-work

 Construction Time – usually quite long

 Maintenance effort – above average of all other bridges due to

complexity of trusses

66
Illustration 1 Illustration 2

Illustration 3 Illustration 4

67

Illustration 5

68
 Three dimensional view of bridge truss
(subdivided Warren Truss)

Warren Truss Pratt Truss

Subdivided K-Truss
Warren Truss

Some Some
Figure 8 Typical FormsForms
Typical of Bridge Trusses
of Bridge Trusses
69

南京長江大桥
南京長江大桥

Nanjing Bridge over Yangtze River, Nanjing,

Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China (1968) – Main Span: 160m 70
 九江長江大桥
九江長江大桥

Jiujiang Bridge over Yangtze River, Jiujiang,

Jiujiang, Jiangxi Province, China (1992) – Main Span: 216m
71

Summary of Distinctive Features of

Truss Bridges

A bridge truss has two major structural advantages: (i) the primary
member forces are axial loads; (2) the open web system permits tthe he
girder.
use of a greater overall depth than an equivalent solid web gird er.
Both these factors lead to economy in material and a reduced deadead d
weight. The increased depth also leads to reduced deflections, that
that
is, a more rigid structure. These advantages are achieved at the
costs..
expense of the increased fabrication and maintenance costs

The conventional truss bridge is most likely to be economical for

medium spans. Traditionally, it has been used for spans intermediate
between the plate girder and the stiffened suspension bridge.
Modern construction techniques and materials have tended to
increase the economical span of both steel and concrete girders.

The cable-
cable-stayed girder bridge has become a competitor to the steel
truss for the intermediate spans. These factors, all of which are
are
related to the high fabrication cost of a truss, have tended to reduce
the number of truss spans built in recent years. Nevertheless,
economical solutions have been achieved for highway bridge span spans
s
in the range 150-
150-500m. 72
 Summary of Distinctive Features of
Truss Bridges (Continued)

The largest highway bridge truss span presently in the service isis the
480m main span of the Greater New Orleans 1 (completed in 1958)
below
and 2 (completed in 1985) cantilever bridge. This value is far b elow
the 550m main span Quebec Bridge (completed in 1917) and the
520m main span Firth of Forth Bridge completed in 1890), both
railway bridges. The economical threshold for the railway truss
significantly
bridge may be as low as 75m due to the loads that are significan tly
heavier than highway loads.

The truss has become almost the standard stiffening structure for
for
the conventional suspension bridge, largely because of its
acceptable aerodynamic behaviour.
behaviour.

The relative light weight of a truss bridge is an erection advantage.

advantage.
It may be assembled member by member using lifting equipment of
small capacity. Alternatively, the number of field connections may
may be
reduced by fabrication and erecting the truss bay by bay,
bay, rather than
one member at a time.
73

Summary of Distinctive Features of

Truss Bridges (Continued)

As in all bridge structures, it is important to achieve a compatible
structure. This relationship
relationship between the deck and the main structure.
is best achieved by causing the deck to act with the truss chords
chords in
taking axial loads. Alternatively, the deck may be isolated from the
chords by a system of deck expansion joints.

Compared with alternative solutions, the encroachment of a truss on the

opening below is large if the deck is at the upper chord level, but is small
if the traffic runs through the bridge, with the deck at the lower
lower chord
level. For railway overpasses carrying a railway above a road or another
railway, the small construction depth of a through truss bridge is a majo
majorr
advantage. In some structures, it is desirable to combine both
advantage.
arrangements to provide a through truss over the main span with a small
construction depth, and approaches with the deck at upper chord level.
level.

A truss bridge rarely looks aesthetically pleasing. This poor appearance

is due partly to the complexity of the elevation, but also results
results from the
awkward member intersections that appear in any oblique view. In a
larger-
larger-span bridge, these factors may become unimportant because of
the visual impact of the large scale. In bridges of moderate span, it
seems best to provide a simple and regular structure. For this reason,
the Warren truss usually looks better than other forms. 74
 Long-Span Truss Bridges as at 2006
No. Bridge Name Main-Span Country Year
Length
1 Quebec Bridge 549 m Canada 1917

2 Firth of Forth Bridge 521 m UK 1890

3 Minato Bridge 510 m Japan 1975

4 Commandore Barry Bridge 501 m USA 1975

5 Greater New Orleans 1 Bridge 480 m USA 1958

6 Greater New Orleans 2 Bridge 480 m USA 1988

7 Howrah Bridge 457 m India 1943

8 Transbay Bridge 427 m USA 1936

9 Baton Bridge 376 m USA 1968

10 Francis Scott Key Bridge 366 m USA 1977

75
 General Drawing of the Yoshima Bridge
77

Max. Truss Span Length = 245 m

The Yoshima Bridge seen from Iwakurojima Island 78

 Rigid Frame Bridges

A rigid frame is a structure consisting of a continuous
longitudinal member rigidly connected with supporting
members.
vertical or inclined members.

A rigid connection is a connection designed to resist
and transfer bending moments, shears and axial forces
without relative displacement at connection for various
members.

Integrated rigid negative-
negative-moment knees normally
greatly reduce positive span and overturning moments
at foundation level.
level.

Single rigid portal frames will adapt to narrow water
channels, railways, subways and divided or undivided
highway underneath.

Double-
Double-span rigid frames are suitable for divided multi-
multi-
lane highway underneath, with sufficient mall or median
width. 79

Rigid Frame Bridges

(Continued)

Triple-
Triple-span rigid frames can accommodate multi-
multi-lane
divided highway with wider center mall or median.

The horizontal member has similar construction types
as that described in girder bridges.

Members with variable moment of inertia will have
advantageous and easily incorporating.

Preliminary proportioning is usually starting with a
thickness at the knee approximately equal to twice that
at the crown.

Appearance – Graceful, clean and well adaptable to
stone facing. Usually requiring curves formwork for
variable depth sections.
80
 (a) Single Span Rigid Frame

(b) Multi-Span Rigid Frame

(c) Long Span Rigid Frame with Inclined Legs

(d) Short Span Rigid Frame with Inclined Legs

(e) Rigid Frame with Multi-inclined Legs

FigureSome Typical
9 Some Forms
Typical of Rigid
Forms Frame
of Rigid Bridge
Frame Bridges
81

Illustration 1 Illustration 2

Illustrations of Rigid Frame Bridges

82
FigureTypical Construction
10 Typical MethodMethod
Construction of Rigidof
Frame Bridges
Rigid Frame Bridge 83

Erection of the Pont de Martique 84

 邯長線濁漳河桥
邯長線濁漳河桥，濁漳河，
濁漳河，山西省

Zhuozhanghe Bridge, Gan-

Gan-Chang Railway, China (1981) – Main Span: 90m 85

德興小港桥
德興小港桥，德興礦區，
德興礦區，江西省

Xiaogang Bridge, Dexing,

Dexing, Jiangxi Province, China (1990) – Main Span: 62m 86
 Cable-Stayed Bridges

Cable-
Cable-stayed bridges are normally characterized by
straight and inclined cables with supporting stiffening
deck system at one or several locations.

The main span usually varies from 100-
100-500m for
concrete deck and 150-
150-1200m
1200m for steel deck, but it
would be nor-
nor-economical for 150m.

Short-
Short-span cable stayed bridges are analyzed by linear
elastic theory; while medium-
medium- and long-
long-span cable-
cable-
stayed bridges are analyzed by non-
non-linear elastic theory
because: (i) cable stiffness – dependent upon its
tension and its length, which in turn affects the sag of
cable; and (ii) displacement – too large to be ignored in
analysis.

The suspended deck normally has minimal vertical and
torsional oscillations.
87

Cable-Stayed Bridges
(Continued)

Towers support the stay cables in three ways:
• Twin vertical or inclined legs with one or more cross
struts providing lateral stability for two planes of
stay cables.
• Twin inclined legs meeting at a common apex – for
single plan
plane cable system or when a double cable
system splaying horizontally from tower.
• A single vertical tower – for single plane cable
system and multi-
multi-plane cable system with lateral
bracing stay cables or with self-
self-bracing capability.

Towers with fixed bases – more common as temporary
fixing systems not required during erection.

Fixed tower base will have substantial longitudinal
bending moments in tower legs to longitudinal
movement of tower-
tower-top. 88
 Cable-Stayed Bridges
(Continued)

Two types of individual cables (normally made of Ф7mm steel
wires):
wires):
• parallel wire construction – a series of parallel wires
making up circular shaped cable cross-
cross-section.
• parallel strand closed construction – a series of helically
wound strands, either singly or more commonly in
parallel, making up circular shape cable cross section.

Design of stay cable system – consider not only stresses due
to dead, live and temperature loads, but also flexural
stresses in cable which could initiate fatigue failure.

Appearance: Graceful, delicate and well adapted to both
urban and rural environment.

At difficult crossings – cable-
cable-stayed bridges are simpler to
construct than other common types of bridges and well
adapted to long spans.

Deck – Constructed by cantilever method.
method.

Maintenance – above average. 89

Radical Cable System

Harp Cable System

Fan Cable System

Illustration 3.4.1-1
Arrangement of Cable Systems in
Cable Arrangement in Cable-Stayed Bridges
Cable-Stayed Bridges 90
 Types of Cable-Stayed Bridges 91

Support Conditions for Cable-Stayed Bridges 92

 3 Major Types of Limit Designs for
Cable-
Cable-Stayed Bridges

Very Stiff Deck Design

Limit design in Case A contains a very stiff deck. It
was adopted at the start of the modern development
bridge. Generally, a reduced number
of cable stayed bridge.
of stays acts as elastic intermediate supports in
areas where it is not possible to provide piers. The
pylons are slender since they are only subjected to
relatively small bending moments.

93

3 Major Types of Limit Designs for

Cable-
Cable-Stayed Bridges
(Continued)

Very Stiff Pylon Design

Limit design in Case B is characterized by very stiff
pylons which must take up the longitudinal moments
due to live loads. The deck, in contrast, is only
subjected to moderate moments, particularly if the
cables are not spaced too far apart. The result is a
slender section, and its minimum dimensions are
governed by transverse bending and direct forces.
This solution is most suitable for multi-
multi-span bridges.
94
 3 Major Types of Limit Designs for
Cable-
Cable-Stayed Bridges
(Continued)
Stays as determining Elements
Limit design in Case C introduces the stays
themselves as the determining stabilizing element of
the structure. In order that the back-
back-stay cables
(which play a major role in this case) shall not
completely be slacken off under live loads, the
lengths of the side spans must be less < ½ the
central span. The resulting imbalance introduces,
under the permanent loads, major tensile forces in
these cables. The use of counterweights or tension
piers is thus essential. This design leads to relatively
slender pylons and deck.
95

Limit Design Case A contains a very stiff deck

Limit Design Case B contains a very stiff deck

Limit Design Case C introduces the stays themselves

as the determining stabilizing element of the structure

Fundamental Load-
Load-Bearing Elements 96
 Longitudinal Layout of Stays Transverse Layout of Stays

Harp System

One central plane (single plane)

Fan System

Two lateral planes (double-plane)

Semi-Harp System

Three plane (triple-planes)

Asymmetric

Types of Cable-Stayed Bridges 97

Alternative Cable Planes

98
Lock Coil Cable
Parallel Wire Strands (PWS)

99

Typical Plate Girder Construction 100

101

102
 103

(A)

(B)

Rib Types of Bridge-

Bridge-Deck Structural System:
(A) Torsionally Weak or Open Type;
Type; and
(B) Torsionally Stiff or Box Type 104
 Pylon Configurations

Cables in Central Cable Planes

Cables in Parallel Planes

Typical Pylon Cross-Section

Cables in Twin Inclined Planes

105

Tower Types
1 Portal Tower 4 A-Frame Tower
2 Twin Tower 5 Single Tower
3 Twin Tower 6 Side Tower
106
Ladder-Beam Model for Twin cable
Planes & Plate Girders

Influence of Gravity on Cable Stiffness

Spine-Beam Model for Inclined Cable Planes & A Box Girder

Analytical Models for Cable-Stayed Bridges 107

Stability of Pylons 108

 Typical Cable Anchorage

System for Anchoring A central Cable to A Box Girder 109

Anchorage System for Cables at Pylon in a

Modified Fan Bridge 110
 Two-Side Cantilever Deck Erection

One-Side Cantilever Deck Erection

Methods of Deck Erection 111

Ma Wan Pylon
Kap Shui Mun Bridge

Lantau Pylon

Two Twin-Leg Pylons, Each of 2 Cable-Planes, with Hybrid

Truss-Deck at Main Span & Concrete Box-Girders at Side-Spans 112
Ting Kau Bridge Tsing Yi Tower
Centrol Tower

Ting Kau Tower

Three Single-Leg Towers, Each of 4 Cable-Planes,

with Composite Deck at Main and Side Spans 113

The Cable Stay Bridge in

Hong Kong Side of Hong
Kong – Shenzhen Western Hong Kong
Corridor

Shenzhen

Single-Leg Tower with one Cable-Plane,

with A Steel Orthrotropic Box Girder

114
Stonecutters Bridge

Two Single-Leg Towers, Each of Two Cable-Planes,

with Streamlined and Separated Twin-Box Girders 115

Summary of Distinctive Features of

Cable-Stayed Bridges

The use of high strength cables in tension leads to
economy in material, weight and cost.

As compared with the suspension bridge, the cables are
straight rather than curved. As a result, the stiffness is
greater. The non-
non-linearity of the stiffened suspension
bridge results from changes in the cable curvature and
the corresponding change in flexural moment taken by
the dead load cable tension. This phenomenon cannot
occur in an arrangement with straight cables.

The cables are anchored to the deck and cause
compressive forces in the deck. For economical design,
the deck system must participate in carrying these
forces. In a concrete structure, this axial force
compresses the deck.
116
 Summary of Distinctive Features of
Cable-Stayed Bridges (Continued)

All individual cables are shorter than the full length of the
superstructure. They are normally constructed of individual
pre--stretched
wire ropes, supplied complete with end fittings, pre
and not spun. This cable erection problem differs greatly
from that in the conventional suspension bridge.

Compared with the stiffened suspension bridge, the cable-
cable-
braced girder bridge tends to be less efficient in supporting
dead load, but more efficient under live load. As a result, it is
not likely to be economical on the longest spans. It is
commonly claimed to be economical over the range 300m-300m-
800m.

The cables may be arranged in a single plane, at the
longitudinal center-
center-line of the deck. This arrangement
capitalizes on the torsion capacity inherent in a tubular
girder system, and halves the number of shafts in the towers.
It also simplifies the appearance of the structure, and avoids
cable intersections when the bridge is viewed obliquely. 117

Summary of Distinctive Features of

Cable-Stayed Bridges (Continued)

It is also desirable to provide jacking details capable of
modifying the cable forces. These can be arranged at
the cable anchorage or at the tower tops. They are
necessary to adjust for relaxation in the cables,
cables, errors
in the cable lengths, or variations in their elastic
modulus. They may also be used to modify the stress
distribution due to dead load – for example, by pre-
pre-
stressing the main span upwards.

The presence of the cables facilitates the erection of
a cable-
cable-stayed girder bridge. Temporary back-
back-stays of
this type have been common in the cantilever erection
of girder-
girder-bridges. Adjustment of the cables provides an
effective control during erection.

118
 Summary of Distinctive Features of
Cable-Stayed Bridges (Continued)

Aerodynamic instability has not been found to be a

problem in structures erected to date.

The natural frequency of vibration differs from that of
more conventional alternatives, such as the unbraced
girder or the suspension bridge. In the case of harp
arrangement, the cables tends to balance a load on
one side of the tower against a load on the other,
causing a reduction in the dead-
dead-load moment in the
deck and a possible reduction in the deck stiffness.
However, the bridge may vibrate in a mode in which
points at opposite ends of a cable have vertical
movements in opposite senses. The contribution of the
cables to the deck stiffness may be small, and this may
lead to undesirable natural frequencies. The fan
arrangement should be better in this regard.
119

The Longest Cable-

Cable-Stayed Bridges in History
Bridge Name Main Span Year of Country Material at
Length Completion Main Span
Strömsund Bridge 183 m 1955 Sweden Steel
Theodor Hews Bridge 260 m 1957 Germany Steel
Severins Bridge 302 m 1961 Germany Steel
Knie Bridge 319 m 1969 Germany Steel
Duisburg-Neuenkamp Bridge 350 m 1970 Germany Steel
St. Nazaire Bridge 404 m 1975 France Steel
Barrios de Luna Bridge 440 m 1983 Spain Concrete
Alex Fraser Bridge 465 m 1986 Canada Composite
Iguchi Bridge 490 m 1991 Japan Steel
Kvarnsund Bridge 530 m 1992 Norway Concrete
Yangpu Bridge 602 m 1993 China Composite
Normandy Bridge 856 m 1995 France Steel
Tatara Bridge 890 m 1999 Japan Steel
Stonecutters Bridge 1018 m By 2009 China (HK) Steel
Sutong Bridge 1088 m By 2008 China Steel
120
 Concrete box girder deck 366m main span

Sunshine Skyway Bridge, Florida, Completion: 1987121

Inverted-Y Shape Pylon, Single plane of stays multi, closely spaced-stays, and Semi-Fan Stays

Wandre Bridge, Belgium 122

 Inclined Single-Leg Tower, Stays on ‘one side’ of pylon only and Harp Stays

Alamillo Bridge, Spain 123

Courtesy of Freyssinet

Second Severn Bridge

(Completion: 1996; Main Span: 456m and Composite Deck) 124
Oresund Bridge – Twin Pylon, Multi-
Multi-Stays with Twin Planes of
Stays and Harp Stay Arrangement 125

Normandie Bridge,
France, Completion:
1995

856m main span, concrete box side

spans and outer portion of main
span, steel box girder center part of
main span

Courtesy of VSL Systems UK Ltd

126
 The Tatara Bridge 127

Courtesy of Honshu Shikuku Bridge Authority

890m main span, 2.7m deep steel box deck; Towers 180m above deck (20% of span); Tie down of end piers

Tatara Bridge, Japan, Completion: 1999 128

The Hitsui-
Hitsui-jima Bridge and Iwakuro-
Iwakuro-jima Bridge in Japan

The Hitsui-
Hitsui-jima Bridge and
Iwakuro-
Iwakuro-jima Bridge in Japan
 Courtesy of Bureau BBR Ltd

Courtesy of Gefyra S.A.

Multi span Cable Stayed Bridges 131

Historical Record of Longest Cable-

Cable-Stayed Bridges132
 Latest Technology for Cable-
Cable-Stayed Bridges

Cables
• Parallel-
Parallel-Wire Cables – The elastic modulus of parallel-
parallel-wire cable
is larger than that of stranded cables (E = 2.0 x 106 kgf/cm2).
• Polyethylen Tubed Non-
Non-Grout Cables – This type of cable is
highly resistant to corrosion because on-
on-site work is not
required as all are done in the factory.
• Cold-
Cold-Worked Socketing – This is highly resistant to fatigue
because it is cold-
cold-worked.

Cable Anchoring Structures

• Anchoring cables elastically at locations close to anchorage
zone – This reduces secondary stresses in sockets due to bends
and reduces cable fatigue.

Measures to control Cable Vibrations

• Control of Vibrations with Connecting Cables – Damping effects
are enhanced by the hysteresis effects of the connected cables.
• Vibration Control with Dampers – Damping effects are enhanced
by installation of oil dampers at cable end.
• Surface-
Surface-Worked PE (Polyethylen
(Polyethylen)
Polyethylen) Tubes – Rain vibrations are
controlled by altering the section and surface finish of PE tubes.
tubes.
133

Latest Technology for Cable-

Cable-Stayed Bridges
(Continued)

Structural Analysis
• Finite Displacement Analysis – Analysis and verification in
consideration of the effects of deformation of flexible structure,
structure,
including cable sag. Non-
Non-linear analysis is carried out to provide
control data for girder and cable erection.
• Optimization of Pre-
Pre-stressing Forces – Reduces and balances
sectional forces (bending moments) acting on main girder in a
rational manner. Makes it possible to determine optimum pre pre--
stressing forces (and minimize the strain in the structural
system).

Cable Tension Control

• Vibration-
Vibration-Based Tension Measurements – Makes it possible to
accurately compute cable tension by measuring micro vibrations
in cables (taking into account the effects of bending rigidity and
and
cable sag).
• Computer-
Computer-Based Shape Control and Optimum Shim Calculation –
Instruments for measuring the cable tension are placed under the
control of personal computers. An on-
on-line system with a
mainframe computer makes it possible to quickly and accurately
set the optimum amount of shim. 134
 Latest Technology for Cable-
Cable-Stayed Bridges
(Continued)

Structural Mechanism
• Elastic Fixings – Elastic bearings utilizing the shear deformation of
coned disk springs, cable springs and rubber bearings springs. This This
allows girders to be fixed in the longitudinal direction, with tthe
he
aims of distributing and reducing sectional forces, including
earthquake forces and thermal loads.
• Vibration Control Devices – Vibrations and deformations caused by
wind forces are reduced by installing dampers, including TMDs
(Tuned-
(Tuned-Mass-
Mass-Dampers).

Verification and Testing

• Fatigue Testing – Makes it possible to empirically verify fatigue
strength and load bearing capacity in the face of concentrated
anchorage
stresses and fluctuating loads at locations close to an anchorag e
zone of stay cable.
• Wind Tunnel Testing – The aerodynamic stability of a bridge (i.e. a
after
flexible structure stiffened with cables) during erection and af ter
completion is verified using a three-
three-dimensional mode.
• Load Testing – Static and dynamic load testing (using heavy
vehicles and vibration exciters) is carried out to grasp the
vibration characteristics of a structure and validate design data.
data.
135

Suspension Bridges

Principal Components of A Suspension Bridge

136
 137

Suspension Bridges
(Continued)

The structural system of suspension bridge is
composed of cable system, stiffening-
stiffening-deck system,
towers and anchorages.

The function of the stiffening deck system is to
distribute the live loads to suspenders and normally
stressing primarily by traffic loads, temperature loads,
wind loads, etc.

Dead load stress in stiffening deck is small as a result
of short spanning distance between suspenders.

Live load deflection of the stiffening deck is normally
ranging from 1/400 to 1/500 of main span length.

138
 Suspension Bridges
(Continued)

The structural form of stiffening deck normally takes the
form of boxes girder, truss girder, or a combination of box
and truss girders.

Height of tower normally ranges from 1/16 to 1/18 of main
span length.

Towers are normally constructed with twin-
twin-legs with one
or more cross struts and usually fixed at tower-
tower-base.

The main suspension cables are usually made of steel
strands which consists of 5mm diameter steel wires with a
GUTS of 1570 MPa or 1860 MPa.
MPa.

The steel strands are in the form of either parallel
wires/parallel strands or helical strands. If helical strands
are used, they should be pre-
pre-stressed before erection.

All steel wires must be galvanized.
galvanized. 139

Suspension Bridges
(Continued)

Two methods are available to erect the main suspension
cables, namely, the aerial spinning method (ASM) and
the prefabricated parallel wire-
wire-strands method (PPWSM).
(PPWSM).

ASM is regarded as traditional method of erecting main
suspension cables and has been used for more than 100
years.
Ф5mm are wound

In ASM, the galvanized wires of ≈Ф
around a traveling spinning wheel at construction site.
The wires shuttle between one anchorage and the other,
carrying the required number of wires for cable erection.

In PPWSM, the galvanized wires of ≈Ф Ф5mm are
assembled in parallel at the factory to make parallel
wire strands which are cut to specified length, socketed
at both ends and then reeled for transportation to the
bridge-
bridge-site. 140
 Classification of Suspension Bridges 141

5 Major Types of Suspension Bridges

Single-
Single-span suspension bridge with independent approach span
outside the pylons – Only the bridge-
bridge-deck in main span is
suspended and when short side-
side-spans are used, the bridge
becomes the most stiff type of suspension bridges.

Three-
Three-span suspension bridge with short side-
side-spans – Each side
span length is less than or equal to 1/4 or 1/3 of the main span
length.

Three-
Three-span suspension bridges with long side-
side-spans – Each side
span length is approximately equal to ½ of main span length.

Suspension bridge with secondary piers and the main cable

continue to low anchor blocks – Usually for those cable
anchorage locating below deck level.

Three-
Three-span suspension bridge with extreme long-
long-side spans –
Each side span length is greater than ½ of the main span length.
142
Single span suspension bridge
with independent approach
spans outside the pylons

Three-
Three-span suspension bridge
with short side spans

Three-
Three-span suspension bridge
with long side spans

Suspension bridge with

secondary pylons and the
main cable continued to
low anchor blocks

Three-
Three-span suspension with
extreme side spans

5 Major Types of Suspension Bridges 143

Single span suspension bridge

with independent approach
spans outside the towers

Three-span suspension bridge

with short side-spans

Three-span suspension bridge

with long side-spans

Suspension bridge with secondary

Piers and the main cable continued
To low anchor blocks

Three-span suspension bridge

with extreme-long side spans

Some Typical Forms

Figure 12 Some Typicalof Suspension
Forms Bridges
of Suspension Bridges
144
 (a) Vertical Hangers

(b) Inclined Hangers

Suspension Bridges with Different Hanger-Types

145

Akashi Kaikyo Bridge

146
 The Akashi Kaikyo Bridge 147

The Akashi Kaikyo Bridge seen from Awaji Island 148

Tsing Ma Bridge

Tsing Yi
Man Wan Tower Anchorage

Tsing Yi Tower

Two-Span Suspension Bridge with Streamlined

Box-Shaped Truss Girder with Central Air-Gap
Lantau Anchorage

149

Figure 1-
1-36 The Tsing Ma Bridge
(Completion: 1997 and Main Span: 1377m)
150
 Major Features of Tsing Ma Bridge Bridge-Deck
Structural System:

Streamlined Box-Shaped Truss-Girder with Central
Air-Gap, carrying both Highway and Railway
Traffics.

First Box-Shaped Truss-Girder with Two types of
Truss Action:
• Longitudinal Direction or Along Bridge-Deck
Alignment – warren Truss Action.
• Transverse or Lateral Direction – Virendeel
Truss Action.

Longest Continuous Supported Box-Shaped Truss-
Girder (2160 m) – The designed thermal movement
is ±750mm.
151

General
Illustration Layout
3.4.2-1 ofLayout
General TsingofMa Bridge
Tsing Ma Bridge

SECTION B-B

SECTION C-C

SECTION D-D
UNCOMPACTED CABLE UNCOMPACTED CABLE
ELEVATION / SECTION SECTION A-A MAIN SPAN SIDE SPAN 152
 Illustration 3.4.2-2
Illustration of Transfer
Illustration of the Load Transfer from
of Loads from the
the Bridge-Deck
Bridge-Deck to Main
to the Main Suspension
Suspension Cables,
thenCables,
throughand through
the Towers and the Towers
Anchor Blocks and
to theAnchor-Blocks
Ground to the Ground
455m MA WAN SIDE SPAN 1377m MAIN (CENTRAL) SPAN OVER MA WAN CHANNEL 300m TSING YI SIDE SPAN

F
F
H
H

f = Cable Sag W
W

153

How do the cables support the bridge?

The Main Cables support the bridge:

 At Main or Central Span by “Gravity Stiffness”

Stiffness” :

2
W L 1
H =
8 f
Gravity Stiffness

The axial force of cable at middle of main span (the

horizontal force) is inversely proportionally to cable sag.

 At Side Spans by Direct Tension of Cables

154
155

156
 How do the anchorages support the bridge?

ANCHORAGES SUPPORT THE BRIDGE:

• The main suspension cables of Tsing Ma Bridge are supported by
two gravity type anchor blocks, one in Ma Wan Island and the
other in Tsing Yi Island.
• With this type of anchor block, a very large dead load is required
to counteract the vertical component of the cable force and give
sufficient pressure at the foundation level to assure the
transmission of the horizontal cable force component by friction
between anchor block base and ground surface and together with
the resistance forces provided by shear keys.
• The self-
self-weight of Ma Wan anchor block is 250,000 metric tons;
whereas the self-
self-weight of Tsing Yi anchor block is 200,000 metric
tons.
• The tension force in one main suspension cable under nominal
working load is 53,000 metric tons.
• The self-
self-weight of the bridge deck is 49,000 metric tons or 22.7
metric tons per meter.
• The self-
self-weight of the two main suspension cable is 26,700 metric
tons.
157

Illustration
Force 3.4.2-4 – Force
Transfer atTransfer
TsingatYi
Tsing Yi Anchorage
Anchorage
T = Tensile Force of Main Suspension Cables
V = Vertical Force Component of T
H = Horizontal Force Component of T
W = Dead Weight of Anchor Block
F = Frictional Force between Anchor Block Base and Ground
Surface plus Resistance Forces at Shear Keys

T V

Shear Keys
F

158
 Force 3.4.2-3
Illustration Transfer atTransfer
– Force Ma Wan Anchorage
at Ma Wan Anchorage
T = Tensile Force of Main
Suspension Cables
V = Vertical Force
Component of T
H = Horizontal Force
Component of T

V T

H
Shear Keys
F
W = Dead Weight of Anchor Block
W F = Frictional Force between Anchor Block and Ground Surface
plus Resistance Forces at Shear Keys

159

Towers of Tsing Ma Bridge

Both Tsing Yi Tower (TYT) and Ma Wan Tower (MWT) are
concrete towers.

Height of Tower (or the height above deck level) normally
varies from 1/9 to 1/11 of the main span. 1/10 is the most
ratio. The sag ratio of Tsing Ma Bridge is 1/11.
economic sag ratio.

TYT foundations are simple spread footings on rock.

MWT foundations are precast concrete caissons resting on a
prepared rock sea-
sea-bed in approximately 12m depth of water.
The caissons are protected by a rock fill island.

Allowable differential settlement of tower-
tower-legs has been
designed not to exceed 10mm.

The lateral stiffness of the tower is the key stability factor of
the bridge under erection stage of deck units and under the
action of typhoon and seismic loads in complete bridge.

The saddles at tower-
tower-tops are for the uniform distribution of
the loads from main suspension cables to the tower-
tower-tops.

160
Ship Impact Island at Ma Wan Bridge-
Bridge-Tower Base
161

Ma Wan Bridge-
Bridge-Tower Base Caissons 162
Saddle at Top of Tower – Tsing Ma Bridge 163

Deck Section at Bridge-

Bridge-Tower Locations 164
 Pattern of Strands in
Cable before Compacting 165

Cable Spinning as developed by Roebling

166
 Cross-Section of Pylon: Golden Gate Bridge

Cross-Section of Pylon: Cross-Section of Pylon:

Firth of Forth Bridge Severn Bridge
167

Details of Cable Anchorage for the Severn Bridge 168

Cable Tunnel Anchorage of the
Firth of Forth Bridge 169

Concrete Gravity Anchorage of the Lillebelt

Bridge 170
Influence of Thermal Expansion on Hangers

171

Vortex Shedding
172
Frequency

Wind Velocity 173

A Technique for Avoidance of Fluttering/Galloping Instability

174
Deformation of the Stiffness Girder and
Displacement of the Main Cable due to
a “Half-Span” Equally Distributed Load

175

Cable band to Main cable Connection

176
Presetting Pylons to Prestress Anchor
Portions of Main Cables 177

Backlash Displacements in Cable Clamps

178
 Hanger Configuration:
Severn Bridge

179

Cable distortion during Erection and

to Influence the On-Site Joints of
Stiffening Girder
180
 Arrangement of Multi-Span
Suspension Bridges

181

Streamlined and Separated

Twin-Box Girders

182
 Connection at
Anchorage and Deck

183

No Cross-Girder in
Pylon above Deck Level

184
 Central
Anchorage at
Pile-Foundations

185

Completion: 2001. Span Configuration: 125M+300m+125m

Yongjong Bridge in Korea –Self-
Self-Anchored Suspended Deck 186
 Yongjong Bridge under Construction 187

The Development of Main Span in Suspension Bridge

Bridge Name Main Span Year of Country Traffic Type
Length Completion
Brooklyn Bridge 480 m 1883 USA Highway
Philadephia-Camden 535 m 1926 USA Highway
Bridge
George Washington 1066 m 1931 USA Highway
Bridge
Golden Gate Bridge 1280 m 1931 USA Highway
Mackinac Bridge 1158 m 1958 USA Highway
Firth of Forth 1002 m 1961 Scotland, UK Highway
Severn Bridge 988 m 1964 UK Highway
Humber Bridge 1410 m 1981 UK Highway
Great Belt east Bridge 1624 m 1997 Denmark Highway
Akashi Kaikyo Bridge 1991 m 1998 Japan Highway
Jiangyin Bridge 1385 m 1999 China Highway
Runyang Bridge 1490 m 2005 China Highway
Shenjiamen Bridge 1650 m Under China Highway
Construction
Minami Bisan-Seto 1100 m 1988 Japan Combined Highway & Railway
Bridge
Tsing Ma Bridge 1377 m 1997 China (HK) Combined Highway & Railway
Messina Bridge 3300 m Under Italy Combined Highway & Railway
Planning
188
Golden Gate Bridge
(1280 Main Span)

Courtesy of Corus

189

George Washington Bridge

(Opened in 1931 with two-
two-level truss deck

190
 The Verrazano Narrow Bridge
(Completion: 1960s and Main Span: 1298m)

191

Severn Bridge
(Completion: 1966 and Main Span: 987m with inclined hangers)
 Humber Bridge
(Completion: 1981; Main Span: 1410m with inclined hangers)

Forth Road Bridge

(Completion: 1964 and Main Span: 1006m)

.
 The Shimotsui-
Shimotsui-Seto Bridge 195

The Kita Bisan-

Bisan-Seto Bridge and Minami Bisan-
Bisan-Seto Bridge 196
The Historical Record of Longest Suspension Bridges
197

The Tacoma Narrow Bridge

The Tacoma Narrow Bridge, with a main span of 853m, had
the stiffening girder made up of plate girders with a depth-
depth-to-
to-
span ratio of only 1:350.
1:350.

This extreme slenderness was actually the ultimate result of
the designer L. S. Moisseiff’
Moisseiff’s application of the deflection
theory, which gave ever decreasing bending moments with
reduced bending stiffness.

Despite the extreme slenderness of the stiffening girder, the
bridge possessed adequate safety margin against the action
of the traffic load and the static wind pressure.
depth--to

Besides the small depth to--span ratio, the width-
width-to-
to-span of
1:72 also went beyond previous practice.

The extreme slenderness of the wind girder was actually
made possible by Moisseiff’
Moisseiff’s own extension of the deflection
theory to cover the 3-3-dimensional behaviour.
behaviour.

Furthermore, the stiffening girder of Tacoma Narrow Bridge
had no torsional rigidity as only one lateral bracing was
present. Figure 1-1-35 shows collapse of Tacoma Narrow in
1940s. 198
Comparison of Depth
Depth--Span-
Span- and Width-
Width-Span-
Span-Ratios of Tacoma
Narrow Bridge with Other Suspension Bridges
Name of Bridge Depth-
Depth-Span Width-
Width-Span-
Span-
Ratio Ratio
Tsing Ma Bridge 1/181 1/33.6
(Streamlined Box Truss Girder)
Golden Gate Bridge 1/168 1/47
(Stiffened Truss Girder)
George Washington Bridge 1/117 1/33
(Stiffened Truss Girder)
Humber Bridge 1/313 1/54
(Streamlined Box Plate Girder)
Forth Bridge 1/120 -
(8.4 m Stiffened Truss Girder)
Verrazano Narrow Bridge 1/178 -
(7.3m deep Stiffened Truss Girder)
Severn Bridge 1/324 -
(3m deep Streamlined Box Plate Girder)
Tacoma Narrow Bridge 1/350 1/72
(H-
(H-shape Plate Girder)
199

Normal span ranges and record spans for different

types of steel bridges
200
The Tacoma Narrow Bridge under Normal Condition
201

The Tacoma Narrow Bridge under Winds

202
Deck Motion under Wind – The Tacoma Narrow Bridge
203

Collapse of The Tacoma Narrow Bridge

204
 Wind induced failure: (i) longer/flexible ‘plate girder’ deck; (ii) weight of deck much lighter
than previous, 5t/m vs 10~20t/m?; and (iii) failed at wind speed 42mph

Tacoma Narrows Bridge, 1940 with 853m main span, 2.4m deep deck, & depth/span ratio 1:350
205

Current As-
As-constructed World’
World’s Longest Bridge (Main) Spans

Suspension Bridge: Akashi Strait Bridge – Main Span: 1991m (1998)

Continuous Steel Girder Bridge: Sfalassa Viaduct – Main Span: 376m
(1972)

Continuous Concrete Girder Bridge: Stolmasundent Bridge – Main
Span: 301m (1998)

Steel-
Steel-Deck Cable-
Cable-Stayed Bridge: Tatara Bridge – Main Span: 890m
(1999)

Concrete-
Concrete-Deck Cable-
Cable-Stayed Bridge: Wadi Laben – Main Span: 450m
(1998)

Steel Arch Bridge: Lupu Bridge – Main Span: 550
550m
50m (2003
(2003)
2003)

Concrete Arch Bridge: Wanxian Bridge – Main Span: 420m (1997)

Simple Truss Bridge: Commodore John Barry Bridge – Main Span:
250m (1974)

Cantilever Truss Bridge: Quebec Bfridge – Main Span: 549m (1917)

Continuous Truss Bridge: Ikitsuki Ohashi Bridge – Main Span: 400m
(1991)

206
End of
Topic 1

207