New Papers on

Jainism

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Khajuraho Jain Clusters

The Khajuraho group of monuments was built during the rule of the Chandela dynasty. The
building activity started almost immediately after the rise of their power, throughout their
kingdom to be later known as Bundelkhand.[16] Most temples were built during the reigns of
the Hindu kings Yashovarman and Dhanga. Yashovarman's legacy is best exhibited by
the Lakshmana Temple. Vishvanatha temple best highlights King Dhanga's reign. The largest
and currently most famous surviving temple is Kandariya Mahadeva built in the reign of
King Vidyadhara. The temple inscriptions suggest many of the currently surviving temples
were complete between 970 and 1030 CE, with further temples completed during the
following decades.

Chandelas

The Chandelas were the builders of Khajuraho. They ruled much of the Bundelkhand
region (then called Jejakabhukti) in central India southeast of Delhi between the 9th and
the 13th centuries. The Chandela or Chandel were a rajputs (a powerful military caste).
The Chandel dynasty is famous in Indian history for Maharaja Rao Vidyadhara, who
repulsed the attacks of Mahmud of Ghazni and was behind much of the erotic sculptures
at Khajuraho. The word Chandela is said to have evolved from of Chandratreya,
combination of two words indicating the lineage Chandra vamsa and Atreya gotra.
The origin of the Chandelas is shrouded in mystery. A legend attributes their descent to
the union of the Moon (Candrama) with a Brahman damsel. This is obviously an absurd
myth, invented for giving the clan a noble pedigree. In the opinion of Vincent Smith,
however, the indications are that the Chandelas sprang from the aboriginal stock of the
Bihars or the Gonds, and their original seat was Maniyagarh on the Ken river in the
Chatarpur State.

The most important cities in the Chandela kingdom were Khajuraho, Kalanjara, and
Mahoba. Vincent Smith remarks: “The first-named town, with its group of magnificent
temples, may be regarded as the religious, the second, with its strong fortress, as the
military, and the third, with its palace, as the civil capital.” The Chandelas beautified
Bundelkhand by constructing a large number of exquisite religious edifices and
embanked lakes. One of the latter was the Madanasagara, formed by Madanavarman at
Mahoba.

The Chandelas came into prominence in southern Bundelkhand under the leadership of
Nannuka early in the ninth century. His grandson was Jeja or Jayasakti, after whom the
kingdom was called Jejakabhukti. It appears from traditions and epigraphic testimony that
the first few princes of the dynasty were feudatories of the great Pratihara emperors of
Kanauj. But Harsadeva Chandela enhanced the prestige and influence of the family

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considerably by placing Mahlpala (Ksitipala) on the Imperial throne in opposition to his
brother or half-brother, Bhoja II. During the reign of Yasovatman, the Chandelas gained a
larger measure of independence, and aggrandised themselves at the cost of their
neighbours, viz., the Cedis, Malavas, Kosalas, etc. According to an inscription, found at
Khajuraho, Yasovarman was “a scorching fire to the Gurjaras,” and that he “easily
conquered the fort of Kalanjara,” one of the important strongholds of the Pratiharas. He is
also said to have compelled Devapala Pratihara to surrender to him a celebrated image of
Vaikuntha (Visnu), which he subsequently set up in a stately shrine at Khajuraho.

Chandelas Kings

Dhanga (c. A.D. 950-1002) was Yasovarman’s son and successor. Strangely enough,
however, he invokes the name of the Pratihara king (Vinayakapala II) as his overlord in
the Vikrama year 1011-954 A.D. It would, therefore, appear that like the Nizam of the
Deccan and the Nawabs of Oudh, who were virtually independent and yet nominally
acknowledged the suzerainty of the great Moghul at Delhi, the Candel ruler did not all at
once break off formal relations with the effete Imperial power at Kanauj, but for some
time maintained an outward show of submission. Subsequently-, the kingdom of
Jejakabhukti saw its palmy days under Dhanga, for an inscription, discovered at Mhow,
alleges that he attained to “supreme lordship after inflicting a defeat over the king of
Kanyakubja.” The success of the Chandelas is confirmed by the Khajuraho epigraph,
wherein we arc told that Dhariga ruled the earth “playfully acquired by the action of his
long and strong arms, as far as Kalanjara, and as far as Bhasvat situated (?) on the banks
of the river.Malava; from here to the banks of the river Kalindl (Jumna), and from here
also to the frontiers of the Cedi country, and even as far as that mountain called Gopa
(Gopadri), which is the unique abode of marvel.” The loss of Gwalior must have dealt a
severe blow to the fortunes of the Pratiharas, since thereby the Chandelas got hold of a
strategic position, which they could well use as a base for further encroachments. Indeed,
it is likely that towards the close of his reign Dhariga carried his arms up to Benares,
where he granted a village to a Brahman in the Vikrama year 1055-998 A.D. In 989 or
990 A.D. when Jayapala, the Sahi king, invited prominent Hindu states to help him in
resisting the aggressions of Sabuktigin, Dhariga, along with other potentates, promptly
responded with men and money, and shared the disaster suffered by the confederate
army.

Ganda was Dhariga’s son, Ganda. He joined the coalition formed by Anandapala Sahi in
1008 A.D. to repel the invasion of Mahmud but nothing availed the Hindus and their
forces were utterly routed by the Sultan. Next, •Ganda sent an expedition under the
crown-prince, Vidyadhara, to punish Rajyapala of Kanauj for his pusillanimous surrender
to Mahmud about the end of 1018 A.D. The Pratihara monarch was, of course, slain, but
when the tidings reached Ghazni the Sultan was so enraged that he forthwith marched
against Nanda (Ganda) 1 to repress his audacity. Thus, the opponents came face to face in
H. 410— 1019 A.D. Just at the psychological moment, however, the Chandela ruler
became alarmed at the intrepidity and strength of the Muslim hosts, whereupon under
cover of night he c fled with some of his baggage and equipments.’ 2 In H. 413 — X022
A.D. Mahmud attacked the Candel territories for the second time. Having taken Gwalior
in 1023 A.D. he invested Kalanjara. Again, Nanda or Ganda cowardly submitted to the
invader, who thereupon gave him back the conquered forts, and triumphantly returned
home with a large booty.

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Klrtivarman was the next distinguished member of this dynasty. He revived the power
of the Chandelas, which had been eclipsed in the time of his predecessors owing to the
military activities of the Kalacuri kings, Garigeyadeva and Laksml-karna. Klrtivarman
himself was vanquished by the latter in the earlier part of his reign, but it appears from
inscriptions and the prologue to Krisna Misra’s Vrabodha-Candrodaya, an allegorical
play in honour of Visnu and the Vedanta philosophy, that the Candel ruler eventually
won a decided Victory over his mighty Cedi rival.

Madanavarman was another notable figure, whose known dates range from 1129 to
1163 A.D. He claims to have defeated the “lord of Gurjara,” generally identified with
Siddharaja-Jayasimha of Gujarat (c. 1095- 1143 A.D.). An inscription, found at Man
(Jhansi district), further testifies that Madanavarman overcame the Cedi monarch
(perhaps Gaya-Karna); exterminated his Malava i.e., Paramara contemporary; and forced
the “king of Kail,” probably identical with Vijayacandta Gahadavala, “to pass his time in
friendly behaviour.”
Paramardi, or Paramal of popular traditions, was the last prominent Candclla sovereign.
He ruled from circa 1165 A.D. to 1203. We learn from the Madanapur inscription 2 and
Cand’s R a so that he sustained a reverse in 1182-83 A.D. at the hands of Prithvlraja
Cauhan who occupied Mahoba and other fortresses in Bundelkhand. But Paramardi
escaped complete annihilation, and afterwards recovered the lost ground. In 1203 A.D. he
offered stubborn resistance to Qutb-ud-dln Aibak during the siege of Kalanjara. Finding
that the odds were altogether against him, Paramardi capitulated, but he died before
fulfilling any of the terms imposed. His minister, Ajadcva, then took up the defence; he
also had, however, to surrender soon after. Qutb-ud-din next captured Mahoba, and put
the subjugated territory under the charge of a Muslim governor. The Chandelas were thus
kid low, although they lingered on as petty chieftains.until the sixteenth century.

Khajuraho Temples

Based on their geographical location, Khajuraho’s two dozen or so temples are grouped
into three areas: Eastern, Western and Southern. Kandariya, the largest, most and most
typical of the Khajuraho temples, is dedicated to Shiva. The main shrine is exquisitely
carved and features delicate details. Among the other temples worth visiting are Chaunsat
Yogini (the oldest surviving shrine), Devi Jagada (temple dedicated to Kali), Chitragupta,
Vishwanath, Lakshmana, Varaha and Matangeswara temple.

The temples are spread over an area of six square kilometers. They are dedicated to both
Hindu deities and Jain figures. About six of these temples have Lord Shiva as the main
idol, eight are dedicated to Lord Vishnu, one each to Lord Ganesha and the Sun God,
while three are dedicated to Jain tirthankaras (saints). The largest among these is the
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva. It is also one of the four holy
sites of Shiva worship, the other three being Kashi, Kedarnath and Gaya.

According to UNESCO: “ Only about 20 temples remain; they fall into three distinct
groups and belong to two different religions – Hinduism and Jainism. They strike a
perfect balance between architecture and sculpture. The Temple of Kandariya is
decorated with a profusion of sculptures that are among the greatest masterpieces of
Indian art.” Some of the temples are deteriorating at an alarming pace due to irrigation

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 canals in the area that have raised groundwater levels, causing water to rise through the
stones by capillary action and deteriorating the stones.

Sculptures at the Khajuraho Temples

The temples have several thousand statues and art works, with Kandarya Mahadeva
temple alone decorated with over 870. Some 10 percent of these iconographic carvings
contain sexual themes and various sexual poses. A common misconception is that, since
the old structures with carvings in Khajuraho are temples, the carvings depict sex
between deities; however the kama arts represent diverse sexual expressions of different
human beings. Core Hindu values are expressed in multitude of ways. Even the Kama
scenes, when seen in combination of sculptures that precede and follow, depict the
spiritual themes such as moksha. In the words of Stella Kramrisch, This state which is
“like a man and woman in close embrace” is a symbol of moksa, final release or reunion
of two principles, the essence (Purusha) and the nature (Prakriti).

Stella Kramrisch said: “There is iconographic symbolism embedded in the arts displayed
in Khajuraho temples. Core Hindu values are expressed in multitude of ways. Even the
Kama scenes, when seen in combination of sculptures that precede and follow, depict the
spiritual themes such as moksha. This state which is “like a man and woman in close
embrace” is a symbol of moksa, final release or reunion of two principles, the essence
(Purusha) and the nature

The Khajuraho temples represent many forms of arts that flourished in medieval Rajput
kingdoms, including Prabodhacandrodaya, Karpuramanjari, Viddhasalabhanjika and
Kavyamimansa poems and dramas. In addition to the sculptures believed to represent
sexual practices there are many imaginary animals, including the vyalas (hybrids of a
lion, horse and many other animals). In South India, vyalas face outward towards the
person viewing the sculpture. At Khajuraho, the vyalas face sideways and many scholars
wonder why. Also at Khajuraho, the vyalas appear ro have equal status with the gods and
apsarases, the female spirit of the clouds and water. This could possibly mean that the
vyalas were just as important as Hindu gods in the Chandella religion.

Erotic Sculptures at Khajuraho

The Khajuraho temples feature a variety of art work, of which 10 percent is sexual or
erotic art outside and inside the temples. Some of the temples that have two layers of
walls have small erotic carvings on the outside of the inner wall. Some scholars suggest
these to be tantric sexual practices. Other scholars state that the erotic arts are part of
Hindu tradition of treating kama as an essential and proper part of human life, and its
symbolic or explicit display is common in Hindu temples. Over 90 percent of the art work
at the temple is about daily life and symbolic values in ancient Indian culture. The
Khajuraho temples represent one expression of many forms of arts that flourished in
Rajput kingdoms of India from the A.D. 8th through 10th century.

The sexual-themed Khajuraho sculptures are "the apogee of erotic art": "Twisting, broad-
hipped and high breasted nymphs display their generously contoured and bejewelled bodies
on exquisitely worked exterior wall panels. These fleshy apsaras run riot across the surface

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of the stone, putting on make-up, washing their hair, playing games, dancing, and endlessly
knotting and unknotting their girdles....Beside the heavenly nymphs are serried ranks of
griffins, guardian deities and, most notoriously, extravagantly interlocked maithunas, or
lovemaking couples."
These paintings are “Greatly influenced by the Tantric school of thought, the Chandela
kings promoted various Tantric doctrines through royal monuments, including temples.
Sculptors of Khajuraho depicted all aspects of life. The society of the time believed in
dealing frankly and openly with all aspects of life, including sex. Sex is important
because Tantric cosmos is divided into the male and female principle. Male principle has
the form and potential, female has the energy. According to Hindu and Tantric
philosophy, one can not achieve anything without the other, as they manifest themselves
in all aspects of the universe. Nothing can exist without their cooperation and
coexistence. In accordance with ancient treaties on architecture, erotic depictions were
reserved for specific parts of the temples only. The rest of the temple was profusely
covered with other aspects of life, secular and spiritual.

Important Temples at Khajuraho

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple is the tallest, the largest and the most stunning in the
Khajuraho complex. Built sometime during 1025-1050, with about 870 spectacular
sculptures, it is considered to be the spiritual abode of Lord Shiva. It is most popular for
its ornate architecture, including statues of beautifully adorned women. The structure has
a shikhara (spire) about 31 meters high that depicts Mount Kailash. This main spire is
surrounded by 84 miniature spires (Urushringas).
Kandariya is most sexual and typical of the Khajuraho temples. The main shrine is
exquisitely carved and features delicate details. The temple houses a lingam (phallic
symbol honoring Shiva) made of marble in its sanctum sanctorum, with 646 statues
dotting its boundary. Facing towards the east, the entrance of the temple has a staircase
and porch that have been adorned with garlands chiselled out of solid single stone. It is
believed that Raja Dhandadeva, a Chandela ruler, built this temple.
Chitragupta Temple is located in the east direction and faces the rising sun. It is the
only temple dedicated to the Sun God and was constructed in the 11th century. A 5-foot-
tall idol of the deity sitting on a chariot driven by seven horses sits in the temple. The
walls of the temple are beautifully carved and give a glimpse of various historical events.
The prime attractions include an image of Lord Vishnu in the 11-headed form on the
south wall. Visitors are also left mesmerised by the intricate carvings of dancing girls,
elephant fights, processions and hunting scenes done on the interior of the temple. The
exterior of the temple is also beautiful and one can find sculptures of apsaras (celestial
nymphs), vyalas, mithunas and deities there. Moreover, more than 70 other figures have
been carved on the balcony panels of the temple. The doorways are also elaborately
ornamented and portray a series of three figures of the Sun God, similar to the one in the
sanctum sanctorum. One can also visit the three-storeyed stepped tank inside the
premises. Called as chopra, it was also constructed by the Chandela rulers.

Western Temples at Khajuraho

According to UNESCO: “The most important group of monuments is massed in the

western zone, not far from the archaeological museum, including the temples of Varaha,

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Lakshmana, Matangeshwara, Kandariya, Mahadeva Chitragupta, Chopra Tank, Parvati,
Vishwanatha and Nandi. [Source: UNESCO]
“Yasovarman (AD 954) built the temple of Vishnu, now famous as Lakshmana temple;
this is an ornate and evolved example of its time proclaiming the prestige of the
Chandellas. The Visvanatha, Parsvanatha and Vaidyanatha temples belong to the time of
King Dhanga, the successor of Yasovarman. The Jagadambi, Chitragupta, are noteworthy
among the western group of royal temples of Khajuraho. The largest and grandest temple
of Khajuraho is the immortal Kandariya Mahadeva which is attributed to King Ganda
(1017-29).
Lakshman Temple (in the Western group of temples) is considered to be the oldest and
the most aesthetically pleasing. It was one of the first temples built by the Chandela
kings, and the patron of this temple is believed to be Yashovarman, who gained control
over areas in the Bundelkhand region of central India. Yashovarman sought to build this
temple to mark his rule over these territories. However, he died before the construction
was completed and his son, Dhanga, took over the work and dedicated the temple in 954.
The temple showcases the trinity of Lord Brahma, Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva. Built on
a high platform, it is made in a tiered format with intricately carved columns.
The main idol of the temple is an image of Lord Vishnu in a three-headed avatar called
Vaikuntha. It is placed in the inner chamber known as garba griha (sanctum sanctorum),
which is an architectural feature of most Hindu temples. The building of the temple
reflects a Nagara style of architecture, owing to the flat-roofed entry porch called
mandapa and a shrine called vimana. The shrine of Nagara temples comprises a base
platform and a superstructure called shikhara (spire).
Chaunsat Yogini (in the Western group of temples) is a composition of small hut-like
structures surrounding an open courtyard. Standing apart from all other temples in the
area, it was built in 875-900 and is a part of the Western group of temples. The temple is
dedicated to 64 female yoginis (female attendants) who are considered to be forms of the
Mother Goddess. This temple is quite unique and is the only one here that is built with
local granite. Its architecture is quite simple and has no ornamentation. The walls are
almost bare and lack the characteristic carvings of temples in Khajuraho. There are a total
of 67 shrines in the temple complex and the largest one is dedicated to Goddess Durga,
who is presented in the form of Mahishasura Mardini. Two shrines are for Maheshvari
and Matrikas Brahmani and the other 64 are dedicated to the yoginis. This temple is
believed to be the oldest yogini temple in India.

Eastern and Southern Temples at Khajuraho

Among the temples in the east and south groups are also comprise noteworthy complexes
(the temples of Ghantai, Parshvanath, Adinath, Shantinath, Dulhadeo, Chaturbhuja. The
four Jain temples lie among the Eastern group of temples. These include the Adinath,
Shantinath, Parsvanath and Ghantai temples, which were constructed under the reign of
the Chandela rulers.
The eastern group contains the Parsvanath temple, a large Jain structure noted for the
detailed sculptures on the northern outer wall. Other notable temples in this group are the
Ghantai and Adinath temples and the three Hindu temples of Brahma, Javari and
Vamana, the last of which is adorned with a variety of sensuous sculptures. the southern
group includes the two temples of Duladeo and Chaturbhuj.
Parsvanath Temple (in the eastern group of Temples) is largest of the Jain temples in
Khajuraho. It is noted for its spectacular tiered construction and intricate sculptures. It
belongs to the Eastern group of temples and its architecture is quite similar to that of the

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Hindu temples here. The temple is believed to have been constructed in the 10th century
during the rule of Dhangadeva (950-999) of the Chandela dynasty. It was previously
devoted to the first tirthankara (religious saint) of the Jains, Adinath. However, in 1860,
the image of Parsvanath was put in.
The temple attracts visitors for its intricate architecture and its walls depict the images of
elephants, sea nymphs and lions. Though it is a Jain temple, one can see images of Hindu
deities like Vaishnav as well, on its walls. The temple has some key architectural features
like a couple of axial projections at its two ends called the ardh mandapa (the hall) to the
east and a small shrine to the west called the garba griha (sanctum sanctorum).
Dulhadev Temple (in the southern group of temples) was built by the Chandelas in 1130,
this temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and houses a lingam (phallic symbol honoring
Shiva). Its architecture is quite fascinating and the temple has five small chambers and a
closed hall. The finishing on the idols is beautiful and shows the skill of the craftsmen of
that time. The temple walls and ceilings boast heavily intricate carvings and visitors are
often left mesmerised by the stone-carved images on the walls. Attractive figurines of
apsaras (celestial nymph) and other mythological figures also adorn its walls. Dulhadev is
another name for Lord Shiva in this region that refers to the lord as a 'dulha' or
bridegroom. Historians consider it to be one of the last temples built by the Chandelas.

Deor Kothar

Deor Kothar (200 kilometers east of Khajuraho) is a Buddhist site said to have been built
under the patronage of Mauryan king, Ashoka, and dates back to 3rd century B.C.
Stretching for almost 3 kilometers, the complex, which is believed to have once been a
bustling commercial town on the trade route called Dakshinapatha, was discovered in
1982. Several structures were excavated here, including monasteries, a water channel
system, an ancient pathway, and 30 stone stupas, four brick stupas, potsherds of black
polished ware, which was the pottery of everyday use between 700 and 300 B.C. One of
the pillars excavated here has an inscription that says it was erected in the memory of
Lord Buddha.
The architecture of Deor Kothar is quite interesting and the complex boasts four stupas,
the most ever found at a site of this period. The bricks used are of various shapes such as
a twirling lotus, a simple flower pot on a three-tiered pedestal (the carving of which
shows traces of early Buddhist art) and a conical lotus bud. These can be seen on the
railing posts of the largest brick stupa rising to a height of 30 feet.
The site was discovered by PK Mishra and Ajit Singh in 1982 and it was declared a place
of national importance by the Government of India in 1988. Today, it is being preserved
and conserved by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

Panna and Panna National Park

Panna National Park (40 kilometers south Khajuraho) in central India harbors many
species of wildlife including tigers, sambar and chitral deer, porcupines, and leopards and
cover 200 square miles. It has a fairly large population of 30 to 40 sloth bears. It has a lot
of humans. There are 15 villages within the park and 50 just outside it. A number of
villagers in the area of the park have been attacked by sloth bears.
The park was once a raja’s hunting ground. There are a number of caves in par whose
walls are adorned with ancient paintings. The number of tigers in increasing. The tigers
often roam outside the park and the effort to save them has included efforts outside the
park. Illegal sandstone mines that fragments the tiger’s habitat and polluted the water in

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 the park have been closed down. The rangers have motorcycles and a troop carrier which
has enabled them to battle poachers more effectively
With the meandering Ken river and spectacular waterfalls, the national park attracts both
wildlife enthusiasts and adventure seekers. One can spot the gharial, a huge reptile of the
crocodile family found only in the Indian subcontinent, and a variety of flora and fauna
here. Spend a day or two here, and explore the park in a jeep or on the back of an
elephant. Earlier, the park was the hunting ground of the erstwhile rulers of Panna,
Bijawar and Chhatarpur states. The Panna National Park is the 22nd Tiger Reserve of
India.
Panna was the capital of Maharaja Chhatrasal’s kingdom in 17th century. The town,
meaning emerald, is a diamond mining center. Panna is famous for its huge Palladian-
style Pajgarth Palace.

The Khajuraho temples were built about 35 miles from the medieval city of Mahoba, the
capital of the Chandela dynasty, in the Kalinjar region. In ancient and medieval literature,
their kingdom has been referred to as Jijhoti, Jejahoti, Chih-chi-to and Jejakabhukti.

The first documented mention of Khajuraho was made in 641 by Xuanzang, a Chinese
pilgrim who described encountering several dozen inactive Buddhist monasteries and a dozen
Hindu temples with a thousand worshipping brahmins. In 1022 CE, Khajuraho was
mentioned by Abu Rihan-al-Biruni, the Persian historian who accompanied Mahmud of
Ghazni in his raid of Kalinjar; he mentions Khajuraho as the capital of Jajahuti. The raid was
unsuccessful, and a peace accord was reached when the Hindu king agreed to pay a ransom to
Mahmud of Ghazni to end the attack and leave.

Khajuraho temples were in active use through the end of the 12th century. This changed in
the 13th century; after the army of Delhi Sultanate, under the command of the Muslim
Sultan Qutb-ud-din Aibak, attacked and seized the Chandela kingdom. About a century
later, Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveller in his memoirs about his stay in India from 1335 to
1342 CE, mentioned visiting Khajuraho temples, calling them "Kajarra"as follows:

Until the 12th century, Khajuraho was under Hindu kings

and featured 85 temples. Central India was seized by Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century.
Under Muslim rule, many temples were destroyed and the rest left in neglect. Ruins of some
old temples (Ghantai temple above) are still visible.

...near (Khajuraho) temples, which contain idols that have been mutilated by the
Moslems, live a number of yogis whose matted locks have grown as long as their bodies.
And on account of extreme asceticism they are all yellow in colour. Many Moslems
attend these men in order to take lessons (yoga) from them.

— Ibn Battuta, about 1335 CE, Riḥlat Ibn Baṭūṭah, Translated by Arthur Cotterell

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The central Indian region, where Khajuraho temples are, was controlled by various Muslim
dynasties from the 13th century through the 18th century. In this period, some temples were
desecrated, followed by a long period when they were left in neglect. In 1495 CE, for
example, Sikandar Lodi's campaign of temple destruction included Khajuraho. The
remoteness and isolation of Khajuraho protected the Hindu and Jain temples from continued
destruction by Muslims.Over the centuries, vegetation and forests overgrew the temples.

In the 1830s, local Hindus guided a British surveyor, T.S. Burt, to the temples and they were
thus rediscovered by the global audience. Alexander Cunningham later reported, few years
after the rediscovery, that the temples were secretly in use by yogis and thousands of Hindus
would arrive for pilgrimage during Shivaratri celebrated annually in February or March based
on a lunar calendar. In 1852, F.C. Maisey prepared earliest drawings of the Khajuraho
temples.

Bundelkhand, a region in central India, has been an ancient center of Jainism. It covers
northern part of Madhya Pradesh and south western part of Uttar Pradesh.Bundelkhand was
known as Dasharna or Jaijakabhukti in ancient times. The Betwa (Vetravati)
and Dhasan (Dasharna) rivers flow through it.It is one of the few regions in India where
Jainism has a strong presence and influence. There are many ancient tirthas in Bundelkhand
region. Many of the modern scholars and monks of Jainism belong to this region.

During the Chandela rule, many towns in Bundelkhand, including Khajuraho, were home to
large and flourishing Jain communities. At Khajuraho the Jains apparently lived on the east
side of town. A number of Jain temples from that period have survived in this part of
Khajuraho in various states of preservation. Many Jain inscriptions from the Chandela period
can be seen at Khajuraho. All the Jain temples are now enclosed within a modern compound
wall constructed in the 19th century, with the exception of the Ghantai temple, when the
restoration of the temples was initiated. There is also an archaeological museum where
historical Jain artifacts from the chandella period are preserved. A key difference between the
Jain temples and most other Khajuraho temples is that the Jain temples are alive with active
praying and worship. Digambar Jain monks still visit from time to time and can be seen
meditating, studying or preaching.

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Jain temple cluster in Khajurao in 1885: L to R: a small temple, Parshvanath temple with entrance, Adinath temple, two
smaller temples with ruins with three columns. The Shantinath temple, out of the view, would have been on the left//
45 feet tall rock cut idol of Rishabhanatha at Chanderi

The Jain Community of Khajuraho city was the wealthiest community in India. The Jain
legacy here includes one of the finest collections of temples in Madhya Pradesh together with
more than dozen Hindu temples. At South east of Khajuraho village, the road ends in front of
the complex of jain temples. On the way to the Jain complex, at the southern edge of the
village and barely visible from the road are the ruins of the Ghantai Temple. All that remain
are pillars, some with bells ( ghanti, hence the name) dangling on chains all carved in stone.
There are three main Jain temples the Parshvanath Temple and the Adinath Temple, which
both date to the middle Ages; and the Shantinath Temple, a more recent building that was
constructed from the remains of other temples. Cunningham discovered the only Buddhist
statue to be found in khajuraho in the vicinity of the Ghantai temple. The Jain temple
complex was recently developed, with shops and a small museum displaying Jain images
salvaged from the vicinity. Together these make Khajuraho one of the most important Jain
sites in India. One other temple is also there called as Ghantai Temple. It is also belongs to
Jain community.

Khajuraho has been recognized by UNESCO as a place of world heritage on account of its
magnificent temples. There is no doubt that Khajuraho is one of the most prominent
international tourist centers of India. It was widely known as the religious capital of mighty
Chandela rulers in the medieval period (9th to 13th Century AD). The temples of Khajuraho
are generally divided into three groups: Western, Eastern and Northern. The Eastern group is
mainly consisting of Jain temples. There are 34 (Thirty Four) Jain Temples in total in the
Khajuraho city. But from architectural point of view the Parsvanath, the Adinath and the
Shantinath temples are relatively more important and noteworthy. These temples are unique
examples of religious harmony and spirit of accommodation. Atishay (Miracle), The
Shantinath Temple is famous for its 14 feet high standing idol, the 16th jaintirthankar.
According to an inscription on it, it is installed in Vikrama-Samvat 1085 (1028 AD). This
idol is full of miracle. About 400 years ago, while invaders (idol breakers) came here and
applied hammer to the little finger to break the idol, flow of milk started from it and at the

13
same time dense flock of honey bees attached on invaders and pushed them to run away.
Desires of devotees are fulfilled here after prayer and worship full of faith.

JAIN TEMPLES HISTORY

There are some places in India where Hindus and Jains seem to have gotten along better than
in the city of Khajuraho. The two groups apparently lived here side by side since at least the
9th century. During the 10th century, a new regional power raise in Central India, the
Chandela. The Chandela emerged in the vicinity of Khajuraho, and it became one of the
major cities of the kingdom. The Chandela kingdom survived in one ruler form or another for
the better part of the next four hundred years, during this time they develop Khajuraho as a
major urban and religious center. From the 10th through the 12th centuries Chandels
sponsored the construction of dozens of major temples in the city, including both religion
Jain and Hindu shrines.

The main Jain temples includes the Parshvanath Temple around 954 AD, the Ghantai Temple
around 960 AD, and the Adinath Temple around 1027 AD. As many as eighty other temples
of both religions were also constructed in Khajuraho at this time. Khajuraho was a major Jain
center throughout the period of Chandela rule. After the Muslim conquest of the region in the
13th century, many of Khajuraho's temples were destroyed, while others were neglected and
ultimately abandoned over time. They were rediscovered by British explorers in the 19th
century. Most of those that survived have since been restored. One new temple, the
Shantinath Temple, was constructed from the ruins of other temples during the colonial era.

Prominent tirthas
Many of the famous Jain tirthas, Vidisha, Deogarh, Lalitpur, Karguanji
(Jhansi), Chanderi, Kundalpur, Khajuraho, Aharji, Paporaji, Drongir
(Chhatarpur), Sonagir, Nainagiri, Badagaon, Pateriaji, Nisaiji etc. are in this region.[1]

Jain communities
Bundelkhand is home to several Jain communities:

 Parwar
 Golapurva
 Golalare
 Teranpanthi (including Samaiya, Charanagare and Ayodhyavasi)
 Kathanera (also known as Kathanere)
The Khandelwals were originally from Rajasthan, but they have been present in Bundelkhand
since ancient times.

Navalsah Chanderia in 1768 in his Vardhamana Purana mentioned 11 communities that were
partly Jain. These include:

 Grihapati
 Nema
 Asati
A few among them are still Jain and follow the Teranpanthi sect.

14
 भगवतोर्हतःचन्द्रप्रभस्यप्रतिमेऽयंकारितामहाराजाधिराज-श्री-
रामगुप्तेनउपदेशात्पाणिपात्रिक-चन्द्रक्षमाचार्य्य-क्षमण-श्रमण-
प्रशिष्य-आचार्य्यसर्प्पसेन-क्षमण-शिष्यस्यगोलक्यान्त्या-
सत्पुत्रस्यचेलु-क्षमणस्येति
The Ramagupta inscription found near Vidisha 375 CE

Śvetāmbara Terapanth is a sect of the Śvetāmbara Jainism that was founded by Acharya
Bhikshu in Vikram Samvat 1817. Acharya Bhikshu believed in strict adherence to the
canonical code of conduct for ascetics as prescribed by Lord Mahavira. Acharya Bhikshu
rigorously followed the principles and thus set an example for all to follow. He showed the
way for the life of discipline, purity and self-control.He opposed the contemporaneous laxity
in the conduct of the ascetics of the Sthanakvasi sect and suggested reformation, but his
suggestions were not well received by his colleagues and his guru, Acharya Raghunathji.Due
to the conflict, Acharya Bhikshu, along with a few monks who supported his views, separated
from Acharya Raghunathji at Bagadi (Marwar) in Vikram Samvat 1817 (28 June 1760),
Chaitra Shukla Navami. This marked the beginning of the Śvetāmbara Terapanth.

The Terapanth religious sect is known for its finely organized structure which operates under
the complete direction of one Acharya, who serves as the supreme head of the order. With a
history of over 200 years, the sect has had only eleven Acharyas, with the current supreme
head being Acharya Shri Mahashraman ji, who is the eleventh Acharya. The sect consists of
over 850 monks, nuns, Samans, and Samanis (a rank between ascetics and lay-followers) who
adhere to strict codes of discipline, and has millions of followers worldwide. The sect
emphasizes non-violence, vegetarianism, and strict adherence to the canonical code of
conduct for ascetics. The sect's followers are called Terapanthis, and they have a strong
tradition of seva (selfless service) and sadhana (spiritual practice).

The Terapanthi monks and nuns follow a strict discipline that includes celibacy, non-
possession, non-violence, truthfulness, and meditation. They lead a simple lifestyle and wear
white robes. The sect also encourages the practice of ahimsa (non-violence) towards all living
beings.[

The Terapanthi community has a significant presence in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and
Madhya Pradesh in India. The Terapanthi order is strict in its non-idolatrous approach, which
means that they do not worship or believe in the use of idols for religious purposes. Instead,
they focus on the importance of self-control, self-discipline, and meditation and have lakhs of
followers in many parts of the world including Nepal, the United States, Canada, and the
United Kingdom.

15
Śvetāmbara Terapanth's 11th Acharya Shree Mahashramanji// A diorama in Jain Museum of Madhuban depicting
nomenclature of Terapanth//Acharya Shri Bhikshu, the founder and first spiritual head of Śvetāmbara Terapanth

Once, thirteen Shravakas (lay-followers) were doing Samayika in a big shop in Jodhpur's
market. Fatechandji, the Divan (the Chief Minister of Jodhpur-State), saw this unusual sight
and asked them curiously, “Why are you doing your Samayika here in a shop, not
a Sthanaka?” The Shravakas told him the whole story of how Muni Bhikhanaji had left
Acharya Raghunathaji and explained the ideological differences between them. The Divan
understood and praised Swami Bhikanji's position. He asked, "How many followers does his
new path have? They said, “Sir! We are thirteen.” The Divan also asked about the number of
monks with Swami Bhikanji. They said, “Monks are also thirteen.” The Divan said, “It is
amazing that both the monks and the lay followers are thirteen.”

At that time, a poet was standing nearby. He instantly composed a verse —

“Sadha sadha ro gilo karai, te to apa aparo manta, Sunajyo re shahar ra loka, ai Terapanthi
tanta”
So, the new group became known as ‘Terapanth’ meaning — a sect of thirteen monks.
When Acharya Bhikshu heard about this name, he gave it another meaning. He got
down from his seat, bowed to Lord Mahavira, and said happily,

"O Lord! It is thy (tera) path (panth). I am just a follower of it."

Thus Acharya Bhikshu made Terapanth mean “the Lord’s path” and also gave it more
religious significance: (In vernacular language, “tera” means “your” and “thirteen”). “Tera”
also means thirteen basic rules for the Jain ascetics: the Five Mahavratas, the Five Samitis,
and the Three restraints (Guptis) belong to the order of Terapanth Sect.

Terapanth's Constitution (Maryada Patra)

Initially, Acharya Bhikshu did not have any intention of establishing an organized sangha
based on his spiritual path. His sole objective was to attain the highest spiritual good and
bliss, even if it meant sacrificing his life. However, as time passed, many monks and nuns
joined him, and eventually, he gained thousands of followers. Acharya Bhikshu spent several
years closely examining the behavior and practices of the monastic code. He then established

16
the constitution, rules, and regulations for the Terapanth order, aiming to infuse it with
vitality while preserving purity of conduct, fostering cordial relations among its members,
and ensuring strict discipline, effective management, and wholehearted dedication, with the
Acharya serving as the central figure.

The main features of the Constitution of Terapanth are:

Maryada Patra or Letter of Conduct

written by Acharya Shree Bhiksu in Rajasthani language nearly 200 years ago

1. All the monks and the nuns should follow only one (Current) Acharya.
2. Chaturmas, sojourns on foot etc. will be done according to Acharya's instructions.
3. The present Acharya will choose his successor, who has to be accepted by all the
members of the order as their next Acharya.
4. Only the Acharya, and no one else, can initiate any monk or nun as his/her disciple.
5. All things like clothes, utensils, books and manuscripts will belong to the Acharya,
and not as personal property.
Although the Acharya is the highest authority of the order, he may ask for the opinion of the
learned monks or nuns for his decision. Also, he may invite them to join in the discussions
over disputed issues.

Acharya Bhikshu made the constitution and presented it to each monk and nun separately.
Everyone agreed to it and signed it in support of it. That signed document of Maryadas are
still safe today

The Bhadavar region (Bhind, Morena, Etawah) is adjacent to Bundelkhand and is home to
some like:

 Barhiya
 Golalare
 Kharaua
 Padmavati Purwar
 Lamenchu
 Jaiswal
 Golsinghare
 Budhele

Overall, the Jains play an important role in the cultural and social landscape of Bundelkhand,
reflecting the broader traditions and values of Jainism.The Jain community and the Parwar Jains
in particulat about whom we know more than of the others, are a community of Jains primarily

17
found in the Bundelkhand region of India, which includes parts of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh. They are traditionally associated with the Digambar sect of Jainism, one of the two main
sects, the other being Svetambara.

Key Characteristics of the Parwar Jains:

1. Historical Background: The Parwar Jains have a rich historical presence in

Bundelkhand, often linked to trade and commerce. They have contributed to the
economic development of the region.
2. Occupation: Historically, many members of the community have been involved in
business and trade. They are known for their entrepreneurial spirit and have established
businesses in various sectors.
3. Cultural Practices: The Parwar Jains follow Jain religious practices, which include
rituals, festivals, and customs that emphasize non-violence (ahimsa) and truth (satya).
They also celebrate major Jain festivals like Paryushana and Mahavir Jayanti.
4. Community Structure: The Parwar Jain community often has a well-defined social
structure, with various sub-groups and clans. They maintain strong community ties and
often engage in collective decision-making.
5. Language and Literature: The community speaks Hindi and dialects of
Bundelkhandi. They have also contributed to Jain literature and culture in the region.
6. Religious Sites: There are several Jain temples in Bundelkhand that are significant to
the Parwar Jains, showcasing their architectural and cultural heritage.

The Jain temples of Khajuraho are a part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site
of Khajuraho. They are located in Chhatarpur district, Madhya Pradesh, India, about 175
kilometres southeast of the city of Jhansi.These Jain temples are located on east-southeast
region of Khajuraho monuments. Chausath yogini temple features 64 yogini, while Ghantai
temple features bells sculptured on its pillars.

Hindu Jain Heritage of different times

Khajuraho, previously known as Kharjuravahaka, is an ancient city in Madhya Pradesh. It was

built during the medieval times by the Chandela Dynasty. The city’s intricate sculptures and
majestic temples make it one of the most significant historical sites in the country. The grandiose
of the statues and temples makes Khajuraho one of the most popular tourist places in Madhya
Pradesh.

The specific king who initiated the construction of the Khajuraho temples was King
Chandravarman. Under his rule, the temples began to be built around the 10th century. However,
it was during the reign of his successors, especially King Dhanga and King Yasovarman, that the
majority of the temples were constructed. These kings, along with subsequent rulers, continued to
build and expand the temple complex over several generations. The name Chaturbhuja (l"One
who has four arms") is an epithet of Vishnu. The temple was built by Yasovarman of the
Chandela Dynasty in c. 1100 CE. This is the only temple in Khajuraho which lacks erotic
sculptures.

As part of the Khajuraho Group of Monuments , the temple was inscribed on the UNESCO
World Heritage List in 1986 because of its architecture and testimony to the Chandela dynasty.

18
The main idol in the temple is of four-armed Lord Vishnu (also seen in the image). It is 2.7
meters in height. This idol is south faced as the favorite location of Vishnu.

The Khajuraho temples are renowned for their intricate carvings, exquisite architecture, and
depiction of various aspects of life, mythology, and spirituality. They were dedicated to both
Hindu and Jain deities, reflecting the religious diversity of the time.

Khajuraho temples were mostly built between 950 and 1050 by the Chandela dynasty. The
Khajuraho temple site had 85 temples by the 12th century which originally were spread over 20
square kilometers. Out of these, only about 25 temples have survived spreading over six square
kilometers. They represent a beautiful demonstration of relationships, spiritual teachings and
meditation via stunning art. The temples are divided into three different clusters - the Eastern,
Western and Southern Khajuraho group of monuments. These remaining clusters of temples
represent the quality and originality of the Nagara-style architecture.

The layout plan of Kandariya Mahadeva

Temple. It uses the 64 pada grid design. Smaller Khajuraho temples use the 9, 16, 36 or 49 grid
mandala plan.
Almost all Hindu temple designs, follow a grid geometrical design called vastu-purusha-
mandala. This design plan has three important components – Mandala means
circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the

19
dwelling structure.The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, concentrically
layered, self-repeating structure around the core of the temple called garbhagriya, where the
abstract principle Purusha and the primary deity of the temple dwell. The shikhara, or spire,
of the temple rises above the garbhagriya. This symmetry and structure in design is derived
from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles. The circle of mandala
circumscribe the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic
product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and
observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other.
The square is divided into perfect 64 sub-squares called padas.

Most Khajuraho temples deploy the 8x8 (64) padas grid Manduka Vastupurushamandala, with pitha
mandala the square grid incorporated in the design of the spires. primary deity or lingas are located in
the grid's Brahma padas.

The architecture is symbolic and reflects the central Hindu beliefs through its form, structure,
and arrangement of its parts. The mandapas, as well as the arts, are arranged in the
Khajuraho temples in a symmetric repeating patterns, even though each image or sculpture is
distinctive in its own way. The relative placement of the images are not random but together
they express ideas, just like connected words form sentences and paragraphs to compose
ideas.[] This fractal pattern that is common in Hindu temples .Various statues and panels have
inscriptions. Many of the inscriptions on the temple walls are poems with double meanings,
something that the complex structure of Sanskrit allows in creative compositions.

All Khajuraho temples, except one, face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is this east
side. Above the vastu-purusha-mandala of each temple is a superstructure with a dome
called Shikhara (or Vimana, Spire). Variations in spire design come from variation in
degrees turned for the squares. The temple Shikhara, in some literature, is linked to mount
Kailash or Meru, the mythical abode of the gods.

In each temple, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the pilgrim to
walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa and the main deity. The pillars, walls,
and ceilings around the space, as well as outside have highly ornate carvings or images of the
four just and necessary pursuits of life – kama, artha, dharma, and moksa. This clockwise
walk around is called pradakshina.[

Larger Khajuraho temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One near the entrance, on
the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapas are also

20
Khajuraho temples use the 8×8 (64) Vastupurusamandala Manduka grid layout plan (left) found
in Hindu temples. Above the temple’s brahma padas is a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises
symmetrically above the central core, typically in a circles and turning-squares concentric
layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.

arranged by principles of symmetry, grids, and mathematical precision. This use of same
underlying architectural principle is common in Hindu temples found all over India. Each
Khajuraho temple is distinctly carved yet also repeating the central common principles in
almost all Hindu temples, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as "an organism of
repeating cells".

21
An illustration of Khajuraho temple Spires (Shikhara, Vimana) built using concentric circle and
rotating-squares principle. Four spires (left) are shown above, while the inside view of one
Shikara ceiling (right) shows the symmetric layout.

Hindu Lakshman Temple

Parshvanatha temple, Khajuraho, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Khajuraho Sculpture: A Pure Indian Art of Eroticism

22
Khajuraho temples are the only monuments in India which are famous for erotic sculptures,
not for architecture unlike other monuments. The Khajuraho complex of temples is a
UNESCO recognized world heritage site, one of the popular tourist attractions in the Madhya
Pradesh travel guide. A pillar of Madhya Pradesh tourism, Khajuraho speaks of society’s
liberal view of human sexuality in the bygone era. It symbolizes human passion, while the
Taj Mahal stands for love.

Khajuraho Temples stand for human passion

Khajuraho sculpture was a study of eroticism

The erotic art of Khajuraho Temples has been interpreted in different ways in different times.
The most popular theory refers to an important purpose of erotic sculpture on the outer
surface of the temples in Khajuraho. The purpose was to teach boys the art of eroticism and
its significance in human life once they attained manhood after the Brahmacharya phase of
life in hermitage. The study of human passion depicted by Khajuraho sculptures was part of
their preparation for the worldly role of householder.
Another popular theory of the erotic art refers to the then belief in the power of Tantrism, in
the Chandela era between 950 and 1150. The ardent followers of Tantrism believed that the
infinite could be achieved through the fulfillment of earthly desires. As the Chandelas were
diehard believers of Tantrism, they patronized the study of eroticism in form of sculpture.

Misconceptions about Khajuraho temple sculptures

According to historians and archaeologists, only 10% of the sculptural carvings on the outer
surface of the walls of Khajuraho architecture depict eroticism as an art. The rest of the
carvings depict day-to-day life of different people such as farmers, potters, musicians and
carpenters from different walks of society. The erotic sculpture depicting sexual indulgence
of humans of opposite genders is often wrongly referred to as Kamasutra. The Khajuraho
sculpture is an aesthetic art depicting eroticism without rawness and vulgarity. It neither
titillates the senses nor excites basic instincts. Many fail to perceive the purity and
aestheticism of Khajuraho art.

Historic Mythology

Apart from the Khajuraho history, there is a legend. The curiosity about the origin of
Khajuraho temples runs high until the legend is explored. According to the legend, the
creators of Khajuraho were descendants of the moon god in Indian mythology. It begins with
the story of Hemavati, daughter of a Brahmin priest. The then society did not welcome the
apparently unusual union of a god and a mortal as it was not solemnized as per traditions and
through rituals. Being unwed mother of a son, Hemavati suffered harassment in society.
Stung by unkind words, she retreated to the dense forest of present Madhya Pradesh in

23
Central India. She brought up the child in the wilderness. When the boy grew up, he became
founder of the Chandela dynasty.After he became a powerful ruler, his mother visited him in
dream and requested him to build temples that would concretize human passions in form of
art. She told him that passion is nothing but an overwhelming human desire for love.
Touched by the emptiness of his mother’s life, Chandravarman commissioned the
construction of the first group of Khajuraho temples. The other temples in Khajuraho Town
were built by his successors. If the legend is believed, the temples stand for love in
Khajuraho.

Did Chandravarman, the first king of Chandela dynasty and the creator of the first of
Khajuraho temples, visualize his creation something like this? A grand tribute to his celestial
father – none other than the moon god himself. The legend of Khajuraho is based on the
account of the medieval court poet, Chandbardai, in the Mahoba-khand of his Prithviraj Raso.
By the time Chandravarman was 16 years old he could kill tigers or lions with his bare hands.
Delighted by his feats, Hemavati invoked the Moon god, who presented their son with a
touchstone which could turn iron into gold, and installed him as king at Khajuraho.

Chandravarman achieved a series of brilliant victories and built a mighty fortress at

Kalinjar. At his mother’s request he began the building of 85 glorious temples with lakes and
gardens at Khajuraho and performed the bhandya-yagya which expunged her of her guilt.

Thus began 200 year long dream-project of Chandela dynasty that resulted in 85 temples, of
which only 22 survive now.

By Shrirang Khandekarin

History & TemplesART & SCULPTURE

To distinguish the Jain period construction from Hindu can be done from the numerous Jain
inscriptions from the Chandella period have been found in Khajurao. The earliest is the
Samvat 1011 (AD 954) in the Parshvanath Temple, and the last is Samvat 1234 (1177 AD, it
is also the last Chandella era inscription in Khajuraho. Pratishtha events must have taken

24
place in Samvat 1205 and 1215 with multiple images of those years. During the time of
Kirttivarman (reigned c. 1060–1100 CE), the capital shifted to Mahoba, and Khajuraho
declined. The Jain activity resumed around samvat 1915 (1858 AD), when the temples were
repaired and installation of new images was restarted.

The Khajuraho group of temples belong to Vaishnavism school of Hinduism, Saivism school
of Hinduism and Jainism – nearly a third each. Archaeological studies suggest all three types
of temples were under construction at about the same time in the late 10th century, and in use
simultaneously. Will Durant states that this aspect of Khajuraho temples illustrates the
tolerance and respect for different religious viewpoints in the Hindu and Jain traditions. [55] In
each group of Khajuraho temples, there were major temples surrounded by smaller temples –
a grid style that is observed to varying degrees in Hindu temples in Angkor Wat, Parambaran
and South India.

The largest surviving Shiva temple is Khandarya Mahadeva, while the largest surviving
Vaishnava group includes Chaturbhuja and Ramachandra.

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple plan is 109 ft in length by 60 ft, and rises 116 ft above ground
and 88 ft above its own floor. The central padas are surrounded by three rows of sculptured
figures, with over 870 statues, most being half life size (2.5 to 3 feet). The spire is a self-
repeating fractal structure.

Temples, religious affiliations and consecration years

Completed
Sequence Modern temple name Religion Deity by Image
(CE)

Devi,
1 Chausath Yogini Hinduism 885
64 Yoginis

2 Lalguan Mahadev Hinduism Shiva 900

3 Brahma Temple Hinduism Shiva 925

Vaikuntha
4 Lakshmana Hinduism 939
Vishnu

25
Temples, religious affiliations and consecration years

Completed
Sequence Modern temple name Religion Deity by Image
(CE)

5 Varaha Hinduism Varaha 950

6 Parshvanatha Jainism Parshvanatha 954

7 Ghantai Jainism Adinatha 960

8 Mahishasuramardini Hinduism Parvati 995

9 Vishvanatha Hinduism Shiva 999

10 Matangeshwar Hinduism Shiva 1000

11 Vishnu-Garuda Hinduism Vishnu 1000

Beejamandal Temple
12 Hinduism Shiva 1000
ruins

13 Ganesha Hinduism Shiva 1000

26
Temples, religious affiliations and consecration years

Completed
Sequence Modern temple name Religion Deity by Image
(CE)

Devi
14 Jagadambi Hinduism 1023
Jagadambi

15 Chitragupta Hinduism Chitragupta 1023

16 Adinath Temple Jainism Adinatha 1027

17 Shantinatha temple Jainism Shantinatha 1027

Kandariya
18 Mahadeva (the largest Hinduism Shiva 1029
temple)

19 Vamana Hinduism Vamana 1062

27
 Temples, religious affiliations and consecration years

Completed
Sequence Modern temple name Religion Deity by Image
(CE)

20 Javeri Hinduism Shiva 1090

21 Chaturbhuja Hinduism Vishnu 1110

22 Duladeo (Duladeva) Hinduism Shiva 1125

There are 31 (Thirty one) Jain Temples in total. But from architectural point of view the
Parsvanath, the Adinath and the Shantinath temples are relatively more important and
noteworthy. These temples are unique examples of religious harmony and spirit of
accommodation. Atishay (Miracle). The Jain temple complex was recently developed, with
shops and a small museum displaying Jain images salvaged from the vicinity. A gateway
leads into the enclosed complex, to one side of which is the Dharamshala, the hostel for
visiting devotees. To the left is a temple that is in worship, called the shantinath. This temple
is an assemblage of the fragments, pillars and images from older temples and is built around a
courtyard. In the central niche is the tall (4.5 metre) image of Adhinath. The path leads to
another enclosure within which are two interesting temples. The main temples of the Jain
group of temples in khajuraho are: The Parshavnath Temple, Shantinath Temple and Adinath
Temple. The Shantinath Temple is famous for its 14 feet high standing idol, the 16th Jain
tirthankara. According to an inscription on it, it is installed in Vikrama-Samvat 1085 (1028
AD). This idol is full of miracle. Shri 1008 Lord Shantinath temple is the main temple with 4
ft. high colossus in the standing posture, the highest idol of all idols (deity images) of
Khajuraho. This temple contains a large number of remarkably gracious images of
Tirthankaras. This temple also contains a picture-gallery, which exhibits photos of prominent
Jain monuments of India as a whole, in a chronological manner.

Shantinath Temple is a modern composite structure that incorporates sections of several

temples. It has several shrines. The main section has a 12 feet tall idol of Lord Shantinath
with an inscription of Sam. 1085. The Parsvanath temple is famous in the world as it contains
some of the most excellent sculptures of Khajuraho e.g. figures of Lakshmi- Narain, Balram-
Reoti, eight Dikpalas (i.e. Indra, Agni, Yama, Nirriti, Varuna, Vayu, Kuber and Isan),

28
Ambika, Kamdev-Rati, Ram-Sita along with Hanuman. This temple is also privileged to
possess the best art pieces of Sura-Sundaris (Divine Nymphs) in various attractive postures.

Two of the large temples still stand in a good state of preservation in the original form. The
portico of the Adinath temple is a later addition. The enclosed Shantinath temple houses a
massive monolithic Shantinath image. It also incorporates at least one other Chandella period
temple. To the east of these temples are several small Chandella temples that have been
restored using masonry. The temple complex underwent restoration in 1870 AD, when
a Gajarath festival was organized by Kanchhedtilal Jain of Nagaur marking a renewal of the
site accompanied by installations of new images, as indicated by the inscriptions. [5] The stone
structures were stabilized using masonry and the Shantinath temple was constructed
incorporating two Chandella period temples.

There is a museum called Sahu Shanti Prasad Jain Samgrahalaya right outside the main
compound constructed in 1984 to house sculptures of historical and artistic merit. There is a
dharmashala to the south for the pilgrims.

Parshvanath Temple

Parshvanatha temple is a 10th-century Jain temple at Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, India.

It is now dedicated to Parshvanatha, although it was probably built as an Adinatha shrine
during the Chandela period. Despite the temple's Jain affiliation, its exterior walls
feature Vaishnavaite themes. The entrance has an inscription with a most-perfect magic
square. It is part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site along with other temples in
the Khajuraho Group of Monuments, because of its outstanding art, architecture, and
testimony of the Chandela period.
Approx 1100 years ago, Paahil who was a Jain devotee constructed these temples. The region
which we call Bundelkhand was earlier known as Chedi Desh and between 9th to 13th
century it was ruled by the Kings of Chandel dynasty for approx 500 years. Their capital was
first established in Khajuraho. Here total 84 temples were constructed between 9th to 13th

29
century, out of which only 34 temples remain today. These temples through their grandeur,
even today seem to sing the glory of their builders and Jainism.

It is an interesting fact that during the rule of Chandela King Dhangadeva, Paahil constructed
the temple dedicated to Tirthankar Adinath. An inscription was also discovered from the
entrance gate of the temple mentioning the Vikram Samvat 1011 (954 A.D) where he
requested future generation to safeguard the temple. This temple was dedicated to
Tirthankara Adinath but the idol of Tirthankar Adinath got damaged and it was replaced by
the new idol of Tirthankara Parshvanath. So now this temple is known as Shri Parshvanath
temple which is under the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

An another inscription from the damaged idol of third Tirthankara Shri Sambhavnath Swami,
it was discovered that Pahil's father name was Dedu and faith that Pahil had towards Jina
Dharma and Jianyatans (Jain temple or Jinalaya) remained the same for hundreds of years in
their family. Even the name of teacher of Pahil is also inscribed and his name
was Srivasavchandra who was well known, long lived Digambar Jain Acharya. He lived till
Samvat 1066 and had also composed many texts. In those days the followers of Jainism in
Khajuraho were not only more in numbers but they also had status and respect no less than
anyone else with the good relationship with Kings or rulers. The name of craftsmen are also
mentioned here and there in the temple in which many names like, Jaisingh, Mahul, Dev
Sharma, Golal etc are read.The secret of the eternal beauty of this temple, which captivates
the mind, even when seen from the distance, lies in the image of its lofty peak. This 68 feet
long and 35 feet wide temple is built in Nagara style. The peak (Shikhar) of the temple
imagined on the basis of Meru, starts from the top of the roof and as it moves up, its
circumference gets narrower, which in others remains only the base of the wheel
or chakra. There is no electricity in this temple and when we visited, we saw there were
many bats inside the temple. If ASI can install a lattice door at the main entrance of the
temple, then we can rid of this problem to maintain the sanctity of this heritage. Jain devotees
are allowed here for worship and to perform pujan.
The temple is believed to have been constructed by a prominent Jain family between 950 and
970 CE, during the reign of the Chandela king Dhanga. A 954 CE (1011 VS) inscription on
the left door jamb of the temple records gifts and endowments of gardens by one Pahila. The
gardens are named Pahila-vatika, Chandra-vatika, Laghuchandra-vatika, Shankara-vatika,
Panchaitala-vatika, Amra-vatika and Dhanga-vadi. The inscription describes Pahila as a
devotee of Jinanatha and states that he was held in great esteem by the king Dhanga.

The earliest idol enshrined in the temple appears to have been that of Adinatha. When the
British archaeological surveyor Alexander Cunningham visited in 1852, he found the
main sanctum deserted. He described it as "Jinanatha temple" and wrote that it had been
repaired by a Jain banker in 1847. In 1860, a Parshvanatha idol was installed in the main
sanctum. An Adinatha statue was placed in a secondary shrine attached to the rear of the
temple.

The temple has been classified as a Monument of National Importance by the Archaeological
Survey of India.

The Parshvanatha temple is the largest among the Jain temples of Khajuraho. It has an
entrance porch, a small hall, a large hall (mandapa), a vestibule, and a sanctum. The temple
structure has an oblong architectural plan with projections at two ends. The front (eastern)
projection forms the entrance porch, the back (western) projection is a shrine attached to the

30
sanctum.The ceiling of the entrance porch features chain and floral patterns, and a pair of
intertwined flying vidyadharas. The door-lintel of the mandapa has the sculpture of
Adinatha's attendant: a ten-armed Chakreshvari riding a Garuda. The sanctum features
sculptures of the Jinas.

Interior of the temple with Jain deities

The outer walls have three bands of sculptures. These sculptures

feature surasundaris (graceful women), flying couples, dancers, musicians, and celestial
beings. Despite the temple's Jain affiliation, the outer walls also depict Vaishnavite themes
including sculptures of Hindu gods and their incarnations with their consorts. These
include Vishnu-Lakshmi, Rama-Sita, Balarama-Revati, Parashurama, Hanuman, Brahma and
Yamalarjuna legend of Krishna. These sculptures are similar to those of the Lakshmana
Temple in modeling, proportions and poise. Unlike the Lakshmana temple, the Parshvanatha
temple doesn't feature explicit erotic sculptures, although one particular image appears to
show a cross-legged apsara masturbating with an object.

Three bands of sculpture on the exterior wall

Close-up of the exterior sculptures featuring the Cross-legged apsara and Vishnu-
Lakshmi at extreme left

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Goddess// Couple/Surasundari applying eye makeup//Tirthankara flanked by surasundaris
and vyalas//Kama and Rati
Magic square

The inscription containing the 4×4 most-perfect magic square

The temple has an inscription with a magic square, called the "Jaina square". This is one of
the oldest known 4×4 magic squares as well as one of the oldest known most-perfect magic
squares.

This magic square contains all the numbers from 1 to 16. The sum of the numbers in every
horizontal row, every vertical column and the two diagonal rows is 34.

7 12 1 14

2 13 8 11

16 3 10 5

The sum of the numbers in the smaller 2x2 squares at the four corners, as well as those in the
central 2x2 square, is also 34

7 12 1 14

2 13 8 11

16 3 10 5

9 6 15 4

The magic square is pandiagonal, aka diabolic: the numbers in its broken diagonals also sum
up to 34. For example, 7 + (6 + 10 + 11) = 34.

7 12 1 14

2 13 8 11

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 16 3 10 5

9 6 15 4

Adinath Temple

The Jain Adinatha temple is located at Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, India. It is dedicated
to the Jain tirthankara Adinatha, although its exterior walls also feature Hindu deities. This
temple is part of UNESCO World Heritage Site along with other temples in Khajuraho Group
of Monuments. It is dated to the late 11th century CE and was probably constructed slightly
later than the Vamana temple. Situated next to the Parshvanath temple, this temple is slightly
smaller in size and is believed to have been built about a hundred years later. It is also under
ASI but it is well maiIntained with proper cleaning. Jain devotees are allowed here for
worship and pujan. This temple holds a special place among the contemporary temples due to
its Nagar style of the late medieval period. The pavilion in front of this temple situated on a

33
high base had been destroyed due to age, which was later made of brick and lime.
The pradakshina path is not within it and the garbhagriha is simple. The entrance gate of this
temple is in perfect condition with all its decorative sculpture splendour and attractive
carvings of goddess and yakshini.

In this temple, the black stone idol of Tirthankar Shri Adinath, dated 1215 is placed. An
inscription on the idol mentions the consecration of this idol was done during the reign
of Shri Madanvarma by the person namely Salhe, on Maghsudi 5 of Samvat 1215.

Sixteen Dreams of mother of a Tirthankara

According to Jain Puranas, before the birth of a Tirthankara, his mother saw sixteen dreams.
On the basis of these dreams it is sure that she is going to have the honour of becoming the
mother of Tirthankara. In ancient times, there was a tradition of inscribing these sixteen
dreams on the gateway of the temple. These have been listed in sequence in the Jain Agamas.

34
Approx twelve gateways are found in Khajuraho and beautiful carvings of sixteen dreams are
found in all of them. These Toran Dwaar (arches) are visible here and there in the Jain
temples of Khajuraho. As per experts, the most beautiful carving of the sixteen dreams has
been done on the entrance of Shri Adinath temple. Here the dream is described in full detail
with great clarity. Here two defaced and damaged idols of Tirthankaras are placed in standing
posture and above this a panel is visible where sixteen dreams of mother of a Tirthankara are
beautifully carved.

In the garbhgraha, there is a black schist (or basalt) statue of Lord Adinath with a three line
inscription. It gives the date (samvat 1215 (1158 AD). It gives the name of the donor as
Kumarnandi and the sculptor as Ramaveva. It mention that Kumarnandi was the disciple of
Bhanukirti, who was disciple of Rajanandi, who was disciple of Ramachandra of Mula
Sangha. The inscription includes 3 shardulavikridita verses in literary Sanskrit.

The temple has been classified as a Monument of National Importance by the Archaeological
Survey of India.

The plan and design of the Adinatha temple is similar to that of the Vamana temple. There
are only a few differences between the two temples. For example, the top row of the outer
wall of the Adinatha temple depicts a flying vidyadhara, while that of the Vamana temple
shows diamond-shaped decorations. The curvilinear tower of the Adinatha temple is of better

35
proportions than that of the Vamana temple. This, combined with a somewhat more evolved
sculptural style, suggests that the Adinatha temple was constructed after the Vamana temple.

Only two major parts of the temple now survive: the vestibule and the sanctum.The roof of
the vestibule is particularly remarkable for its elegant design.

Sculptures
The exterior walls of the temple have three bands of sculptures
featuring surasundaris (graceful women), flying vidyadhara couples, vyalas (mythical lion-
like being), and a dancer with musicians. Despite the shrine's Jain affiliation, the external
walls also feature carvings of the Hindu deities. The niches feature sculptures of the
Jain Yakshinis: Ambika, Chakreshvari, and Padmavati.

Adinatha temple sculptures/// a sculpture/// Chandela-era statue of Adinatha in the sanctum

One sculpture found at the temple shows a sitting Adinatha with an ushnisha on his head. It
features a dharmachakra with a small bull figure. The right side of the seat has the figure of a
pot-bellied yaksha with a cup and a moneybag in his hands. The left side has the figure of
the yakshini Chakreshvari sitting on a Garuda. She has four arms; each of the two upper arms
hold a chakra.

Another sculpture with similar iconography also features a yaksha, a yakshini, and a bull with
a dharmachakra. The Adinatha is shown sitting in padmasana pose on a cushioned seat with
lotuses and diamond motifs.

Shantinatha temple
Shantinatha temple is a Jain temple located among the Jain temple cluster in
eastern Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, India. While its main deity is the
Jain tirthankara Shantinatha, it includes 18 shrines with numerous Jain images.

36
This huge temple has a 12 feet high idol of Tirthankara Shri Shantinath Swami with an
inscription mentioned on the pedestal dated as Vikram Samvat 1085. Sir Alexander
Cunningham had seen the inscription on the pedestal of this idol in 1852 during his first visit
to Khajuraho but in 1884 he read the following terminology on the pedestal:

"Samvat 1085, Srimat Achrayaputra, Sri Thakur, Sri Devdharsut, Sri Sri Sri
Chandradeva, made an idol of Sri Shantinatha" (Survey Report, Volume 21, Page 61)

At present, there are splashes of lime cement on the inscription, due to which its clarity has
been hampered. The tallest idol currently available in Khajuraho is that of sixteenth
Tirthankara Shri Shantinath Swami. In the middle of the throne Dharmachakra and symbol of
Tirthankar Shantinath, deer are depicted. Almost all the temples of Khajuraho are built facing
east but the face of this temple is towards west. There are approx 18 altars and recently ASI
issued an notification to take control of this temple. At present abhishek, pujan is done
regularly here by Digambar Jain community. There are many such important artefacts here,
which are not seen anywhere else in Khajuraho.
Architecture
Although the present-day temple structure features modern renovations, the nucleus of the
temple is quite old. It features an oblong enclosure of shrine cells depicting the older
sculptures. The temple has a courtyard. Two sides of the structure incorporate Chandella
period structures. The temple and the images installed thus span 10 centuries.

The present structure is a quadrangle, as many Jain temples of the nineteenth century are,
with an open courtyard in the middle. The older stone structure and elements are clearly seen
embedded in the 19th century masonry structure.

Shrine 1 in the center contains the ancient Shantinath image which is flanked by smaller
images of all the 24 tirthankara. The doorway includes the conventional images of goddess
Ganga and Yamuna, and there is notable image of the guardian deity Kshetrapala. The 18
shrines house numerous 11/12th century and 19th/20th century images. Some of the ancient
images were brought here from ruined Jain temples in Fatehpur (near Hatta in damoh dist)

37
and Bilahri in Katni district. One of the wings of the quadrangle serves as a gallery displaying
historical photographs and prints from early 2oth century.

The sanctum of the temple has a 4.3 m high statue of Shantinatha. There are several other old
as well as new Jain statues in the temple. One of the sculpture appears to be a carving
of Mahavira's parents, which is noted for its artistic execution.

Lord Shantinatha, 1028 AD, shrine 1, with worshippers/ Lord Bahubali (modern),
shrine ////Lord Adinath, Chandella period, shrine 6 (Note Navagraha, Sarvanha and
Chakreshwari in the platform

There is a very beautiful artefact in this temple which is marked as parents of Tirthankara.
Although as per the iconography this artefact belongs to Yaksha Yakshi of Tirthankara, the
protective deity. In other parts of India the same style has been recognised as the guarding
deity of Tirthankara. Here couple is sitting engrossed in a graceful posture with some
dignified divine aura on their faces. Male and female both figured has quince in their hands

38
and the goddess has small child in one hand. Behind their seat is the Kalpavriksha on which
the image of the revered Tirthankara seated on a throne has been depicted. Once seen, the
immense beauty of this charming couple statue does not go away from the eyes. Such a
beautiful combination of shape, type and beauty is rarely seen anywhere else.
The temple has been classified as a Monument of National Importance by the Archaeological
Survey of India. This temple is part of UNESCO World Heritage Site along with other
temples in Khajuraho Group of Monuments, listed for their testimony to
the Chandela dynasty and their outstanding art and architecture.

The temple incorporates two Chandella period shrines, along with fragment of other
Chandella period temples. The present structure may have been constructed in 1870 CE,
when a Gajarath festival was organized by Kanchhedtilal Jain of Nagaur marking a renewal
of the site accompanied by installations of new images, as indicated by the inscriptions.

The pedestal of the 12 foot Shantinath image in the Shantinatha temple bears an inscription
dated Samvat 1085 (1027-28 CE) mentioning the installation by Chandradeva, the son of
Thakur Devadhar.The inscription is now hidden under plaster. The original Shantinatha
temple has been incorporated the 19th century structure, and is now the main centre of Jain
worship in Khajuraho.

The Ruined Ghantai Temple

Chain-and-bell (ghanti) motif on the pillar and richly carved ceiling

The Ghantai temple, also known as the Ghanti temple, is a ruined Jain temple in
the Khajuraho town of Madhya Pradesh, India. Similar in style to the Parshvanatha temple, it
was dedicated to the Jain tirthankara Rishabhanatha (also known as Adinatha). This temple is
part of UNESCO World Heritage Site along with other temples in Khajuraho Group of
Monuments. The construction of the Ghantai temple can be dated to approximately 995 CE,
during the reign of the Chandela king Dhanga. It is similar to the Parshvanatha temple, but
has a much larger scale, which indicates that it was constructed after the Parshvanatha
temple.[4]

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When Alexander Cunningham surveyed the temple ruins in the 19th century, he assumed it to
be a Buddhist shrine because of a Buddha statue found near the site. However, later studies
have established it to be a Jain temple.

The temple has been classified as a Monument of National Importance by the Archaeological
Survey of India.

Architecture
The design of the Ghantai temple is similar to that of the Parshvanatha temple, although the
Ghantai temple is nearly twice larger in size. The temple is now in ruins: its walls have
collapsed. Only the pillars of its entrance porch and its maha-mandapa (large hall) have
survived. The maha-mandapa has an elaborate doorway, but the enclosing walls have
collapsed. The surviving pillars feature a chain-and-bell (ghanti) motif, after which the
temple is now known. The door lintel of the mandapa features
Adinatha's yakshini attendant Chakreshvari. She is depicted as having eight arms and sitting
on a garuda. The architrave on the doorway features carvings of six auspicious symbols said
to have been dreamt by Mahavira's pregnant mother.

The ceiling of the entrance porch features coffers. The oblong panels bordering the ceiling
are carved with figures of dancers and musicians.

A large sculpture, now located at the Khajuraho museum, was found at the Ghantai temple
ruins. This sculpture features figures of 52 Jinas, including a central figure
of Rishabhanatha standing in kayotsarga pose. The sculpture also features Sarvanubhuti on its
left side and a four-armed Chakreshvari on its right side.

1. Adinath Temple in Khajuraho

2. Parshvanath Temple in Khajuraho
3. Ghantinath Temple in Khajuraho
4. Ruins of Ghantai Temple

40
Jain Museum, Khajuraho India/ Image of King Nabhi and Mata Marudevi at Jain Museum,
Khajuraho(alternatively identified as Sarvanubhuti & Kushmandini).

Construction

The temples are grouped into three geographical divisions: western, eastern and southern.

The Khajuraho temples are made of sandstone, with a granite foundation that is almost
concealed from view. The builders didn't use mortar: the stones were put together
with mortise and tenon joints and they were held in place by gravity. This form of
construction requires very precise joints. The columns and architraves were built with
megaliths that weighed up to 20 tons. Some repair work in the 19th Century was done with
brick and mortar; however, these have aged faster than original materials and darkened with
time, thereby seeming out of place.

The Khajuraho and Kalinjar region is home to superior quality of sandstone, which can be
carved precisely. The surviving sculpture reflect fine details such as strands of hair,
manicured nails, and intricate jewelry.

While recording the television show Lost Worlds (History Channel) at Khajuraho, Alex
Evans recreated a stone sculpture under four feet that took about 60 days to carve in an
attempt to develop a rough idea of how much work must have been involved. Roger Hopkins
and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen
22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone. They concluded that these temples would have
required hundreds of highly trained sculptors.

The temple site is within Vindhya mountain range in central India. An ancient local legend
held that Hindu deity Shiva and other gods enjoyed visiting the dramatic hill formation in
Kalinjar area. The center of this region is Khajuraho, set midst local hills and rivers. The
temple complex reflects the ancient Hindu tradition of building temples where gods love to
pray.

The temples are clustered near water, another typical feature of Hindu temples. The current
water bodies include Sib Sagar, Khajur Sagar (also called Ninora Tal) and Khudar
Nadi (river). Local legends state that the temple complex had 64 water bodies, of which 56
have been physically identified by archeologists so far.

All temples, except one (Chaturbhuja) face the sunrise – another symbolic feature that is
predominant in Hindu temples. The relative layout of temples integrate masculine and
feminine deities and symbols highlight the interdependence. The artworks symbolically
highlight the four goals of life considered necessary and proper in Hinduism
– dharma, kama, artha and moksha.

Of the surviving temples, six are dedicated to Shiva, eight to Vishnu and his affinities, one to
Ganesha, one to Sun god, three to Jain Tirthankars. For some ruins, there is insufficient
evidence to assign the temple to specific deities with confidence.

000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

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 II

Māru-Gurjara Architecture

JAINISM Series
Māru-Gurjara Architecture
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 BACKGROUND &INTRODUCTION
Jainism in India

Jainism, founded by Mahavira, flourished in 6th century India. The 6th century India was a
period of social and religious unrest. The old ritualistic Vedic tradition had become a strong
factor for reformation. Besides the intellectual unrest, there were many social and economic
inequalities existing during that period. People wanted a different kind of society and a new
belief system. They started thinking critically about the ills and sorrows of life and their
desire to remove these ills led to the establishment of numerous religious sects, of which
Jainism was one of them. Due to the rigid caste system and other religious and economical
unrest, people wanted a different kind of society and a new belief system. Jainism spread
because of the simple language in which it was preached by Mahavira and later through the
efforts of the Jain munis and patronage extended by the Kings. The equal treatment of all
men and women, irrespective of their caste, helped Jainism gain popularity among people
mistreated under the caste system.

According to Jainism history, during ancient times, the sacred teachings of Jainism were
transmitted through oral traditions, later they were mainly compiled into the twelve Angas.
Mahavira’s teachings emphasised the practice of ahimsa (non-violence). He also laid down a
code of conduct, five vows, for the monks and other adherents to avoid bad karma.

43
The following factors led to the growth of Jainism:
1. Simple language: Mahavira preached his teachings in Prakrit, which was then the
language of the common people, instead of Sanskrit which the people did not understand.
His doctrines were simple which attracted many followers. There is a distinction
between Jain and non-Jain Prakrit literature.

2. Organised religious order: Mahavira left behind a strong organised religious order of
the Jain munis (sages) for the propagation of his doctrines. There were eleven disciples of
Mahavira known as Ganadharas (heads of schools) among whom only Arya Sudharma
survived Mahavira and went to become the first ‘Thera’ (chief preceptor) of the Jain
order. Bhadrabahu was the sixth Thera who migrated to the south and preached Jainism.
The missionary zeal of the Jain munis helped to spread Jainism all over the country.
When Alexander invaded India, Jain munis were present on the banks of the Indus river.
3. Royal Patronage: Many kings patronised Jainism, such as Rashtrakuta or King
Chalukya. It spread to Odisha, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka, and many more states in
India. The spread of Jainism in Karnataka is attributed to Chandragupta Maurya. The
influence of the Jain religion in South India was due to the teachings of Bhadrabahu, the
spiritual teacher of Chandragupta. At the beginning of the Cristian era, Mathura and
Ujjain became seats of power from where Jainism flourished. The Kings’ patronage
helped Jainism to procure a place in people’s minds.
4. Non-discriminatory treatment: Mahavira believed that all human beings are equal and
was of the opinion that everyone has the right to attain ‘moksha’ by pursuing a life of
purity. He preached that there should not be any discrimination on the basis of caste and
even favoured the freedom of women and included them in the Jain Sangha (community).
This helped Jainism gain popularity among people mistreated under the caste system.

Jain Agamas
It is believed that during ancient times, the sacred teachings of Jainism were transmitted
through oral traditions. The original, unadulterated teachings of the Tirthankaras, which are
now lost, are said to have been contained in 14 ancient Purva texts. Jain councils were held to
systemize and preserve the sacred oral teachings.
As per Jainism history, the first council was held at Pataliputra, present-day Patna, followed
by the second councils held simultaneously at Mathura and Vallabhi. The last council was
held at Vallabhi (Gujrat), without the participation of the Digambaras. In the first council, the
Jain monks assembled to put together their sacred knowledge and compile the 11 Angas but
failed to gather the last one, Ditthivada, the 12th Anga due to the absence of Bhadrabahu who
had the knowledge of the fourteen Purvas. His refusal to participate led to the loss of the
Purva knowledge. The Last council held at Vallabhi led to the codification of the Svetambara
canon which is still preached.
The Svetambara canon comprises of 45 works: 12 Angas; 12 Upangas; 10 Prakīrṇakas; 6
Cheda-sutras; 2 Cūlikā-sutras; and 4 Mūla-sutras. These canons were mostly written in the
Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit dialect.
The Digambara canon is written in Jaina Śaurasenī Prakrit and comprises two main texts,
namely, Ṣaṭkhaṇḍāgama and Kaṣāya-prābhṛta, along with three commentaries on the main
texts, and four Anuyogas.

There are several Jain temples that draw pilgrims from Jains around the world in places
such as Palitana, Taranga, Sankheshwar,Idar. Jains believe that propagators of Jain

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religion) Neminath attained Moksha/ Nirvana on Girnar in Gujarat. He was the 22 nd
Thirthankar. Many other monks have also got attained Moksha in Gujarat; especially on the
holy mountains of Girnar and Shatrunjaya. The Jain councils were held in Vallabhi c. 5th
century CE. Their canonical scriptures were written down during this council. King Vanaraja
Chavda (c. 720-780 CE) of the Chavda dynasty was brought up by a Jain monk named
Shilaguna Suri.The earliest known Old Gujarati text Bharat-Bahubali Ras, was written by a
Jain monk Shalibhadra Suri. Of the most important people in Gujarat's Jain history were the
Acharya Hemachandra Suri and his pupil, the Chaulukya ruler Kumarapala.

Jainism has had a notable following in Gujarat. Jain temples are found in Gujarat from as
early as the 6th and 7th centuries CE. It was patronized by
the Chaulukyas and Chavadas.Dhank Caves (3rd-7th century CE) in Rajkot district has Jain
Tirthankara carvings. Northern Gujarat became a principle center of Jainism in the 13th
century CE. Rajasthan, a state in western India, has had a close historical connection
with Jainism. Southwestern Rajasthan was the main centre
for Śvetāmbara Jainism. Major Digambara centres are in the northern and eastern parts of
Rajasthan. Central and Northern Rajasthan are the main centres for the Terapanth sect of
Śvetāmbara Jainism.

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Hutheesing Jain Temple (1848) in Ahmedabad, Gujarat

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Navlakha Temple, Ghumli, Gujarat, 12th century

A Jain temple, Derasar or Basadi is the place of worship for Jains, the followers
of Jainism. Jain architecture is essentially restricted to temples and monasteries, and Jain
buildings generally reflect the prevailing style of the place and time they were built.Jain
temple architecture is generally close to Hindu temple architecture, and in ancient
times Buddhist architecture. Normally the same builders and carvers worked for all religions,
and regional and periodic styles are generally similar. For over 1,000 years, the basic layout
of a Hindu or most Jain temples has consisted of a small garbhagriha or sanctuary for the
main murti or idol, over which the high superstructure rises, then one or more
larger mandapa halls.

Māru-Gurjara architecture or the "Solanki style", is a particular temple style

from Gujarat and Rajasthan (both regions with a strong Jain presence) that originated in both
Hindu and Jain temples around the year 1000, but became enduringly popular with Jain
patrons. It has remained in use, in somewhat modified form, to the present day, indeed also
becoming popular again for some Hindu temples in the 20th century. The style is seen in the
groups of pilgrimage temples at Dilwara on Mount
Abu, Taranga, Girnar, Kundalpur, Sonagiri, Muktagiri and Palitana.

Terms
Derasar is a word used for a Jain temple in Gujarat and southern Rajasthan. Basadi is
a Jain shrine or temple in Karnataka. The word is generally used in South India. Its historical
use in North India is preserved in the names of the Vimala Vasahi and Luna Vasahi temples
of Mount Abu. The Sanskrit word for vasahi is vasati, which implies an institution for
residences of scholars attached to the shrine.

47
Temples may be divided into Shikhar-baddha Jain temples, temple buildings dedicated to the
public, normally with a high superstructure, (typically a north Indian shikhara tower above
the shrine) and the Griha Chaityalaya (Ghar derasar) , a private Jain house shrine. A Jain
temple which is known as a pilgrimage centre is often termed as Tirtha.

The main idol of a Jain temple is known as the mula nayak. A Manastambha (column of
honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. It has four 'Moortis' i.e.
stone figures of the main god of that temple. One facing each direction: North, East, South
and West.

Jain temples are built with various architectural designs. [7] Some of the earliest examples of
Jain architecture are of the Indian rock-cut architecture tradition, whereby structures are
produced by carving material out of solid rock.[8] These traditions were initially shared with
Buddhism, and by the end of the classical period, Hinduism. Jain temples and monasteries
designed and constructed using rock-cut methods often share a site with those of the other
religions, such as those at Udayagiri, Bava Pyara,
Ellora, Aihole, Badami, Kalugumalai and Pataini temple. The Ellora Caves are a late site,
which contains temples of all three religions, as the earlier Buddhist ones give way to later
Hindu excavations.

Despite the similarity between different religions, Jainism is often known for placing large
figures of one or more of the 24 tirthankaras in the open air rather than inside a shrine.
[7]
These statues later began to increase in size, often in the form of standing nude figures in
the kayotsarga meditation position (which is similar to standing at attention). The Gopachal
rock cut Jain monuments, the Siddhachal Caves, and various single figures including the
12th-century Gommateshwara statue, the modern Statue of Vasupujya, and the Statue of
Ahimsa, standing the tallest at 108 feet (33 meters) in height, all exemplify this similarity.

In recent times, the use of murti images has become controversial within Jainism, and some
smaller sects reject them entirely, while others are selective in terms of which figures they
allow images of. In sects which largely disapprove of images, the religious buildings are used
instead.

Following the regional styles in Hindu temples, Jain temples in North India generally use the
north Indian nagara style, while those in South India use the dravida style, although the north
Indian Māru-Gurjara style or Solanki style has made some inroads in the south over the 20th
century or so. For example, the Mel Sithamur Jain Math in Tamil Nadu has a
large gopuram tower, similar to those of local Hindu temples.

Characteristics of the original Māru-Gurjara style are "the external walls of the temples have
been structured by increasing numbers of projections and recesses, accommodating sharply
carved statues in niches. These are normally positioned in superimposed registers, above the
lower bands of mouldings. The latter display continuous lines of horse riders, elephants,
and kīrttimukhas. Hardly any segment of the surface is left unadorned." The
main shikhara tower usually has many urushringa (subsidiary spirelets) on it, and two smaller
side-entrances with porches are common in larger temples.

48
 Jain Tirtha, Shravanabelagola,
with the colossal Gommateshwara statue.(Below)

Later, with Dilwara in the lead, surrounding the main temple with a curtain
of devakulikā shrines, each with a small spire, became a distinctive feature of the Jain
temples of West India, still employed in some modern temples. These are fairly plain on the
outer walls, and often raised on a very high platform, so that the outside of larger temples can
resemble a fortress with high walls. However the entrance(s), often up high, wide steps, are
not designed for actual defence, even though medieval Muslim armies and others destroyed
many Jain temples in the past, often permanently.

Inside the temple, the Māru-Gurjara style features extremely lavish carving, especially on
columns, large and intricately carved rosettes on the ceilings of mandapas, and a
characteristic form of "flying arch" between columns, which has no structural role, and is
purely decorative. Most early temples in the style are in various local shades of pink, buff or
brown sandstone, but the Dilwara temples are in a very pure white marble which lightens the
style and has become considered very desirable.

49
While, before British India, large Buddhist or Hindu temples (and indeed Muslim mosques)
have very often been built with funds from a ruler, this was infrequently the case with Jain
temples. Instead they were typically funded by wealthy Jain individuals or families. For this
reason, and often the smaller numbers of Jains in the population, Jain temples tend to be at
the small or middle end of the range of sizes, but at pilgrimage sites they may cluster in large
groups - there are altogether several hundred at Palitana, tightly packed within several high-
walled compounds called "tuks" or "tonks". Temple charitable trusts, such as the very
large Anandji Kalyanji Trust, founded in the 17th century and now maintaining 1,200
temples, play a very important role in funding temple building and maintenance.

 Beautifully carved in marble, the Dilwara Jain temples in Mount Abu

(Rajasthan) enshrine various Jain 'Tirthankaras'.
 They are constructed out of white marble from Arasoori Hill, near Ambaji, 23 km from
Abu Road.
 The ministers of the Solanki rulers of Gujarat had constructed all these temples
during the 11th and 13th centuries A.D.
 Vimal Vasahi is the oldest temple, which has been dedicated to Adinath, the first Jain
Tirthankara.
 Vimal Shah, minister of the then Solanki ruler of Gujarat, built it in the year 1031 A.D.
 The other Dilwara temples are the Luna Vasahi, Vastupala, and Tejapala, named after
the ministers of the then Vaghela ruler of Gujarat who built them in 1230 A.D.
 Its most notable feature is that the brilliant intricacy and delicacy of the marble carving is
so fine that in places the marble becomes almost transparent.

50
 The
exquisitely carved dome of Luna Vasahi, a 13th century Jain temple
built entirely of white marble. Located in Rajasthan, India

51
 The Chaulukya dynasty
The Chaulukya dynasty / also Solanki dynasty, was a Jain dynasty that ruled the Kingdom
of Gujarat in western India, between c. 940 CE and c. 1244 CE. Hemachandra, a Jain scholar
in the Chaulukya court, generally used the terms "Chaulukya" and "Chulukya".
His Dvyasraya Mahakavya mentions the variants "Chulakya", "Chalukka", and "Chulukka";
his Kumarapala-Charita mentions another variant "Chuluga". The Chaulukya court
poet Someshvara describes the dynasty as "Chaulukya" (in Kirti-Kaumudi) and "Chulukya"
(in the Abu inscription of Vastupala and Tejapala). "Solanki" or "Solankhi" is a vernacular
form of the term. They formed a unique and distinct typr of templ architecture called the
Solanki or Maru Gurjara.

After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern
Deccan. They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century.The writing of 12th century Kashmiri
poet Bilhana suggests the Chalukya family belonged to the Shudra while other sources claim
they were born in the arms of Brahma, and hence were Kshatriya caste.The Chalukya rulers
were known for their patronage of Jainism, as well as Hinduism and Buddhism. Some of the
notable Jain scholars who flourished under their patronage were Akalanka, Siddharshi, and
Hemachandra. Hemachandra was a renowned Jain monk, poet, and scholar who lived during
the 12th century CE.
Their capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended to
the Malwa region in present-day Madhya Pradesh. The family is also known as the "Solanki
dynasty" in the vernacular literature. They belonged to the Solanki clan of Rajputs.

Mularaja, the founder of the dynasty, supplanted the last ruler of the Chavda dynasty around
940 CE. His successors fought several battles with the neighbouring rulers such as
the Chudasamas, the Paramaras and the Chahamanas of Shakambhari. During the reign
of Bhima I, the Ghaznavid ruler Mahmud invaded the kingdom and raided the Somnath
temple during 1024-1025 CE. The Chaulukyas soon recovered, and the kingdom reached its
zenith under the rule of Jayasimha Siddharaja and Kumarapala in the 12th century. Several
minor dynasties, such as the Chahamanas of Jalor and the Chahamanas of Naddula, served as
Chaulukya vassals during this period. After Kumarapala's death, the kingdom was gradually
weakened by internal rebellions; uprisings by feudatories; and invasions by the Paramaras,
the Ghurids, the Yadavas and others. Taking advantage of this, the Vaghelas, who had earlier
served as Chaulukya generals, usurped the power and established a new dynasty in the 1240s.

Several princely state rulers of the Solanki clan claimed descent from the Chaulukyas.

The dynasty used the self-designation "Chaulukya" in all but four of its records. The four
exceptions are:

 "Chaulukika" in the Kadi grant of Mularaja

 "Saulkika" in a grant of Chamundaraja
 "Chaulakya" in the Sambhar inscription of Jayasimha
 "Chaullakya" in the Jalor inscription of Kumarapala
The word "Chaulukya" is thought to be a variant of the word "Chalukya". Several other
dynasties were known by the name "Chalukya", including the Chalukyas
of Vatapi, Navasarika, Vemulavada, Kalyani, Vengi and Lata. These dynasties are sometimes
thought to be branches of the same family, but the relationship between all of them is not
certain. Unlike the Chalukyas of Kalyani and Vengi, the Chaulukyas of Gujarat never

52
claimed a shared descent or any other association with the earliest Chalukya dynasty — the
Chalukyas of Vatapi. Moreover, they never used the term "Chalukya" to describe themselves.
However, the Chaulukyas of Gujarat shared a myth of origin with the Chalukyas of Kalyani
and Vengi. According to this legend, the progenitor of the dynasty was created by Brahma.
[5]
The version of the legend mentioned in the Vadnagar prashasti inscription
of Kumarapala is as follows: the deities once asked the creator god Brahma to protect them
from the danavas (demons). Brahma then created a hero from his chuluka (pot or folded palm
in Sanskrit), which was filled with Ganges water. This hero was named "Chulukya", and
became the progenitor of the dynasty. A variation of this legend is mentioned by
Abhayatilaka Gani in his commentary on Hemachandra's Dvyashraya-Kavya. According to
this version, Brahma produced the hero to support the earth, after his other creations
disappointed him. These stories are of no historical value, as it was customary for
contemporary royal houses to claim mythical and heroic origins. The Kumarapala-Bhupala-
Charita of Jayasimha Suri presents Chulukya as a historical warrior, whose capital was
Madhupadma. Mularaja was his descendant, with nearly a hundred generations separating the
two.[ This account may be partly historical: Madhupadma has been identified variously as a
location outside Gujarat, including present-day Mathura.

It is theorized that the Chaulukyas were different from the Chalukyas. According to
the Agnikula myth mentioned in a 16th-century recension of the legendary epic
poem Prithviraj Raso, four Rajput clans including the Chaulukyas were born from a fire-pit
on Mount Abu. A section of colonial-era historians interpreted this mythical account to
suggest that these clans were foreigners who came to India after the decline of the Gupta
Empire around the 5th century CE, and were admitted in the Hindu caste system after
performing a fire ritual.

The Chaulukya rulers have been called "Gurjararāja" and "Gurjareśvara" ("ruler of
Gurjara"). Most of the dynasty's rulers were Shaivaite, although they also
patronized Jainism. The dynasty's founder Mularaja is said to have built Mulavasatika temple
for Digambara Jains and the Mulanatha-Jinadeva temple for the Svetambara Jains. The
earliest of the Dilwara Temples and the Modhera Sun Temple were constructed during the
reign of Bhima I. According to popular tradition, his queen Udayamati also commissioned
the Queen's step-well. Kumarapala started patronizing Jainism at some point in his life, and
the subsequent Jain accounts portray him as the last great royal patron of Jainism. The
Chaulukya rulers also endowed mosques to maintain good relationship with the Muslim
traders

53
The Rani ki vav was constructed during the rule of the Chaulukya dynasty. It is located on the banks
of Saraswati river.
The Vaghela dynasty, which succeeded the Chaulukyas, claimed descent from a sister
of Kumarapala. Various princely state dynasties calling themselves Solanki (the vernacular
form of Chaulukya) claimed descent from the Chaulukyas as well. These included the rulers
of the Lunavada State, which was a tributary to the Marathas before coming under the British
rule.

54
Māru-Gurjarat architecture or Solaṅkī style, is the style of West Indian temple
architecture that originated in Gujarat and Rajasthan from the 11th to 13th centuries, under
the Chaulukya dynasty (also called Solaṅkī dynasty).The name comes from the ancient
names of these regions, Marudesh and Gurjaratra. Although originating as a regional style
in Hindu temple architecture, it became especially popular in Jain temples, and mainly
under Jain patronage later spread across India, then later to diaspora communities around the
world.

On the exteriors, the style of Māru-Gurjara architecture is distinguished from other North
Indian temple styles of the period in "that the external walls of the temples have been
structured by increasing numbers of projections and recesses, accommodating sharply carved
statues in niches. These are normally positioned in superimposed registers, above the lower
bands of moldings. The latter display continuous lines of horse riders, elephants,
and kīrttimukhas. Hardly any segment of the surface is left unadorned." The
main shikhara tower usually has many urushringa subsidiary spirelets on it, and two smaller
side-entrances with porches are common in larger temples.

Mandapa ceiling in the Ranakpur Jain Temple/

Interiors are if anything even more lavishly decorated, with elaborate carving on most
surfaces. In particular, Jain temples often have small low domes carved on the inside with a
highly intricate rosette design. Another distinctive feature is "flying" arch-like elements
between pillars, touching the horizontal beam above in the centre, and elaborately carved.
These have no structural function, and are purely decorative. The style developed large
pillared halls, many open at the sides, with Jain temples often having one closed and two
pillared halls in sequence on the main axis leading to the shrine.

The style mostly fell from use in Hindu temples in its original regions by the 13th century,
especially as the area had fallen to the Muslim Delhi Sultanate by 1298. But, unusually for an

55
Indian temple style, it continued to be used by Jains there and elsewhere, with a notable
"revival" in the 15th century. Since then it has continued in use in Jain and some Hindu
temples, and from the 20th century has spread to temples built outside India. These include
many large temples built by the Hindu Swaminarayan tradition, with the Neasden temple in
London (1995) an early example, and smaller ones built by the Jain diaspora, such as the Jain
temple, Antwerp, Belgium (completed 2010), and temples in Potters Bar and Leicester in
England .

Origin of the name

The name of the Māru-Gurjara style is a 20th-century invention; previously, and still by
many, it is called the "Solanki style". The ancient name of Rajasthan was Marudesh while
Gujarat was called Gurjaratra. The term "Māru-Gurjara" was coined by art and architectural
historian Madhusudan Dhaky, who also coined the terms "Surāṣṭra", "Mahā-Māru", and
"Mahā-Gurjara" to describe other historical styles of Western Indian architecture. The Māru-
Gurjara style is a synthesis of the Mahā-Māru style of Marwar region in Rajasthan and the
Mahā-Gurjara style of Gujarat.However, Hegewald suggests "This change in terminology
appears to have been suggested first by A. Ghosh during a symposium in Delhi in 1967".She
notes that the change was an "attempt to avoid dynastic terms", and that both "Māru-Gurjara"
and "Maru-Gurjara" are used by different writers, and that the Jain community mostly
continues to call the style "Solanki".

Bands of relief on the base wall of the Jagdish Temple, Udaipur, built by Maharana
Jagat Singh I in 1651

See written by the author

https://www.academia.edu/92055431/
The_Ancient_Hindu_Concept_of_Water_management_and_the_STEPWELLS_Rani_
Ki_Vav

56
The style developed from that of the dynasties preceding the Solankis, mainly the Gurjara-
Pratihara dynasty, and the local dynasties under it. The most famous monuments of this
period are the Khajuraho Group of Monuments built under the Chandela dynasty between
950 and 1050. These are famous for their erotic reliefs. Many of the broad features of this
earlier style are continued in the Māru-Gurjara style. The beginnings of the new style can be
seen in the small Ambika Mata temple in Jagat, Rajasthan. The earliest inscription here
records a repair in 961 (well before the Solankis came to power). For George Mitchell, in the
Jagat temple (and others he names) "the Pratihara style was fully evolved in its Western
Indian expression"

Early Hindu temples

The Somnath temple, dedicated to Shiva, was the most famous in Gujarat, but was very
largely destroyed by the Ghaznavid ruler Mahmud in a raid in 1024–1025 CE. It was then
rebuilt, but sacked again when the Delhi Sultanate conquered the area at the end of the 13th
century. The ruins have recently been restored and rebuilt in what is intended as the Solanki
style.

The Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujarat, was built in 1026–27 CE, just after Mahmud's raid. The
shikhara is now missing, but the lower levels are well-preserved, and there is a
large stepwell tank of the same period in front of the temple. There is a large
detached mandapa between the main sanctuary building and the tank, which is slightly later.
The carving of all parts is "extremely luxuriant and exquisitely refined in the rendering of
detail".

The Rudra Mahalaya Temple was a large complex in Siddhpur Gujarat, mostly destroyed
under Muslim rule. The main temple was surrounded by a screen of subsidiary shrines (partly
surviving as a mosque), and the porches, parts of which remain, and a stand-
alone torana were exceptionally grand. The mandapa had three storeys. It was completed in
1140, ending a long period of construction. Two groups of smaller ruined temples of similar
date are the two Rama Lakshamana temples, Baradia and the five Kiradu temples; both have
their lowest storeys fairly intact, and some of the Kiradu group retain part of their shikharas.

The Rani ki vav ("Queen's Stepwell", probably 1063–83) is a very grand stepwell in Patan,
Gujarat, once the Chaulukya capital. With a very different architectural form and function,
"throughout, the ornamentation of the architectural elements is sumptuous" in the
contemporary temple style, including very many Hindu figures. Another non-temple example
is the 80 foot Kirti Stambha tower in Chittor Fort, Rajasthan, built for a Jain merchant,
mostly in the early 13th century, with the pavilion at the top a 15th-century restoration

57
 1. Ambika Mata temple in Jagat, Rajasthan, by 960
2. Durga on the Jagat temple
3. Wall below the Shikhara, Sun Temple, Modhera, 1020s

Outside face of screen shrines at Rudra Mahalaya Temple, 1140//Kiradu temples

Early Jain temples

Ajitanatha Temple, Taranga, 1161//Bhadreshwar Jain Temple, 1248, rebuilt 2010/

58
Kumbharia Mahavira temple, 1062//Detail of the Jain Kirti Stambha tower, Chittor
Fort
The five Dilwara Temples on Mount Abu are among the most famous Jain temples. The
Vimal Vasahi is much the earliest, constructed by 1031, with the Luna Vasahi by 1230, and
the others at intervals between 1459 and 1582. All are in a very white marble that adds
greatly to their effect, and remain in use. The oldest and largest two have large amounts of
intricate carving even by the standards of the style, reaching a peak in the Luna Vasahi
temple. The main buildings of the first three named are surrounded by "cloister" screens
of devakulikā shrines, and are fairly plain on the outer walls of these; in the case of the Vimal
Vasahi this screen was a later addition, around the time of the second temple. These three
have an axis from the sanctuary through a closed, then an open mandapa to an
open rangamandapa, or larger hall for dance or drama.Surrounding the main temple with a
curtain of shrines was to become a distinctive feature of the Jain temples of West India, still
employed in some modern temples.

The Ajitanatha Temple, the largest and earliest of the cluster of Taranga Jain temples, was
constructed in 1161, and is a fine example of the style, which remains largely intact, and in
religious use. The shikhara and the much lower superstructure over the mandapa are both
among the "most complicated" in the style. The former begins with three rows of bhumija-
style miniature towers in clusters, before turning to the sekhari style higher up, where the
miniature towers are of varying lengths, and overlap. Over the mandapa, the lowest level
continues the regular miniature tower clusters over the sanctuary, above which shallow
pitched planes of roof are studded with miniature towers, with rows of beasts and urns along
the edges of the planes. The surfaces are heavily decorated with figures and
"honeycomb" gavaksha decoration, the figures "characterized by lively poses and sharply cut
faces and costumes".

The Ajitanatha Temple was built under, and very probably by, King Kumarapala (r. 1143 –
1172 CE) of the Solanki/Chaulukya dynasty, who was the most favourable towards Jains of
the dynasty. According to Jain sources he converted to Jainism towards the end of his life; at
the least he was influenced by the religion. His reign marked the height of Jain power and

59
influence; his son Ajayapala, something of a villain in Jain chronicles, was much less
favourable, although there continued to be Jain ministers.

Kumbharia Jain temples is a complex of five Jain temples in Kumbhariya, Banaskantha

district built between 1062 - 1231 CE. The five temples are famous for their elaborate
architecture. The Jain temples, Kumbhariya along with Dilwara temples, Girnar Jain
temples and Taranga Jain temple are considered excellent examples of Chaulukyan
architecture.Mahavira, Shantinatha, and Parshvanatha temples are some of the most
renowned temples in India.These five marble temples vary in size and architecture details,
but every temple is surrounded by a protective walled courtyard with elaborate arched
gateways.

The Bhadreshwar Jain Temple, mostly constructed for a merchant in 1248, just at the end of
the Solanki dynasty, is surrounded by the high walls of a curtain of subsidiary shrines, each
with a shikhara in sekhari style, except for a much later two-storey porch at the entrance,
which has elements from Indo-Islamic architecture in the domes and arches. The main
temple, in a courtyard considerably above ground level, is comparable to the earlier examples
described above.

The clustered group of Girnar Jain temples, with a magnificent mountain-top position, are
mostly in the style, with the major temples ranging in date (of basic construction) from 1128,
1231, 1453 and another 15th century example. Other temples, like the large example at
the Rajgadhi Timbo ("mound"), have been completely destroyed.

Later temples

Ranakpur Jain temple, 15th centuryDetailed carvings on the pillar of Ranakpur Jain
temple
The Solanki dynasty finally fell around 1244, replaced by the Hindu Vaghela dynasty for
some decades before the Muslim Delhi Sultanate conquered the region. Temple building then
largely ceased in the original areas of the style for a considerable time, although a trickle of
repairs and additions to existing temples are recorded, and some small new buildings.
However, Solanki rule came to be seen by Jains as something of a "golden age", and the
Māru-Gurjara style evidently became something of a standard for Jains, specifically
the Śvetāmbara wing of the religion. The style began to re-appear in Jain temples in the same
area in the 15th century, and then spread elsewhere in India, initially moving eastwards.

The Adinatha Ranakpur Jain temple in Rajasthan is a major construction for a merchant, built
between 1439 and 1458 or 1496. It is a thorough-going, but not strict, revival of Māru-
Gurjara style, on the same broad model as Bhadreshwar, with a high outside wall of the back

60
of shrines, but also a number of Islamic-style corbelled domes. There are four three-storey
porches, already up two flights of steps. The interior of the temple is "unsurpassed for its
spatial complexity", with the sanctuary at the centre of the compound surrounded by many
mandapas of two or three storeys, with all levels very open between the supporting columns
allowing views in several directions inside the compound. Even the shikhara has balconies at
three levels. The carving on the interior is in most areas as lavish as ever.

The large group of Palitana temples on the Shatrunjaya hills in Gujarat are another very
important Jain pilgrimage site, with temples numbering into the hundreds (most very small,
and all but one Svetambara). Though many were founded much earlier, the site was so
thoroughly destroyed by Muslim armies, starting in 1311, that there is little surviving that
dates back before the 16th century. The temples are packed tightly together in a number of
high-walled compounds called "tuks" or "tonks". Michell calls them "characteristic of the
final phase of Western Indian temple architecture", with traditional shikharas, double storey
porches, often on three or four sides, and miniature-urn roofs to the main mandapas. But there
are influences from Indo-Islamic architecture in the domes, often fluted, over porches and
second mandapas, "arches with petalled fringes, parapets of merlons", and other
features.The Polo Forest in Gujarat has groups of Hindu and Jain ruined temples of various
dates, but mostly 15th century. The Jagdish Temple, Udaipur (completed 1651) is an example
of a Hindu temple using the style at a late date; in this case a commission of Jagat Singh I,
ruler of Mewar.

61
Seven of the Girnar Jain temples, 12th-15th centuries/View across the Palitana temples
4

62
The Hindu Jagdish Temple, Udaipur (completed 1651)//

00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

63
 III
Some Famous temples of the Maru Gurjara
The earliest temples in the complex date as far back as the 11th century CE. The Palitana
temple complex is near the top of the hill, in groups called Tonks (Tuks) along the hills'
various ridges. The main temple is dedicated to Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankara; it is the
holiest shrine for the Śvetāmbara Murtipujaka sect. Marble is the preferred material of
construction. More than 400,000 pilgrims visited the site in 2010.Jains believe that 23 of the
24 Tirthankaras, all except Neminatha, sanctified Palitana with visits. This makes the site
particularly important to the Jain tradition. These temples are reached by most pilgrims and
visitors by climbing around 3500 stone steps along a hilly trail. Some hire pallanquins at the
base of the hills, to be carried to the temple complex. Palitana, along with
the Shikharji in Jharkhand, is believed to be the holiest of all pilgrimage places by the Jain
community. Digambara Jains have only one dedicated temple in Palitana. Hingraj
Ambikadevi (known as Hinglaj Mata) is considered as the presiding deity of the hill, who is a
Jain Yakshini (attendant deity). As the temple complex was built to be an abode for the
divine, no one is allowed to stay overnight, including the priests.

Palitana is a small town about 55 kilometers southwest of Bhavnagar city and 25 kilometers
south of Songadh village in Bhavnagar district in southeastern Gujarat. It is midst an arid-
marshy terrain near the Gulf of Cambay and the Shetrunji river. About 2 kilometers to the
south of Palitana town are twin hilltops with a saddle-like valley with a peak height of about
600 meters. These are the Palitana hills, historically called the Shatrunjaya Hills. The
word Shatrunjaya is interpreted as a "place of victory".According to Paul Dundas, a scholar
of Jainism, Shatrunjaya hill literally means "the hill which conquers enemies".On these
hilltops is a fortified wall complex with space for canons built by the local Hindu ruler after
the 14th century to resist any raids and destruction. Within this fortified walls, on the ridges
of these hills is the largest collection of Śvetāmbara Jain temples, called the Palitana temples.

The Dilwara Temples or Delvada Temples

The Dilwara Temples or Delvada Temples are a group of Śvētāmbara Jain temples located
about 2+1⁄2 kilometres from the Mount Abu settlement in Sirohi District, Rajasthan's only hill
station. The earliest were built by Vimal Shah , a Jain minister of Solanki king of
Gurjaratra , Bhima I and additions to the temples were made by Vastupala, Jain minister of
Vaghelas of Gurjaratra. They date between the 11th and 16th centuries, forming some of the
most famous monuments in the style of Solanki architecture,famous for their use of a very
pure white marble and intricate marble carvings. They are managed by Seth Shri Kalyanji
Anandji Pedhi, Sirohi and are a pilgrimage place for Jains, and a significant general tourist
attraction.The Dilwara temples are regarded as the most impressive among Jain temples in
Rajasthan.

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William Carpenter
These temples are unique in every sense of the word. It first came into construction
somewhere in the 11th century and after ages of diligent construction, destruction, and
reconstruction, five such temples came into existence. Each with its own set of antiquities is
molded out of milky marble.

Mount Abu Online

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While the formation of these temples was in action, the Chalukya Dynasty was in power.
What went down in the centuries that saw the plight of these monuments, is intense history.
The year 1311 saw the darkest unfolding. Allaudin Khilji laid destruction on all five temples
and left them mangled in ruins. All that eloquence now resounded in pieces. Then amidst the
14th century, began the reconstruction. Donations and reparations came from many devotees
from all over India. One of the people who contributed to repairs were, Bijag and Lalag from
Mandore. Currently, the temples are administered by the Seth Kalyanji Parmanand Ji Pedi.

The temple complex is in the midst of a range of forested hills. There are five temples in all,
each with its own unique identity. All the five temples are enclosed within a single high
walled compound. The group is named after the small village of Dilwara or Delvara in which
they are located. The five temples are:

1. Vimal Vasahi, dedicated to the 1st tirthankara, Rishabhanatha (Adinatha).

2. Luna Vasahi, dedicated to the 22nd tirthankara, Neminatha.
3. Pittalhar temple, dedicated to Adinatha.
4. Parshvanath temple, dedicated to the 23rd tirthankara, Parshvanatha.
5. Mahavir Swami temple, dedicated to the 24th tirthankara, Mahavira.
Among the five marble temples of Dilwara, the most famous are the Vimal Vasahi and the
Luna Vasahi temples. Dilwara Temples, Girnar, Shatrunjaya and Shikharji are known as
Śvētāmbara Pancha Tirth (five principal pilgrimage shrine)

The first temple, The Vimal Vasahi Temple

This Vimal Vasahi is dedicated to the Tirthankara, Adinatha Ji. This one was sculpted
entirely out of white marble. Even more detailed statues of the other Tirthankaras are present

66
here. From the ceiling to pillars and grand doors, nothing resembles the definition of the
plain. It was built in 1032 by Vimal Shah, the Chalukya King of Gujarat.

The second temple, The Luna Vasahi Temple

The Luna Vasahi is dedicated to The Tirthankara Neminath Ji. The beauty inside Luna
Vasahi even surpasses that of Vimal Vasahi. The space inside welcomes sunlight so
delightfully that it highlights even the most minute explanation of the temple. The Hathi
Shala here is what is called magnificent. This temple also showcases the most delicate stone-
cutting there could be. It was built in 1230 by Porwad Brothers; Vastupal and Tejpal,
ministers of Virdhawal.

The third temple, The Pittalhar Temple

It is in the name; a colossal statue of the first Tirthankara, RishabhDev Ji, is crafted with five
different kinds of metal. The metal used among the five others in the highest quantity is
Brass, hence the name Pittalhar, as Pittal is a Hindi translation of brass. With 107 images
instilled inside this temple, it stands tall with its individualism. Built by Bhima Shah,
Minister of Sultan Begada. The construction of the temple dates between 1316-1432 AD.

The fourth temple, Shri Parsvanatha Temple

It’s believed that masons urged to put in use, the remaining bricks from the previous three
temples, as this was the fourth temple in order of dates. It’s a three-story grand religious
building. Standing as the tallest one in all of the five temples, grey sandstone can be seen in
the building. Sangvi Mandlik and his family took under the construction of this one in the
year 1458-59.

The fifth temple, Lord Mahavira Temple

Decorated with a number of beautiful paintings, it’s the smallest of the five temples. It’s
adorned with gorgeousness. Although smaller in size, its craftsmanship is relatively modern
with new elements. It was built in the year 1582.

Architecture
The five Dilwara temples are among the most famous Jain temples. The Vimal Vasahi is
much the earliest, constructed by 1031, with the Luna Vasahi by 1230, and the others at
intervals between 1459 and 1582. All are in white marble which adds greatly to their effect
and remains in use. The oldest and largest two have large amounts of intricate carving even
by the standards of the style, reaching a peak in the Luna Vasahi temple. The main buildings
of the first three named are surrounded by "cloister" screens of devakulikā shrines, and are
fairly plain on the outer walls of these; in the case of the Vimal Vasahi this screen was a later
addition, around the time of the second temple. These three have an axis from the sanctuary
through a closed, then an open mandapa to an open rangamandapa, or larger hall for dance or
drama. Surrounding the main temple with a curtain of shrines was to become a distinctive
feature of the Jain temples of West India, still employed in some modern temples.

In later temples in the Māru-Gurjara style, a very pure white marble like that at Dilwara came
to be regarded as highly desirable, even essential. In modern times, when the style has

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become popular in other regions of India, and with Hindu and Jain communities in other
countries, local Rajastani marble is often carved and transported to the new building.

The temples have an opulent entranceway, the simplicity in architecture reflecting Jain values
like honesty and frugality. The ornamental detail spreading over the minutely carved ceilings,
doorways, pillars, and panels is considered to be remarkable. It is said that workmen were
paid in gold according to the weight of marble powder scraped off.

Five Temples in Details

Stamp of Dilwara Temples issued in 2019

Vimal Vasahi Temple
The Adinatha or Vimala Vasahi Temple is carved entirely out of white marble and was
mostly built in 1026 by Vimal Shah, a minister of Bhima I, the Chaulukya king of Gujarat.
The outer mandapa is an addition of the next century The temple is dedicated to
Rishabhanatha. The temple stands in an open courtyard surrounded by a corridor, which has

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numerous cells containing smaller idols of the tirthankaras. The richly carved corridors,
pillars, arches, and 'mandaps' or porticoes of the temple are simply amazing.

The ceilings feature engraved designs of lotus-buds, petals, flowers and scenes from Jain
mythology. The figures of animal life, life journey from dream to incarnation of tirthankars
are carved. There are 59 devakulikas (small shrine) facing the main image of Rishabhanatha.
There are 7 additional cells are found, 1 cell houses image of Ambika and 2 cells
of Munisuvrata. The mulnayak idol of Rishabhanatha is carved with attendant deities and
images of 4 tirthankaras, giving the idol name Saparikar Panchtirthi. The principal shrine
was originally surrounded by 24 sub-shrines but later 74 shub-shrines were added in the 12th
century.

The Navchowki is a collection of nine rectangular ceilings, each containing carvings of

different designs supported on ornate pillars. The Gudh mandap is a simple hall after stepping
inside its heavily decorated doorway. The Gudh mandap, houses two idols of Parshvanatha
in Kayotsarga position and an image of Rishabhanatha. The mandap is meant for Aarti to the
deity. The ceiling has carvings of horses, elephants, musician, dancers and soldier. The
ceiling of the main dome features carving of the sixteen devis associated with learning. The
Hastishala (Elephant courtyard) was constructed by Prithvipal, a descendant of Vimal Shah in
1147-49 and features a row of elephants in sculpture with the members of the family riding
them.

Luna Vasahi

Intricate carvings of Luna Vasahi

The Luna Vasahi or Neminatha temple is dedicated to Neminatha. The temple was built in
1230 by two Porwad brothers - Vastupal and Tejpal - both ministers of a Virdhaval,
the Vaghela ruler of Gujarat. The temple, built in memory of Vastupal & Tejpal's late brother
Lunig, was designed after the Vimal Vashi temple. The temple has a similar structure as
Vimala Vasahi but has better carvingsThe Rang mandap (main hall) features a central dome
from which hangs a big ornamental pendant. Arranged in a circular band are 72 figures of
tirthankaras in sitting posture; under this band are 360 small figures of Jain monks in another
circular band. The Hathishala (elephant cell) features 10 marble elephants, polished and
realistically modelled. A special feature of the temple is the two niches of Derani (wife of
younger brother) and Jethani (wife of older brother), the wives of Vastupal and Tejpal
respectively. The niches have the image of the goddess Lakshmi with sculptures of
tirthankaras Sambhavanatha and Shantinatha respectively.

There are 47 sub-shrines housing one or more images of tirthankaras. The first shrine houses
an idol of the goddess Ambika. The ninth and eleventh enshrines images of Neminatha's life

69
after renunciation and Neminatha's marriage respectively. The fourteenth shrine has images
of the life events of Shantinatha. In the thirty-seventh shrine, there are images of four
goddesses. There are several images of life events of Krishna as well. There are a total of 130
pillars in the temple of which 38 are beautifully carved.

The Navchowki features some of the most delicate marble stone cutting work of the temple.
The ceilings of the temple depicts scenes of the life of Neminatha with image
of Rajmathi (who was to marry Neminatha) and Krishna. The Gudh mandap features a black
marble idol of Neminatha. The carvings of devkulikas and Chakreshvari in the ceiling of
temple are also noteworthy. The Kirti Stambha(pillar of pride), big black stone pillar on the
left of the temple, was constructed by Maharana Kumbha of Mewar. The remaining three
temples of Dilwara are smaller.

Pittalhar Temple

Pittalhar Temple
The Pittalhar temple, also called the Adinatha temple, was built by Bhima Shah, a minister
of Sultan Begada of Ahmedabad, between1316-1432 AD. A massive metal statue of
Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), cast in five metals, is installed in the temple. The main metal used
in this statue is 'Pital' (brass), hence the name 'Pittalhar'. The name of the temple is also
mentioned in an inscription dating back to 1432, found in Digambar shrine in Dilwara
complex.

There are 107 images in the main shrine. The shrine consists of a Garbhagriha, Gudh
mandap and Navchowki with images of yakshi Chakreshvari and yaksha Gomukha on both
sides. It seems that the construction of Rangmandap and the corridor was left unfinished. The
old mutilated idolwas replaced and installed in 1468-69 AD weighing 108 maunds (four
metric tons) according to the inscription on it. The image was cast by an artist 'Deta' which is
8 ft (2.4 m). high, 5.5 ft (1.7 m). broad and the figure is 41 inches (1,000 mm) in
height. In Gudh Mandap on one side, a big marble Panch-Tirthi sculpture of Rishabhanatha
is installed. Some shrines (devakulika) were constructed in 1474 and 1490, before
construction was abandoned.

Parshvanatha Temple

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 Parshvanatha Chaumukha Temple
This temple, dedicated to Parshvanatha, was built by Sangvi Mandlik and his family in 1458–
59.According to popular belief, masons offered free remaining stones of Vimala
Vasahi and Luna Vasahi to add marble since the temple was built of grey stone. [48] This three-
storey building is the tallest temple in Dilwara. Not all the tower remains. On all four faces of
the sanctum on the ground floor are four big mandapas housing a Chaumukha idol of
Parshvanatha. On the first floor, the Chaumukha idol the front iconography is of Chintamani
Parshvanath, second Magalakar Parshvanatha and third Manoratha-Kalpadruma
Parshvanatha all are depicted with hood of nine cobras. The image of fourth image of
Parshvanatha is illegible. In the corridor there are images of 17 tirthankaras and paintings of
flowers. There is depiction of 14 dreams that a mother of a tirthankara on conception. On the
second floor, the Chaumukha idol is of Sumatinatha, Parshvanatha, Adinatha and
Parshvanatha. The idol of goddess Ambika is also present. The Chaumukha idol of
Parshvanatha is installed on the third floor. The outer walls of the sanctum comprise ornate
sculptures in gray sandstone, depicting Dikpalas,
Vidhyadevis, Yakshinis, Shalabhanjikas and other decorative sculptures comparable to the
ones in Khajuraho and Konark.

Mahaveer Swami Temple

This is a small structure constructed in 1582 and dedicated to Mahavira. It is small temple
with carvings on its walls. On the upper walls of the porch there are pictures painted in 1764
by the artists of Sirohi. There are detailed carvings of flowers, pigeons, court-scene, dancing
girls, horses, elephant, and other scenes. On each side of Mahavira, there are 3 idols of
tirthankar. Outside the shrine, there is a marble slab of rectangular shape with a triangle stone
over it containing 133 images of miniature-sized tirthankar with a larger image in center.The
temples have undergone repairs from time to time. Allauddin Khilji had attacked and
damaged the temples in 1311. In 1321, Bijag and Lalag of Mandore had undertaken repairs.

In 1906, Lallubhai Jaichand of Patan had the temples repaired and reconsecrated on 25 April
1906, under the supervision of Yati Hemasagar. Extensive repairs were again undertaken
during 1950-1965 by Anandji Kalyanji with the work done by the Sompura firm Amritlal
Mulshankar Trivedi The older marble has a yellow patina, whereas the newer marble is
white.

The temples are currently administered by the Seth Kalyanji Paramanandji Pedi. Seth
Kalyanji Paramanandji Pedi also runs a Bhojanshala (dining hall) nearby.

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 IV
Shatrunjaya Tirtha, Palitana
Temple(s) 863

Monument(s) 2700

Elevation 603 m (1,978 ft)

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The steps for the trek to Palitana temples starts in the southern part of the Palitana town,
where there a number of monasteries, rest houses, shops and small temples. The steps to the
Palitana temples begin to the west of a major active Jain temple and to the east of the newly
built Samovsaran Mandir and museum by the Tapa Gaccha subtradition of Jains. The stone-
concrete stairs gently wind along the hill, climbing up into the fort and to the summit with
temples. Along this climb, are small temples, rest stops with drinking water for the pilgrims
and visitors to sit and rest before resuming their trek. Near the fort, the steps fork into two.
The eastern side typically is the entrance for a traditional clockwise circumambulation of the
temples, while the other the exit. The trek involves climbing over 3500 stone steps.

Location

General Plan of Palitana temples

The idol of Rishabhanatha inside main temple

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74
Miniature of "Mount Mer" in the Parshvanatha temple

Mythology and history

In the traditional texts and beliefs, this sacred hill became important to Jainism millions of
years ago, since the age of Adinatha (locally called Adishvera). Adinatha himself lived for
8.4 million purvas ( 1 purva = 70560 billion years), and patronized this Satrunjaya hills site
many times in his long life. He is believed to have visited Satrunjaya nearly 700 million
times, more than any other Jain site. Thereafter, Satrunjaya has been cherished and patronized
by other Tirthankaras of Jainism, including Risabhanatha and his son Bharata. These hills and
Palitana host Adinatha's principal temple.

According to the Shatrunjaya Mahatmya by Dhanesvara, a Jaina text in Sanskrit traceable to

about the 14th century CE, Mahavira recited the legends of Rishabha to a solemn assembly
on Satrunjaya when deity Indra requested him to do so. After nearly 300 verses, the text
begins the description of Bharatam Varsham, followed by the glory of Satrunjaya. The text
declares it so holy, that even thinking about it "expiates many sins". It then gives 108
alternate names for this site in verses 331 to 335, such as Pundarika, Siddikshetram,
Mahabala, Surasaila, Vimaladri, Punyarasi, Subhadra, Muktigeham, Mahatirtham,
Patalamula, Kailasa, and others. Of these names, the 11th-century Jaina scholar
Hemachandra mentions two: Satrunjaya and Vimaladri.In the Jain belief, the
first Tirthankara Rishabha sanctified the hill where he delivered his first sermon. It was his
first disciple Pundarika, who attained Nirvana at Shatrunjay, hence the hill was originally
known as "Pundarikgiri". There exists a marble image of Pundaraksvami consecrated
in samvat year 1064 (1120 CE) by Shersthi Ammeyaka to commemorate the sallekhana of a
muni belonging to the Vidhyadhara Kula.Bharata Chakravartin, the father of Pundarik and
half-brother of Bahubali, is believed in Jain mythistory to have visited Shatrunjaya many
times. In some Jain literature, it is claimed to be the site of the first Jaina temple many
millions of years ago.

Vividha Tirtha Kalpa, composed by Jinaprabha Suri in the 14th century CE, describes the
shrines and legends of Palitana temples.

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Shatrunjaya along with Ashtapad, Girnar, Dilwara Temples of Mount Abu and Shikharji are
known as Śvētāmbara Pancha Tirth (five principal pilgrimage shrine).

An 1866 sketch of Palitana templesAn archive photo of one tonk of the Palitana temples
(1860)

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As a princely state, founded in 1194 (one of the major states in Saurashtra, where there were many
smaller states, Palitana covered 777 km² and had 58,000 inhabitants (in 1921) in 91 villages,
generating a 744,416 Rs revenue.In 1656, Shah Jahan's son Murad Baksh (the then Governor of
Gujarat) granted the village of Palitana to the prominent Jain merchant Shantidas Jhaveri in 1656. The
management of the temples was assigned to the Anandji Kalyanji Trust in 1730.Palitana used to be a
native state of India in the Kathiawar Agency of the Bombay presidency. Area, 289 sq. m.; pop.
(2011), 150,000, showing a decrease of 15% in the decade. The chief was a Gohil Rajput, with the
title of Thakur Sahib. Gross revenue, £42,000; tribute jointly to the Gaekwar of Baroda and the
Nawab of Junagadh, £700. The capital of the state is Palitana; pop. 12,800. It was ruled by a Thakore
sahib (also spelled Thakor Saheb), enjoying a 9-guns salute, of the Hindu Gohil dynasty, which
received a privy purse of 180,000 Rupees at the state's accession to independent India on 15 February
1948.It is the world’s only mountain that has more than 900 temples.The Palitana temples and whole
mountain are considered the most sacred pilgrimage place (tirtha) by the Jain community, and is the
world's largest Temple Complex.There are more than 3000 temples located on the Shatrunjaya hills,
exquisitelycarved in marble. The main temple on top of the hill, is dedicated to 1st tirthankar lord
Adinath (Rishabdeva). On the top the Shatrunjai Hill is a cluster of Jain temples, built by generations
of Jains over a period of 900 years, from the 11th century onwards. The temples are managed by the
Anandji Kalyanji Trust of the Kasturbai Lalbhai group. From the foot of the hill to the top there are
3,800 and odd stone steps cut to facilitate climbing .The temples are exquisitely carved in marble,
veritable prayers in stone. To an observer, these appear to be ivory miniatures when seen from a
distance. Created by master craftsmen, the most important temple is that of the first teerthankara, Shri
Adishwar. It has ornate architectural motifs, though in its overall plan it is simpler than the
Choumukh. Other notable temples are those of Kumarpal, Vimalshah and Sampriti Raja. Kumarpal
Solanki, a great Jain patron, probably built the earliest temple. The temple has a fabulous collection of
jewels, and these can be seen with special permission. The temples date from 11th to the 20th century.
Belief. Every devout Jain aspires to climb to the top of the mountain at least once in his lifetime,
because of its sanctity. The journey is arduous. The walk up the stone stairway hewn into the
mountain face takes about an hour and a half. For those unable or unaccustomed to the strain, sling-
chairs are available at a bargain. The code for the climbers is stringent, in keeping with the rigours of

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the Jain faith. Food must neither be eaten nor carried on the way. The descent must begin before it is
evening, for no soul can remain atop the sacred mountain during the night

Dates

Early Jaina scholars give the Palitana temples dates ranging from the time of early
Tirthankaras (millions of years ago) to 1st millennium BCE. More precise dates emerge in
texts such as the Shatrunjaya Mahatmya, which in a verse asserts its own composition
of samvat 477 (c. 421 CE), but then proceeds to mention a series of seventeen renovations by
mythical Jain and Hindu kings, as well as the one that was completed in early 14th century
based on epigraphy and other historical records. According to Vividha Tirtha
Kalpa, Pandavas along with Kunti attained moksha here.

The Shatrunjaya hills are mentioned in the canonical texts that Śvetāmbara Jains, though this
mention is found in the later sections broadly accepted to have been completed by about the
5th century. This suggests that the site of Palitana temples was sacred to the Śvetāmbara Jains
by about the 5th century, if not earlier. In Saravali, a late section within the Svatambara
canonical works that was likely appended in the 11th century, Rishaba's grandson Pundarika
is mentioned in the context of Shatrunjaya hills and Palitana temples site, as are Rama, Sita
and the Pandava brothers of Hinduism mentioned as doing Tirtha here. Thus, the Palitana
temples site was acknowledged in the most important texts of Śvetāmbara Jains, and it was
definitely a part of Jaina sacred geography in Gujarat by the 11th century.

Based on epigraphy and architectural considerations, the Palitana temples were built,
damaged, restored and expanded over a period of 900 years starting in the 11th century. For
example, the Jain text Pethadarasa describes the restorations made by Pethada in 1278 CE
after it was damaged and mutilated, while the Jain text Samararasa presents the rapairs and
restorations in 1315 CE. Epigraphical records found at the site establish that between 1531
and 1594, the temples were damaged, then extensive repairs and restorations were completed
with the support of Karmashah and Tejpalsoni after damage to the temples. According to
Cousens, hardly anything in the architecture of Palitana temples as they have survived into
the modern age, can be dated "earlier than the 12th-century". This may be because earlier
temples were built from wood, while stone and marble as construction material was adopted
by Gujarati Jain community at Satrunjaya in the 12th century. Two individual items of
artwork are from the 11th century – the Pundarika image can be dated to 1006 CE, while
another image of layperson here is from 1075 CE.

The damage and destruction of earlier versions of the Palitana temples complex is attributed
by Jain texts to the Turks (the name for Muslim armies of different Sultanates). Examples
include the raids and destructions in Gujarat during the 13th and 15th century CE,
particularly the major destruction in samvat 1369 (c. 1312–3 CE) by Allauddin Khilji of
Delhi Sultanate. These destructions are attested by the textual and epigraphical records of
Jains, such as those of the Jain scholar and saint Jinaprabha Suri, who presided over the
temples. Suri writes in section 1.119 of his Vividha Tirtha Kalpa that the Palitana temples
were sacked by the Muslim army in 1311 CE. Further, another evidence is the sudden and
near-complete lack of new inscriptions from most of the 16th century, in contrast to
inscriptions before and after the 16th century. The Śvetāmbara Murtipujaka (idol
worshippers) traditions of Tapa Gaccha, particularly led by Hiravijayasuri, was instrumental
in organizing the Jain community to once again restore Palitana temples and complete new
large temples, starting in 1593 CE. Thereafter, wealthy patrons added to a proliferation of
temples at this site. This tradition of adding temples associated with this site, as well as in and

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around Palitana continues in the contemporary era. Most of the temples and a large section of
the complex as seen by pilgrims and visitors in the contemporary era are between the end of
16th and the 19th century.[

In 1656, Murad Baksh – then Governor of Gujarat, and the son of the Mughal emperor Shah
Jahan, granted the Shatrunjaya site and Palitana temples as a gift to Shantidas Jhaveri – then
the jeweller to his court and the leader of local Jain community. In 1730 CE, the management
of the Palitana temples came under Anandji Kalyanji Trust.

The Shatrunjaya site has numerous Jain temples, which in Gujarat are called derasar. All
these are the Palitana temples. The total number varies by source, with most scholarly counts
being close to a 1000. Of these, 108 are large temples, rest are small to tiny shrines that are a
part of the chauvisis ensemble (24 identical shrines, one each for a Tirthankara). The entire
site is in clusters. A fortified, enclosed cluster of temples is called a Tonk or Tuk. The Palitana
temples are in nine Tuks, set on the two ridges of the Shatrunjaya hills.

The nine Tuks are:

 Sheth Narasinh Keshavji Tuk

 Chaumukhji Tuk (Sava-Som Tuk)
 Chhipavasahi Tuk
 Sakar Vasahi Tuk
 Nandishwar Tuk
 Hema Vasahi Tuk
 Modi Tuk
 Bala Vasahi Tuk
 Motisha Sheth Tuk
 Ghety Bari Tuk
The most important temples in these Tuks are the Adinath, Kumarpal, Sampratiraja, Vimal
Shah, Sahasrakuta, Ashtapada and Chaumukh temple. ] Some of them are named after the
wealthy patrons who paid for the construction.

Groups of Palitana temples (Tuks, Tonks)

Chaumukhji/ Balabhai

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Sheth Motisha// Floor plan of the Adinatha Chaumukh temple, Palitana

Architecture and artwork

The Palitana temples highlight the Maru-Gurjara architecture found in western and
northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent, primarily Gujarat and Rajasthan. Given its
history of damage and rebuilding, the 16th- to 19th-century Palitana temples of Śvetāmbara
Jain tradition show the evolution in design principles over this period within the Solanki
school. It reflects an ornate style with the North Indian Nagara temples architecture, and is
related to the innovations and developments that began in western India around the 10th
century with the Kalyana Chalukya dynasty. This architecture is also found in Hindu temples
and Digambara Jain tradition temples in this part of India.

This Solanki-school Maru-Gurjara architecture preserves the Nagara Shikhara, yet

distinctively favors ornate outer and inner walls with numerous reliefs, sculptures and open
pillared halls with the square and circle principle variously applied. Integrated within
are andolas (a form of arches) and toranas of different styles, typically highly
ornamented. These are found in the region stretching between Gujarat and Telangana. The
post 16th-century temples in Palitana, like those found in Rajasthan, look ever more
ornamented and precision carved in marble or other materials that became increasingly easier
to move from their place of origin. Ceilings, ambulatories and pillars too are lavishly
decorated, while domes in concentric shrinking circles help envelop more space and light.
The sanctum (garbhagriya) remembers the historic tradition, as do the upper layers of the
superstructure. Among the various Tuks at Shatrujaya, the more elaborate and open
architecture temples are those built in the 19th century and under the sponsorship of the
Anandji Kalyanji Trust.

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Main temples
Chaumukh temple

The deep reliefs on the outer walls of one of the Palitana temples/Chaumukh temple on the
northern ridge, Palitana
The Chaumukh temple has a large hall, a reminder of Jain community discourses. This is
inspired by the first tirthanakara's discourse. It is an ensemble involving buildings with open
hall and four entrances so that images would be visible from all four directions. The four
sides are called the caturbimba (four sided views).

Adinath temple
The Adinath temple, which venerates Rishabha, is the main temple (in the apex of the
northern ridge of the complex) in the complex and is the grandest. It has ornate architectural
motifs, though in its overall plan, it is simpler than the Chaumukh temple. The jewellery
collection of this temple is large, which can be seen with special permission from the Anandji
Kalyanji Trust. The prayer halls of this temple (renovated in 1157 by Vagabhata) is decorated
with ornamental friezes of dragons.

There are three pradakshina routes, followed in a clockwise direction, which are associated
with this temple. The first is circular and includes the Sahasrakuta temple, the foot-idols
under the Rayan tree, the temple of idols of feet of Ganadhar, and the temple of Simandhar
Swami. The second passage passes the new Adishwar temple, Mt. Meru, the temple of
Samavasaran temple, and Sammet Shikhar temple. The third passage passes the Ashtapada
temple, the Chaumukh temple.

Adishvara Temple
The Adishvara Temple, dated to the 16th century, has an ornamented spire; its main image is
that of Rishabha. The Chaumukh temple, built in 1616 by Setthi Devaraj, has a four-faced
Adinatha image deified on a white pedestal, each face turned towards the cardinal directions.
The west-side of the shrine is surrounded by Veranda with richly carved pillars and figures of
musicians and dancers. There are two sub-shrines dedicated
to Gomukha and Chakreshvari near the main entrance.

Vimal Shah temple

Vimal Shah temple is a square structure with towers. Saraswati devi temple, Narsinh
Kesharji temple, and the Samavasaran temple, with 108 life-sketches in sculpture, are also

81
notable. Other notable stops are the Ashok tree, the Chaitra tree, Jaytaleti, four-faced idol of
Mahavira, and the artwork related to Kumarpal, Vimalshah and Samprati.

108 feet (33 m) idol of Adinath

A modern temple, Samvatsarana, was built at the base of the hills of the main temple
complex by Tapa Gachha initiative. It has a small museum at the lower level. Ashtapadh
temple is depiction Ashtapadh (Mount Kailash) where Adinatha is believed to have attained
moksha.

In the shrines, on a pedestal, are large figures of Mahavira, sitting with feet crossed in front,
like those of Buddha, often decorated with gems, gold plates, and silver. The Adinath temple
has an image 2.16 metres (7 ft 1 in) in height of a white-coloured idol in the Padmasana
posture. The main iconic image of Adinath, carved in fine piece of marble, has crystal eyes.
Devotees offer flowers and sandal paste to the deity as they approach the statue for worship.
The quadrangle opposite in front of the temples is elaborately designed. There is another
shrine opposite to Adishwara temple is dedicated to Pundarik Swami.After visiting
Adishwara, a temple similar in design, Dilwara temple, is located to the right of the steps
used for descending from the main shrine, built in marble. In this temple, Suparswanatha is
carved in the centre of a cube-shaped column; Adinatha and Parswanatha adorn the top and
bottom of the column. Carvings on the ceiling, floor and the column are very elegantly
sculpted. Parswanatha Temple is located in front of this temple.In 2016, a 108 feet idol of
Adinath(Rishabhnatha) was installed.

Renovations
There have been frequent renovations and many of them are dated to the 16th century. New
temples continue to be built here. Renovations occurred at least 16 times during
the avasarpinikala (the descending half of the wheel of time):

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 Renovatio
Renovator Times Notes
n

1st Bharat Chakravarti Adinath son of Adinath

2nd King Dandavirya –

3rd Ishaneshvar Indra Indra of Upper World

Indra of fourth upper

4th Mahendra interim period
between Adinath and Ajitnath
world (dev-lok)

Indra of fifth upper

5th Brahmendra
world (dev-lok)

6th Chamarendra Indra of Bhavanapatis

7th Sagar Chakravarti Ajitnath second Chakravarti

Advised by
8th Vyantarendra Abhinandannath
Abhinandan Swami

Advised by his father

9th King Chandrayasha Chandraprabha
Chandrashekhar

10th Chakrayuddha Shantinath son of Shantinath

Rama and Lakshman Ramayana (Hinduism

11th Munisuvrata
a )

12th 5 Pandavas Neminatha Mahabharta (Hinduism)

Vikram Samvat 108 (1st A trader from

13th Javadsha of Mahuva
century CE) Saurashtra

Vikram Samvat 1213 (11th Wooden temples,

14th Bahud Mantri
century) reign of Kumarpal

Rebuilding after the

Vikram Samvat 1371 (13th
15th Samarashah Oswal destruction by
century)
Sultanate army

Karamashah Vikram Samvat 1587 (16th Rebuilding, with a petition

16th to end pilgrim tax
of Chittorgarh century)

It is believed that the 17th renovation will occur in future.

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The entrance to the temples//View of the temples at the summit of Shatrunjaya hill

Most devout Jains prefer to walk up, but elderly pilgrims sometimes opt for a pallanquin
(doli) to be manually carried from the town to the hilltop. The temples remain closed for the
devotees during the monsoon season. In the month of Phalguna (February/March), Jain
pilgrims take a longer route, one passing through five sacred temple sites over a distance of
45 kilometres (28 mi).

The Palitana temples are in clusters traditionally known as tunks (tuks, tonks). As a religious
practice they cover their mouth while offering puja to the tirthankaras at the temples so that
they don't hurt any insects by swallowing them with an open mouth. Also, for this reason
they do not offer open lighted lamps but offer aarti with covered lanterns. The religious
practice also involves pilgrimage by fasting throughout the journey to and from the shrines.
They also build their temples in white marble to demonstrate purity. Silence and prayers are
the order of the day when one is climbing up the hills on pilgrimage. Fasting continues until
they have returned to the auditorium of Anandji Kalyanji Trust at the foothill.

Beliefs
Every devout Jain aspires to climb to the top of the mountain at least once in their lifetime in
efforts to attain nirvana, due to its sanctity. The code for the climbers is stringent, in keeping
with the rigours of the Jain faith. Food must neither be eaten nor carried on the way. The
descent must begin before it is evening, for no soul can remain atop the sacred mountain
during the night. The Shatrunjaya hills are considered by many Jains to be more sacred than
the temple-covered hills of Jharkhand, Mount Abu and Girnar.

On one special day (Fagun Sud 13), which commonly falls in February/March, thousands of
Jain followers visit the temple complex to attain salvation. Three times as many pilgrims
come at this time, which is also called "6 Gaon". The special festival day is the "Chha Gau
Teerth Yatra" at the temple complex held on Purnima day (Full Moon Day) of Kartika month
according to the Jain calendar, Vira Nirvana Samvat (October–November as per
the Gregorian Calendar). Jains, in very large numbers assemble on this day at the temple
complex on the hills as it opens after 4 months of closure during the monsoon season. During
this pilgrimage, considered a great event in the lifetime of devout Jain,
pilgrims circumambulate the Shatunitjaya Hills covering a distance of 21.6 km on foot to
offer prayers to Adinatha on the Kartik Poornima Day at the top of the hill.

Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, the birthday of Mahāvīra, is a notable festival celebrated at the
temple complex. A procession carrying images of the tirthankara is made in huge decorated
chariots, concurrently accompanied by religious ceremonies in the temples. Rituals include
fasting and giving alms to the poor.

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Navanu, the 99-fold pilgrimage
Navanu is the Jain tradition of repeated pilgrimages to Shatrunjaya hills and Palitana temples.
This pilgrimages are typically started in small groups by girls or boys in late teens or early
twenties. It includes a period of ascetic practices such as fasting (varshi tap, updhan and
others). According to Anadji Kalyanji Trust, an average of 3000 pilgrims every year visit the
Palitana temples on Navanu pilgrimage.

Adishwar Temple/A temple in Palitana temples complex

Palitana temples complex/Palitana Temples distant view

85
Temple Inside Chaumukhji Tonk//Samovsaran Mandir, a modern temple and museum
at the base of the hills (Tapa Gaccha subtradition of Jains)[

Torana before the Samovsaran Mandir Palitana.//Adinath temple depicted on 1949

Indian postage stamp
00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
IV

The Temples at PATAN

Patan is the administrative seat of Patan district was the capital
of Gujarat's Chavda and Chaulukya dynasties in medieval times, and is also known
as Anhilpur-Patan to distinguish it from Prabhas Patan. During the rule of Gujarat Sultanate,
it was the capital from 1407 to 1411.Patan was established by the Chavda king Vanaraja.
During the rule of several Hindu and Muslim dynasties, it thrived as a trading city and a
regional capital of northern Gujarat. It is a historical place located on the bank of the now
extinct Saraswati River. Patan has an old market which is quite sizeable and is believed to
have been in continuous operation since at least the rule of Vaghelas and gandhis.
Patan was established by the Chavda ruler Vanaraja in the ninth century as
"Anahilapataka".During 10th-13th century, the city served as the capital of the Chaulukya
dynasty, who succeeded the Chavdas.

86
Jain community
Vanaraja Chavda (c. 746 CE to c. 780 CE), the most prominent ruler of the Chavda
dynasty established the territory of Patan in 746 CE and built the Panchasara Parshwanath
temple with main idol of Parshvanatha brought from Panchasar village.During the rule
of Chaulukya dynasty (or Solanki dynasty), Patan was a major pilgrimage centre of Jainism.
There are more than 100 temples in the regionThe temple was rebuilt in the 16th-17th century
after destruction by Muslim invadersPatan has been home to a community of Jains for at least
several hundred years. According to a 1375 CE letter written by a Jain monk,

The people here participate in shining devotion, gifting, morality, and asceticism;
the mendicants are firm in upholding the blossom of equanimity;
the many Jain temples are blessed with a multitude of images;
and even in time of drought the people obtain success in religious actions by means of their
merit.The merchants here have built up a mountain of gold;there are many playful young
women with swift feet and side-glancing doe-like eyes;gifting is given as if to a divine tree
which will sing their praises;and even those focused on moksha at once touch that true
excellence amidst the pleasures of transmigration.

– Verses 13-14 of Vijñapti Mahālekha, sent by the Kharatara Gaccha Jain mendicant
Jinodayasūri from Patan to Lokahitācārya in Ayodhya, in 1375 C.E.

Jain Temples at Patan

1. Derasar Maholla Sthapana Date

2. Adishvar JinalayaGodadno PadoMaha Vad 5
3. Adishvar JinalayaNaranjino Pado – SalviwadoVaishak Sud 3
4. Adishvar JinalayaPatan Jain Mandal BoardingVaishak Sud 3
5. Adishvar JinalayaKatakia WadoShravan Vad 1
6. Adishvar JinalayaPanchoti PadoShravan Vad 9
7. Godi Parshvanath JinalayaGolwad – SalviwadoVaishak Sud 7
8. Kalikund Parshvanath JinalayaDhandherwadoMagshar Sud 2
9. Koka Parshvanath JinalayaKokano PadoVaishak Sud 5
10. Mahadeva Parshvanath JinalayaMahadevani Sheri, KhetarvasiVaishak Sud 10
11. Mahavirswami JinalayaDhandherwadoMagshar Sud 1
12. Muni Suvratswami JinalayaMarfatia Mehtano PadoFagan Vad 4
13. Munisuvratswami JinalayaMahalaxmi Mehtano PadoMaha Sud 5
14. Neminath / Shantinath JinalayaTrisheriyun – SalviwadoJeth Sud 4, Vaishak Sud 4
15. Panchasara Parshvanath JinalayaJeth Sud 5
16. Rishbhdev JinalayaVagolno PadoVaishak Sud 13
17. Sambhavnath JinalayaDhandherwado – SalviwadoMaha Sud 5

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 18. Shamla Parshvanath JinalayaJogiwadoMaha Sud 6
19. Shamla Parshvanath JinalayaDhandherwadoMaha Sud 6
20. Shamla Parshvanath JinalayaShamlajini Sheri, KhetarvasiShravan Vad 9
21. Shantinath JinalayaVakharno PadoMagshar Vad 1
22. Shantinath JinalayaVasawadoVaishak Sud 7
23. Shantinath JinalayaShantinathni PoleJeth Sud 2
24. Shantinath JinalayaSiddhchakrani Pole, KhetarvasiMaha Sud 5
25. Shantinath JinalayaKanasano PadoFagan Sud 3
26. Shantinath Jinalaya /
27. Kamboi Parshvanath JinalayaGheeyano Pado
28. Maha Sud 10, Shravan Vud 5
29. Sheetalnath JinalayaPadigundino PadoVaishak Sud 6
30. Sheetalnath Jinalaya /
31. Mata Padmavati MandirKhetarpalno Pado Maha Sud 10
32. Vimalnath JinalayaSanghvini SheriShravan Vad 5
33. Champa Parshvanath JinalayaGolwad – Salvivado
34. Shantinath JinalayaShantinathni Sheri – Khetarvasi

The Ancient Hindu Concept of Water management & Architecture of Patan

STEPWELLS

The city of Patan was formerly called Anhilvada or Anhilpur and was
established in 765 by Vanaraja, the first king of the Chavada dynasty. The
Jain temple of Vadipura-Parsvanatha was built in 1594. This temple
consists of a mandapa, or a columned hallway with several courtyards
with shrines. The roof of the central dome is decorated by concentric
circles of figures and bands of ornament with a lotus-shaped pendant
hanging from the apex. There are eight bracket figures places around the
inside of the dome, either musicians or dancers; between these figures
are seated male figures with attendants. Below the dome are four balcony
windows covered in delicate carved designs of figures and geometric
patterns.

88
Carved-wood ceiling from the temple of Vadi Parsvanath. Patan:
Illustration of the carved-wood ceiling of the Vadipura-
Parsvanatha temple at Patan from James Burgess' 'Original
Drawings [of] Architecture of Northern Gujarat.'

The Jain temple of Vadipura-Parsvanatha was built in 1594. This temple

consists of a mandapa, or a columned hallway, covered by a central dome
and several courtyards with shrines. Burgess wrote:
?it [is] covered by an elaborate and well carved roof. It is in the form of a
dome rising to the height of 11-1/4 feet and 11 feet in diameter. The roof
is decorated in concentric circles with figures and bands of ornament, and
has a lotus-shaped pendant hanging from the apex. Eight large brackets
are placed at equal intervals round the inside. Theses are female
musicians and dancers; and between each pair of these is a seated male
figure with two attendants. These are the ashtadikpalas or eight regents
of the points of the compass and are arranged in the ceiling according to
their proper quarters, and each with his vahana or conveyance carved
below his seat. Some fine carving, now much injured, has filled up the
corners or spandrels of the octagonal roof, between the lowest circle of
the dome and lintels.? Inscribed: Govt. Archaeol. Survey of Western India.
No. 729

They demonstrated the use of water wheels, non-mechanized farm machinery, other
agricultural implements, and built with a vast array of local building materials, including
89
granite, marble, sandstone, bricks, lime, mud, wood, etc. The utilization of agricultural
wastes, such as rice husk, in the production of lakhori bricks and local clay(mud) to
manufacture mud bricks contributed to development in this arena. Today they tell us not only
how communities preserved water management revealing historic knowledge regarding how
ancient societies achieved social-ecological balance. Aesthetics and ornamentation also
played an important role to highlight construction materials of the stepwells.

A step well is a structure associated with well having staircase which facilitates access to
water level in any season, as the water level fluctuates from high to low in monsoon to
summer season respectively. The number of stairways is single in most of the wells, but
sometimes a greater number of stairs are also planned and designated with traditional names
as per numbers of steps. The kunḍas are stepped water reservoir associated with religious
pilgrimage places built for the purpose of holy bath during festivals or for routine
worshipping. The Mayamata and Mānasāra are considered to be the earliest texts which
describe the characteristics of water- monuments, like kūpa, vāpi, taddga. Aparājitpṛchā
(chap. 74) classifies step wells into four types namely,
1. nanda,
2. bhadra,
3. jaya,
4. vijaya.
5. Bṛhatśilpaśāstra (Book 3, v. 532)

Rājavallabha (chap. 4, v. 28) provide the same information about the four types of step wells
in very concise form (in one verse of two lines each). Archeological survey of India
discovered the oldest step well documented in history at Dholavira, Kutch, Gujarat in
October 2014 CE. This 5,000-year-old stepwell has been found in one of the largest Harappan
cities, Dholavira, in Kutch, which is three times bigger than the Great Bath at Mohenjo Daro.
Located in the eastern reservoir of Dholavira by experts from the Archaeological Survey of
India working with IIT-Gandhinagar, the site represents the largest, grandest, and the best
furnished ancient reservoir discovered so far in the country.

It is rectangular and 73.4m long, 29.3m wide, and 10m deep. Another site, the ornate Rani ki
Vav in Patan, called the queen of stepwells, is already on Unesco list.Almost three times bigger
than the Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro that's 12m in length, 7m in width, and 2.4m in depth, it is
assumed that other reservoirs and stepwells may be buried in Dholavira, Researchers also
suspect a huge lake and an ancient shoreline are buried in the archaeological site that's one of the
five largest Harappan sites and the most prominent archaeological site in India belonging to the
Indus Valley.Experts will investigate the advanced hydraulic engineering used by Harappans for
building the stepwell through 3D laser scanner, remote sensing technology and ground-
penetrating radar system.

It is 73.40 m long, 29.30 m wide and 10.00 m deep, considered bigger than the size of Great
Bath of Mohen-jo-daro (Figure 3). In western India the first step well and kunḍa were
constructed as rock-cut structure at Dhank (550–625 CE) and stepped pond at Bhinmal (850–
950 CE). 4 Step wells in India Traditionally, certain types of man-made water bodies (step
wells) were designated as jalamandira (water temple) or jalamahal (water palace) in Gujarat.
It is observed that the step wells were not only constructed within the urban or village area
but even in far off places or on the connecting routes between cities. The depth, access points
and the level of architectural beauty depended on its status or association with ruler’s family.

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The traditional or cultural name was given to each well depending upon number of entry
points (Appendix 1).

Distribution of stepwells across the Indian Subcontinent. White sign represents Madhya Pradesh and
parts of Maharashtra. Blue sign represents Gujarat, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Light Grey sign
represents Jharkhand and Bihar.

The number of exits for the step well increases with the diameter of the well. From ‘nanda’ to
‘bhadra’ opposite exit adds to the geometry, and from ‘jaya’ to ‘vijya’ one more exit adds to
the right angle. The typical design from ‘nanda’ to ‘vijaya’ follows the rules of symmetry.
Bolari vav is a unique structure where upper diameter of the well is smaller than the lower
stages of well. In research studies it has been found that geometrical formation from bottom-
up (lowest level to earth surface) generates the fractal geometry and repetition of the same
fractals after uniform intervals.

“Fractal architecture: The step wells can be classified in three ways as per their geometry-
(i) Linear
(ii) Circular and
(iii) Rectangular or square.

Based on architectural similarities they can be classified as A. pre-Mughal and B. post-

Mughal.
There is no evidence of construction of step wells after 1850 CE. The depth of step wells
indirectly indicates the depth of water table at the time of its construction. The range of depth
of step wells varies from 6.0 m to 30.0 m. The step well of ‘Rani ki vav, located in Patan city,
2
North Gujarat is designed as an inverted temple highlighting the sanctity of water, it is

91
 divided into seven levels of stairs with sculptural panels of high artistic quality; more than
500 principle sculptures and over a thousand minor ones combine religious, mythological and

secular imagery.

The kind of efficient system of Harappans of Dholavira, developed for conservation,

harvesting and storage of water speaks eloquently about their advanced hydraulic
engineering, given the

92
93
state of technology in the third millennium BCE." One of the unique features of Dholavira is
the sophisticated water conservation systemof channels and reservoirs, the earliest found
anywhere in the world, built completely of stone. The city had massive reservoirs, three of
which are exposed. They were used for storing fresh water brought by rains or to store water
diverted from two nearby rivulets. This clearly came in response to the desert climate and
conditions of Kutch, where several years may pass without rainfall. A seasonal stream which
runs in a north–south direction near the site was dammed at several points to collect water. In
1998, another reservoir was discovered in the site.
The inhabitants of Dholavira created sixteen or more reservoirs,of varying size during Stage
III. Some of these took advantage of the slope of the ground within the large settlement, a
drop of 13 metres (43 ft) from northeast to northwest. Other reservoirs were excavated, some
into living rock. Recent work has revealed two large reservoirs, one to the east of the castle
and one to its south, near the Annexe. The reservoirs are cut through stone vertically, and are
about 7 m (23 ft) deep and 79 m (259 ft) long. They skirt the city, while the citadel and bath
are centrally located on raised ground. There is also a large well with a stone-cut trough
connecting it to a drain meant for conducting water to a storage tank. The bathing tank had
steps descending inwards. In October 2014, excavation began on a
rectangular stepwell which measured 73.4 m (241 ft) long, 29.3 m (96 ft) wide, and 10 m
(33 ft) deep, making it three times bigger than the Great Bath of Mohenjedaro.

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 Stepwells or Vavs of Gujarat – A Perfect Example for a Community Based Rainwater Harvesting

Gujarat is called “A Land of Stepwells” for being a host to many earliest stepwell structures.
Vav, as they are called here, makes the cavernous spaces for adequate water store, in the twin
cities of Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar. The presence of such water conservation structures
supports the effort of harvesting rainwater at a community level. Reviving these useful
structures of brick and stones is a big step towards conserving rainwater and quenching
planet’s thirst. Stepwell is an underground well, usually built as five to six storeys structure
with a long-stepped corridor descending a flight of stairs to reach the aquifer.

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Ancient texts such as Rajvallabha mention four types of stepwells:

Nanda – a stepwell with one entrance

 Bhadra – a stepwell with two entrances
 Jaya – a stepwell with three entrances
 Vijaya – a stepwell with four entrances

How stepwells of Gujarat promote community-based Rainwater Harvesting:Gujarat is

home for around 100 odd stepwells. They are architectural marvels. Each of them is unique in
design, focusing to prevent direct sunlight from penetrating the well, and thus reducing
evaporation of water. The stepwells of Gujarat are usually made of brick, sandstone and lime
mortar. The rainwater in form of direct stream or runoff makes its way deep into the well, at a
controlled speed (due to the multi-storied or layered structure of the well).The vastness of the
stepwells is intended to provide enough water reserve for the area. The mesmerising carvings
on the walls and design patterns of the stepwells showcase the artistic taste and culture of the
era of their construction. The solid built of the stepwell can withstand the earthquakes of 7.6
on the Richter scale, thus ensuring continuous water supply even during the calamity. Due to
the tiered structure, the temperature inside the well is 5 degrees lower than that of the outside.

Design of a typical stepwell in Gujarat:The ancient North-western part of India,

particularly Gujarat and Rajasthan have been chosen for the construction of stepwells due to
their arid environment. Most of these ancient stepwells are as old as 800 years.
Irrespective of their date of construction, four structures are essentially common in each of
these stepwells:

1. Todas – they are a pair of ornate pillars at the entrance to mark the location of the
stepwell.
2. Kutas – the landings between sets of steps for the purpose of providing a resting area.
3. An ardhakuta – a supporting arch, without landing or pavilion.
4. Well shaft – structure for storing water.

Some stepwells area designed with two well shafts; one for lowering the ambient
temperature and the other for drawing water.

Reviving Some Prominent Stepwells: The excavated stepwells are very hard to maintain,
due to erosion and other natural factors. A water never dries up here, they are a great solution
for achieving collective rainwater harvesting.
Although each stepwell in Gujarat has its own significance, some of them are a bit more
recognised and accessible. One such is the Saiyad Hazrat Jalaluddin ni vav in Gandhinagar.
This well has apartment-like structure instead of traditional stepped layout. Three levels of
the stepwell are stacked upon each other.

The Khodiyar Mata ni vav, located in Vadodara village, has been built within the basin of a
lake. This helps in reduced excavation to reach the water table. Jal Sampatti Vibhag (Gujarat
Water Supply and Sewerage Board) is working towards its conservation, to provide a resting
place for the people. To bout the stepwells to survive in today’s environment, they have
covered the entire structure in cement plaster, porcelain tiles, bearing the image of a goddess.

Rani-Ki-Vav (Queen’s Well) at Patan:The description of stepwells of Gujarat is incomplete

without the mention of the most famous Gujarati Vav can Rani-Ki-Vaav at Patan. It is one of

96
the masterpieces amongst other stepwells, built by Udaymati in memory of her husband
Bhimdev I (1022 -1063) CE during the period of the Solanki dynasty. In 2014, UNESCO has
recognised Rani-ki-Vav as one of the World’s Heritage Sites.
Rani-Ki-Vav measures approximately 64m long, 20m wide and 27m deep. The stepped tank
is linked to a circular well. The walls are richly crafted with images of Lord Vishnu and his
various avatars (reincarnation).A 30 kilometer long tunnel can be entered by passing through
the small gate present at the last step of the well. This tunnel served as an escape route by the
kings during times of war.

Beautiful vavs of Gujarat.

Adalaj Vav, Ahmedabad/Helical Stepwell, Champaner

Adi-Kadi Vav, Junagadh

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Relief in Rani Ki Vav

98
99
100
Rani Ki Vav which means 'The Queen's Stepwell' is a stepwell situated in the town
of Patan in Gujarat, India. It is located on the banks of the Saraswati River. Its construction is
attributed to Udayamati, the spouse of the 11th-century Chaulukya king Bhima I. Silted over, it

101
was rediscovered in the 1940s and restored in the 1980s by the Archaeological Survey of India. It
has been listed as one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India since 2014.
The finest and one of the largest examples of its kind, this stepwell is designed as an inverted
temple highlighting the sanctity of water. It is divided into seven levels of stairs with sculptural
panels. These panels have more than 500 principal sculptures and over a thousand minor ones
that combine religious and symbolic imagery.
Rani ki vav was constructed during the rule of the Chaulukya dynasty. It is located on the banks
of Saraswati river.[1] Prabandha-Chintamani, composed by the Jain monk Merutunga in 1304,
mentions: "Udayamati, the daughter of Naravaraha Khengara, built this novel stepwell at
Shripattana (Patan) surpassing the glory of the Sahasralinga Tank". According to it, the stepwell
was commissioned in 1063 and was completed after 20 years. It is generally assumed that it was
built in the memory of Bhima I (r. c. 1022 – 1064) by his queen Udayamati and probably
completed by Udayamati and Karna after his death but whether she was a widow when she
commissioned it is disputed. Commissariat puts the date of construction to 1032 based on the
architectural similarity to Vimalavasahi temple on Mount Abu built in the same year. The
stepwell was later flooded by the Saraswati river and silted over. [5] In 1890s, Henry Cousens
and James Burgess visited it when it was completely buried under the earth and only well shaft
and few pillars were visible. They described it as being a huge pit measuring 87 metres (285 ft).
In Travels in Western India, James Tod mentioned that the material from the stepwell was reused
in the other stepwell built in modern Patan, probably Trikam Barot ni Vav (Bahadur Singh
stepwell). In the 1940s, excavations carried out under the Baroda State revealed the stepwell. In
1986, a major excavation and restoration was carried out by the Archaeological Survey of
India (ASI). An image of Udayamati was also recovered during the excavation. The restoration
was carried out from 1981 to 1987.

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 A R C H I T E C T U R E

Rani Ki Vav, view from the top

Rani ki vav is considered as the finest and one of the largest example of stepwell architecture in
Gujarat. It was built at the height of craftsmens’ ability in stepwell construction and the Maru-
Gurjara architecture style, reflecting mastery of this complex technique and beauty of detail and

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proportions. The architecture and sculptures are similar to the Vimalavasahi temple on Mount
Abu and Sun temple at Modhera.
It is classified as a Nanda-type stepwell. It measures approximately 65 metres (213 ft) long, 20
metres (66 ft) wide and 28 metres (92 ft) deep. The fourth level is the deepest and leads into a
rectangular tank 9.5 metres (31 ft) by 9.4 metres (31 ft), at a depth of 23 metres (75 ft). The
entrance is located in the east while the well is located at the westernmost end and consists of a
shaft 10 metres (33 ft) in diameter and 30 metres (98 ft) deep. The stepwell is divided into seven
levels of stairs which lead down to deep circular well. A stepped corridor is compartmentalized at
regular intervals with pillared multistory pavilions. The walls, pillars, columns, brackets and
beams are ornamented with carvings and scroll work. The niches in the side walls are ornamented
with beautiful and delicate figures and sculptures. There are 212 pillars in the stepwell.
Sculptures
There are more than 500 principal sculptures and over a thousand minor ones often referencing
literary works in combination with religious, symbolic and secular imagery. [1] The ornamentation
of stepwell depicts the entire universe inhabited by gods and goddesses; celestial beings; men and
women; monks, priests and laity; animals, fishes and birds including seen and unseen ones; as
well as plants and trees. The stepwell is designed as an underground shrine or inverted temple. It
has spiritual significance and represents the sanctity of water. Sculptures in the stepwell that are
associated with Vishnu outnumber all other deities mentioned above and include Sheshashayi
Vishnu (Vishnu reclining on the thousand-hooded snake Shesha in the celestial ocean),
Vishwarupa Vishnu (Cosmic form of Vishnu), twenty-four forms as well as Dashavatara (ten
incarnations) of Vishnu. The sculptures of deities with their families such as Brahma-Savitri,
Uma-Maheshwar and Lakshmi-Narayan are there. Notable among other sculptures
are Ardhanarishwara as well as large number of goddesses
Lakshmi, Parvati, Saraswati, Chamunda, Durga/Mahishasurmardini with twenty hands,
Kshemankari, Suryani and Saptamatrikas. There are images of Navagraha (nine planets) as well.
There are a large number of celestial beings (Apsaras). One sculpture of an Apsara depicts either
applying lipstick to her lips or chewing on aromatic twig while a man is attending her feet. On the
northern side of the third storey pavilion, there is a sculpture of an Apsara warding off a monkey
clinging to her leg and pulling her. At her feet, there is a nude female with a snake around her
neck. A sculpture of Nagkanya (a serpent princess) with long hair and a swan, as well as
sculptures of celestial dancers in classical dance positions are there.
There are large number of sculptures portraying women in their everyday life and activities. One
sculpture depicts a woman combing her hair, adjusting her earring and looking at herself in the
mirror. Other sculptures include a woman writing a letter, a young woman with a scorpion
climbing her right leg and her clothes sliding off unknowingly, a young woman pulling a beard of
a dwarf-like man, a woman with fish plate in her hands with a snake encircling her leg and
reaching out to fish. One sculpture depicts a young woman coming out of her bath with wet hair
and a swan catching droplets of water falling from her hair like pearls. The women in these
sculptures are adorned with jewelry including bangles, earrings, necklaces, waist girdles, anklets
and others as well as with elegant clothes and well combed hair. The variety of expressions and
emotions are depicted in them. They represent beauty as well as love in its sublime and seductive
forms. There are sculptures representing maternal love such as a woman holding her child and
pointing to the moon to divert his attention, a woman raising her child high to let him pick a
mango from tree, and a woman in a mango grove accompanied by children.

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 Durga killing Mahishasura///Ganesha with his consort and Apsaras

Carved pillars for support but represent beauty/ Wall with sculptural panels

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Cantilevered brackets in well shaft/ Geometric lattice patterns and designs resembling Patola textile
designs

There are gradually increasing cantilevered brackets in the well shaft which are profusely
ornamented. Kalpavriksha carvings on the wall represent fertility and nature worship
while kirtimukhas and makaras adorn the basements and capitals of pillars. There
are latticework patterns and designs resembling geometric local textile designs, and
traditionalPatola are featured on the wall at the stepwell's northern entrance. These may have
been adapted from wood carvings and ceilings seen in temples. Figures of horses, elephants and
lions decorate pillars and basement moldings.

Social and Technical aspects

Stepwells were an important building tradition in India, just as cisterns, aqueducts, and
fountains were traditions in Western and Middle Eastern cultures. stepwells were developed
in India centuries ago to collect and store water for drinking, bathing, washing clothes, and
irrigating crops. It also helped to stop the flooding of the well and the structure overall and
provided easy access to water for the locals during the rainy season. The kind also acted as a
water reservoir to store water during the dry season. The vav also acted as a gathering space
for people. The women used to talk to each other while coming to fetch drinking water and
spend quality time.
The Chaulukya dynasty, also Solanki dynasty, was a dynasty that ruled parts of what are
now Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western India, between c. 940 CE and c. 1244 CE. Their
capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended to
the Malwa region in present-day Madhya Pradesh. The family is also known as the "Solanki
dynasty" in the vernacular literature. They belonged to the Solanki clan of Rajputs. Mularaja, the
founder of the dynasty, supplanted the last ruler of the Chavda dynasty around 940 CE. His
successors fought several battles with the neighbouring rulers such as the Chudasamas,
the Paramaras and the Chahamanas of Shakambhari. During the reign of Bhima I,
the Ghaznavid ruler Mahmud invaded the kingdom and raided the Somnath temple during 1024-
1025 CE. The Chaulukyas soon recovered, and the kingdom reached its zenith under the rule
of Jayasimha Siddharaja and Kumarapala in the 12th century. Several minor dynasties, such as
the Chahamanas of Jalor and the Chahamanas of Naddula, served as Chaulukya vassals during
this period. After Kumarapala's death, the kingdom was gradually weakened by internal
rebellions; uprisings by feudatories; and invasions by the Paramaras, the Ghurids,
the Yadavas and others. Taking advantage of this, the Vaghelas, who had earlier served as
Chaulukya generals, usurped the power and established a new dynasty in the 1240s.
Several princely state rulers of the Solanki clan claimed descent from the Chaulukyas. The word
"Chaulukya" is thought to be a variant of the word "Chalukya". Several other dynasties were
known by the name "Chalukya", including the Chalukyas
of Vatapi, Navasarika, Vemulavada, Kalyani, Vengi and Lata. These dynasties are sometimes
thought to be branches of the same family, but the relationship between all of them is not certain.
Unlike the Chalukyas of Kalyani and Vengi, the Chaulukyas of Gujarat never claimed a shared
descent or any other association with the earliest Chalukya dynasty — the Chalukyas of Vatapi.
Moreover, they never used the term "Chalukya" to describe themselves.[6]
However, the Chaulukyas of Gujarat shared a myth of origin with the Chalukyas of Kalyani and
Vengi. According to this legend, the progenitor of the dynasty was created by Brahma.[6] The
version of the legend mentioned in the Vadnagar prashasti inscription of Kumarapala is as
follows: the deities once asked the creator god Brahma to protect them from
the danavas (demons). Brahma then created a hero from his chuluka (pot or folded palm

106
in Sanskrit), which was filled with Ganges water. This hero was named "Chulukya", and became
the progenitor of the dynasty. A variation of this legend is mentioned by Abhayatilaka Gani in his
commentary on Hemachandra's Dvyashraya-Kavya. According to this version, Brahma produced
the hero to support the earth, after his other creations disappointed him. These stories are of no
historical value, as it was customary for contemporary royal houses to claim mythical and heroic
origins. The Kumarapala-Bhupala-Charita of Jayasimha Suri presents Chulukya as a historical
warrior, whose capital was Madhupadma. Mularaja was his descendant, with nearly a hundred
generations separating the two.[11] This account may be partly historical: Madhupadma has been
identified variously as a location outside Gujarat, including present-day Mathura.

Coin of the Chaulukyas of Anahillapataka, King Kumarapala, c. 1145 – c. 1171.

C. V. Vaidya theorized that the Chaulukyas were different from the Chalukyas. G. H.
Ojha opposed this theory, pointing out that an inscription of the Lata Chalukya ruler Kirtiraja
describes his family as "Chalukya", while an inscription of his grandson Trilochanapala describes
the family as "Chaulukya". According to Asoke Majumdar, while these similar-sounding names
suggest a common origin for all these dynasties, there is no concrete evidence to draw any
definitive conclusion. Majumdar theorized that the Chaulukyas were connected to the Sulikas or
the Chulikas, a tribe mentioned in several ancient records. This tribe is described as living on the
northern frontier of ancient India. However, Majumdar admitted that there is not enough evidence
to regard this theory as conclusive .
The "Rani-ki-Vav" or the Queen’s Stepwell at Patan, is an extant stepwell dating back to the
11th Century CE and was commissionedandconstructedduringthereignofthe
ChaulukyaorSolankidynastyinthepresent-dayIndianstateofGujarat.It is located in Patan, in an
area that was historically known as Anhilwara Patan, the capital of the Chalukyas. It is
worthwhile to note that the Chaulukya period is also called the Golden period in the history

107
of Gujarat and saw the construction of numerous public welfare projects, including stepwells,
ponds, lakes, vidyapiths (ancient higher education institutions, universities), chhatravas’
(dormitories), temples, and similar sociallyand culturallyenriching institutions. Dueto
multiple accountsofflooding beginning sometime aroundthe13thand14thcenturies, all
thewayupto the19thCentury CE, the Rani-ki-Vav remained largely buried under massive
silting deposits, barely apparent but never lost in time. The Archaeological Survey of India
(ASI) finally concentrated its efforts on the stepwell’s excavation and rejuvenation in the
latter half of the 20th Century CE. 1
In Response Spectra and Time History Analysis of Rani Ki Vav(Step well), Patan by Ashish
Padsala1 Rudra studies of the well applying a numerical model used to evaluate the dynamic
behaviour of the step well under seismic loading have shown earthquake resistant behaviour
caused by well defined cantilever joints between main structural component slab and side
walls, less spacing between columns to convert seismic loadings into vertical loading. The
Rani-ki-Vav remained largely buried under massive silting deposits FORM 200 ODD
YEARS, barely apparent but never lost in time. It is a monument of national importance
protected by ASI [Archeological Survey of India]. It is also listed as the World Heritage Site.
This Queen's Stepwell, at Patan, in Gujarat. It was excavated by Queen Udayamati in
memory of her husband King Bhimadeva-I, in the XIth century.

Aṇahilaváḍa: King Vanraj Chavda founded the city of Aṇahilapura or Aṇahilaváḍa Patan in
the middle ofthe 8th Century CE, either in the year 746or 765 CE, asthecapitalofhis kingdom.
According to legend, the citywas named after alocalshepherd Anahilwho helped king Vanraj
find an appropriate location for his capital.

Built by the wife of King Bhimdev I, built during 1022 to 1063 AD. by the widowed queen
Udayamati wife of son of Mularaja, the founder of the Solanki dynasty of Anahilwada Pattan.
It is a richly sculptured monument and a major tourist spot in Patan. The size of the Rani Ki
Vav is so huge that the tourists appear to be ants climbing an anthill. Rani Ki Vav is the
oldest and the grandest stepwell in the state of Gujarat.
Stepped corridor
There was a flight of steps connecting the ground level marked by the Torana dwara to the
top of the first pavilion which would have led the visitor to the shaft through the terraces and
pavilions.
The volume of the stepped corridor was originally ornamented with 292 carved pillars of
which 226 remain, in addition to ornate buttresses, stacked pavilions, and lintels.

First Stage of Corridor and First Pavilion:

The first pavilion originally had two-storeyed, of which only 12 plinths exist in its lower
storey. In its original form, this section had 3 rows of pillars on each storey. Second Stage of
Corridor and Second Pavilion:In the second stage, there are 5 principal high platforms,
having turret-like short flights parallel to its risers, remains of a trabeated corridor as an
intermediate landing, and a four-story pavilion of which only the lowest storey exists. This
storey has 4 sculpted terraces with remains of 2 broad niches on either wall surface at the 6th
level. The vertical surfaces of the remaining terraces, landings, and pavilions are ornate with
niches housing divine figures.

Third Stage of Corridor and Third Pavilion:

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The third stage of Rani-ki-Vav is the largest and retains 4 out of the 6 high terraces. In
addition, there are a series of parallel and cross steps, spanning the entire width of the
corridor, accessing the intermediate landing.

A longitudnal level of the Steowell showing 7 levels

An outstanding article on the Rani Ki Vav please read-- Rani-Ki-Vav at Patan: An

Architectural Heritage The magnificent step-well of forgotten India and a monument of
unfathomable love, The Glorious Historical Heritage of Patan: Sahasralinga View project ,
authors Mayurkumar Babulal Prajapati and Tanisha Kava , Institute of Architecture Ganpat
University

Historical and architectural significance:

109
 1. Step-well Culture − Due to the scarcity of water and irregular rainfall patterns,
there was a need to construct to wells that could help people fetch water in greater
depths. Hence, the step-well culture developed prominently in parts of Gujarat and
Rajasthan. Eventually, over a period of time, these step wells become elaborate and
decorative.
2. Architecture − Rani-ki-Vav is a classic example of Gurjar-Parmara style of
Architecture which a prominent regional style of architecture seen at the other sites
like the Modhera Sun Temple.
3. Sculptures of Rani-ki-Vav − The sculpture panels of Rani-ki-Vav are a delight for
any tourists. There are more than 108 forms of Vishnu depicted on both sides of step-
well along with panels of Dashavataras, Seshashayi Vishnu, etc.

4. The contribution of Queen Udayamati − It was Queen Udayamati who built this
architectural wonder to commemorate the death of her husband, Bhimadeva I of Solanki
dynasty. Hence, it is also considered as a monument of women power for public welfare.

5. A public structure − Construction of step-well was considered as a meritorious work

and a structure like Rani-ki-Vav also served a place for the summer retreat to the people.
Thus, it served dual benefits.From https://www.tutorialspoint.com/what-is-the-significance-
of-rani-ki-vav

The Bounter Jinalaya (or "72 Jinalaya") Jain temple at Mandvi, Kutch, Gujarat,
begun

110
 1982//

The Shankheshwar Parshvanath Jain Temple is a Jain temple located in the

municipality Wilrijk of Antwerp Province, Belgium. It is currently the only Jain temple
in continental Europe.The building has a surface area of 1,000 m2 and has been in use since
2010. Construction started in 1990 in India. After it was completed in 2000, the building was
dismantled piece by piece, shipped to Belgium and rebuilt on its current location. The white
marble design is inspired by traditional Jain Temples.It is the biggest Jain temple outside of
India.[2] The temple houses an information centre about Jainism.

111
 Jain temple, Antwerp, Belgium, completed 2010

The Jain Centre, Leicester, England. A facade "clad with Māru-Gurjara

ornamentation" on a former church. //Jain Temple at the Oshwal Centre, Potters Bar,
Hertfordshire, which "recreates a general Māru-Gurjara aesthetic".Side view.//
Entrance fronting an essentially modern Jain temple building, Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh
The Māru-Gurjara style did not represent a radical break with earlier styles. The previous
styles in north-west India are mentioned above, and the group of Jain temples of Khajuraho,
forming part of the famous Khajuraho Group of Monuments are very largely in the same
style as their Hindu companions, which were mostly built between 950 and 1050. They share
many features with the Māru-Gurjara style: high plinths with many decorated bands on the
112
 walls, lavish figurative and decorative carving, balconies looking out on multiple sides,
ceiling rosettes, and others, but at Khajuraho the great height of the shikharas is given more
emphasis. There are similarities with the contemporary Hoysala architecture from much
further south. In both of these styles architecture is treated sculpturally.

1. Sarkar, Gurudas. "Notes on the History of Shikhara Temples." Rupam - an

Illustrated Quarterly Journal of Oriental Art, no. 10 (1922).
2. Brown, Percy. "Two Coḷa Temples." Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental
Art II, no. 1 (1934): 2-7.
3. Bhandarkar, D.R.. "Some Temples at Mount Abu." Rupam - an Illustrated
Quarterly Journal of Oriental Art (1920): 11-20.
4. Fergusson, James R., and James Burgess. "Chapter VII.—The Caves,
Mahavâllipur." In The Cave Temples of India, 141-153. London: W. H. ALLEN &
Co., et al, 1880.

00000000000000000000000000000000000000000

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 VI
Jain Stambhs or Pillars

Kirti Stambha is a 12th-century tower situated at Chittor Fort in Chittorgarh town

of Rajasthan, India.

Chittor has a history going back several centuries. It was an ancient centre of Jain tradition.
Chittor is adjacent to the ancient city of Madhyamika. The Jain inscriptions at Mathura from
the Kushana period (1st–3rd centuries CE) mention a "Majjhimilla" branch of the "Kottiya"
gana, indicating that it was a major Jain centre. The famous Acharya Haribhadra Suri (6th
century CE) was born in Chittor and wrote "Dhurtopakhyana" there.

There was a scholar Elacharya at Chittor from whom Vira-senacharya (9th century) learned
the ancient Shat-khandagama and Kashayapahuda. Virasena later wrote the famous
"Dhavala" and "Jayadhavala" on the basis of these books.

The 22 metres (72 ft) tower was built by a Jain merchant Jeeja Bhagerwala during the reign
of Rawal Kumar Singh in c. 1179–1191 CE. It was the residence of Jinavallabha who
propagated the Vidhimarga in the 12th century. From the 15th to 17th centuries, it was the
seat of a Bhattaraka.

Three inscriptions have been found that mention Jija of Bagherwal community as the builder
of the stambha. One of the inscriptions mention Dharmakirti, the disciple of Shubhakirti, who
was disciple of Vasantkirti.According to the Balatkara Gana Pattavali, Dharmakirti headed
the patta during 1224-1257 CE. Thus the structure dates from the 13th century, although an
unrelated Jain inscription of 896 CE was found in the vicinity. Kirti Stambha is older than
another tower in the same fort, known as the Vijay Stambha (Tower of Victory).

114
115
An 1847 drawing of the Kirti Stambha

Kirti Stambh
The tower is built in the Solanki style. The tower is 75 feet (23 m) tall. The tower is known
for its for intricate carvings and architecture. The seven storey temple is adorned by sculpture
and mouldings from the base to summit. The carvings on each summit is different from other.
The tower stands near the Saat-Bees Jain temple.The lower level is called Hansh Peeth,
then Sinha-mukh Thar, Gaja Thar and Nava Thar

Mahavir temple with Kirti Stambha// Mahavir Jain temple//Saat-Bees Jain temple near Kirti Stampla

116
 VI
The Jain Temple Room in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art

According to Woodwork from the Temple of Vadi Parsvanatha, J. B.,The Metropolitan

Museum of Art Bulletin, Vol. 14, No. 1 (Jan., 1919), pp. 13-15 (3 pages), the Jain temple of
Vadipura-Parsvanatha was built in 1594. This temple consists of a
mandapa, or a columned hallway, covered by a central dome and
several courtyards with shrines. Burgess wrote:? It [is] covered by
an elaborate and well carved roof. It is in the form of a dome rising
to the height of 11-1/4 feet and 11 feet in diameter. The roof is
decorated in concentric circles with figures and bands of ornament,
and has a lotus-shaped pendant hanging from the apex. Eight large
brackets are placed at equal intervals round the inside. Theses are
female musicians and dancers; and between each pair of these is a
seated male figure with two attendants. These are the ashtadikpalas
or eight regents of the points of the compass and are arranged in
the ceiling according to their proper quarters, and each with his
vahana or conveyance carved below his seat. Some fine carving,
now much injured, has filled up the corners or spandrels of the
octagonal roof, between the lowest circle of the dome and lintels.?
Inscribed: Govt. Archaeol. Survey of Western India. No. 730

117
 C
arved wooden ceiling dome in the Parsvanatha Temple, Patan:
Photograph of the carved wooden ceiling dome in the Parsvanatha
Temple at Patan in Gujarat, taken by Henry Cousens in the 1880s, from
the Archaeological Survey of India Collections.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
W. Brown, Norman. "The Jain Temple Room in the Metropolitan Museum of
Art." Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art XVII, no. 1: A.K.
Coomaraswamy Commemoration Volume. Part III (1949): 6-21.

History
In the year 1594-96, according to a preserved inscription, a certain Ratnakuṁyarajī, of the
wealthy and well-known Jain clan named Osvāl, with, probably, his sister and daughter as

118
collaborators, financed in Pāṭan, 1 ancient capital of Gujarat, the construction of a temple
dedicated to Pārśva, twenty-third of the twenty-four Saviours (Tīrthaṅkaras) recognized by
his faith. This he did under the advice of Śvetāmbara pontiff, Jinacandrasūri VI of the
Kharatara gaccha, on whom, says the inscription, the Mughal Emperor Akbar bestowed the
title of “the most virtuous, glorious pontiff of the age” (sattamaśrīyugapradhāna). 2 This
building came to be known as the Vāḍīpura-or Vāḍī-Pārśvanatha temple.
Either as part of the original structure or as a latter accretion, there was erected a small,
elaborately carved wooden domed room, being the kind of architectural unit known
as maṇḍapa(“porch, hall”), and this, which is now installed in the Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York (Pls. IV-VI), is the subject of this paper. The incentive to build the temple
was, of course, piety. A renewed urge of the same sort, over three hundred years later, led
other Jains to dismantle the original relatively unpretentious temple complex and replace it
with a more expensive edifice, made of stone and finished inside with marble, producing, we
may hope, a notable entry of merit on its patrons’ account in the great cosmic ledger and so
leading to happy rewards in future existences.
The older room was the more interesting and more beautiful of the two, and by a bit of good
fortune, possibly due to virtuous acts in some previous life, two Americans, Mr. Robert W. de
Forest and Mr. Lockwood de Forest, Some time after the dismantling, in 1916 acquired the
room just mentioned, and then laid up, or presumably laid up, further rewards in some future
rebirth by giving it to the Metropolitan Museum. It was installed and opened to the public in
1919, and has now the double distinction of being, first, one of the two Indian temple rooms
on exhibition in the United States—the other is a pillared stone hall from Madura in the
Philadelphia Museum of Art—and, second, perhaps the finest ensemble of Indian wood-
carving outside its native land.
There must, however, have been a flaw in the de Forests’ merit, because they never saw the
temple while standing at its original site and so did not get certain basic information which
would have been useful for the museum installation. But luckily two members of the
Archaeological Survey of India did, Dr. James Burgess in 1869 and Mr. Henry Cousens in
1886-87. They published a photograph, two drawings, and a brief description of the
room. 4 But unfortunately, again, somewhere along the line, merit was imperfect, for the
account which they published was both brief and at certain vital points insufficient. They did
not describe the temple complex as a whole, nor did they indicate the relative position of this
room or explain its function. Most of their report concerns the inscription mentioned above,
which, they say, was preserved on a slab “built into the wall of the principal maṇḍapa” of the
temple. This allusion, whose brevity must have seemed to them unimportant, is to us
tantalizing. Was the room or porch now in the Metropolitan Museum the “principal
maṇḍapa” or not? If not, what was it and what was its purpose? And was it built at the time
mentioned in the inscription? For lack of a sentence or two we are left to conjecture about the
full significance of the inscription. But the architectural data which the two authors explicitly
left us are of great value, and I shall refer to it frequently in the rest of this paper.

Wood-carving in Gujarat
Wood-carving, as so skilfully illustrated in this room, is widespread in Gujarat and nearby,
and may be an art of long standing there. It is often found on doorways of private houses,
mouldings, cornices, balconies, facades. It appears frequently inside small temples, where it
is fully Painted; a few traces of paint are visible on the Metropolitan’s room. The intricate
wood-carving of the region seems to be imitated in the interior marble decorations of such

119
temples as those at Mount Abu, where the stone is as delicately and minutely worked as the
wood in our maṇḍapa.

But though wood is abundantly used in Gujarat and many examples of fine wood-carving
exist, few whole wooden temples or even temple rooms are now known. One which is similar
to this but less satisfactory to study was acquired by the Baroda Museum in 1947, and as now
installed is described by Dr. H. Goetz and Mr. U. P. Shah in the “Bulletin of the Baroda
Museum and Picture Gallery”, vol. VI, Pus. 1-2, 1948-49, pp. 1-30, with 60 figures on XXIV
plates. The latter room has a central portion, about the size of the Metropolitan’s maṇḍapa,
and two wings. It has a complex history, being composed of pieces of varying date and
diverse provenience, finally assembled by someone, probably a wealthy Jain layman, who
used it in his house. The Metropolitan’s room, being a whole but for some figures removed
after the dismantling, and having all been executed in a single period, is a rarity even in India,
and the excellence of the carving makes it a most valued possession. Only as recently as 1939
the then Director of Archaeology for the Baroda State, in which lies the city of Pāṭan where
the Metropolitan’s room was constructed, printed in his annual report a lament that this had
been exported from India. The carving of the room is deep and crisp; the figures full of
action and life; the composition careful though traditional. All is filled with joyous devotion;
it is a fitting memorial of the Jain religion.

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Construction
The original structural features of the room are clear from the archaeological officers’ report
and the elements of the room as they can be seen in the Metropolitan Museum. It was built on
a very simple skeleton, consisting of four corner posts a little more than five feet high and set
a little more than eleven feet apart, over whose tops extended beams or lintels. The corner
posts rose from the level of the ground outside, but the level of their base was not the level of
the inside floor. This was, instead, a little less than two feet lower. Inside the posts was a
ledge or walkway about fifteen or sixteen inches wide, which ran around all four sides of the
room, and at the inside edge of this was a straight drop of about twenty or twenty-one inches
to the floor, which was, therefore, sunk that distance below the outside ground level. Mr.
Cousens’ drawing shows this feature plainly.
The straight perpendicular sides of the room were about five and a quarter feet high, and were
originally open to the air all the way around. There was no doorway. The way to enter the
room was to step on the walk way inside the corner posts, and then step down to the floor. To
do so one had to bend a little on coming to the walkway and then lift one’s feet care fully
over the low railing on the inside of it as one stepped down to the floor level. The
awkwardness of this procedure led to confusion when the room was installed in the
Metropolitan.
In the center of each side of the room was a balcony (Pl. IV) projecting inwards, and the rear
posts of the balcony served with the corner posts to support the superstructure. The pediments
of the balconies were upheld by front posts and struts, and the balconies were supported from
below by brackets. These elements and beams were all richly carved in higher relief (Pl. VI).
The drop from the walkway to the floor was faced with a dado, which was also elaborately
decorated.
The dome construction began above the lintels connecting the corner posts. First, an
octagonal course was imposed upon the basic square, cutting off the corners and leaving
squinches, which were then embellished with carving. Above the octagonal course was then
laid a sixteen-sided course, which cut off the angles of the octagon. Rings were then raised on
this latter course, diminishing in diameter and corbelling inwards. A center element with a
large pendant bound the parts of many stone temples of Gujarat and lower Rajputana, notably
those of the Jains at Girnar, Śatruñjaya, Mount Abu.
When the room was constructed, the sides were left open, as is the case with similar elements
in stone temples, but at some later time an iron grating with a mesh of about an inch and
quarter was introduced in the sides to keep out bats, swallows, and pigeons, which are a
common nuisance in Indian temples. The published photograph shows a balcony (now
installed in the Metropolitan at the east), and the drawings exhibit the cross-section and the
ceiling.
When installing the room the Museum staff was baffled. It could see no obvious logic in a
room which was so inconvenient to enter and to use. The Museum, therefore, rationalized the
structure by giving it a lower part, which in effect amounted to another story, making the
room high and narrow and rendering it practically impossible for any ordinary human neck to
bend far enough backward to let one see the ceiling. The addition, like the room, was
composed of carved wooden elements from Gujarat and Jain in their subject matter, but the
wood was of a different kind, the carving was of a different style, and the two major parts of
the reconstruction had never been together until they reached New York.

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The Museum was quite frank in stating what it had done and why. When it opened the room
to the public, it published in its “Bulletin” (January, 1919) a note signed “J. B. ” (Joseph
Breck), telling something of the room’s history; referring to the publication by Burgess and
Cousens, and also remarking, “Unfortunately, neither the drawings nor the photograph [that
published by Burgess and Cousens] show the structure below the frieze [meaning the dado]
nor give the ground plan of the temple; but presumably the structure was borne upon
columns, thus permitting access to the Shrine and other halls. ”
The presumption, however was incorrect, and the reconstruction is unjustified. First, the
addition of a lower section destroys the proportions of the original. These domed rooms from
temples in Gujarat—and a number have been published—are regularly constructed on the
basis of a cube with the upper corners rounded off. This room was originally about eleven
and a half feet in each dimension, and the length and breadth are that now. But the height of
the reconstruction is about eighteen feet, or half as much again as it should be. Secondly, the
drawing shows clearly that the room was built at ground level. Thirdly, the photograph, when
carefully examined, shows beyond the grille, at the left of the balcony, faintly yet
unmistakably discernible, a man standing on the outside ground or pavement, peering
curiously within, looking very much like somebody’s chaprassi. His feet are at about the level
of the ledge or walkway which runs around the inside of the room. The photograph also
shows, just inside the dado, a few inches of the original floor. There can be no doubt that the
room was complete without a sub-structure, that it was erected at ground level and had
sunken floor, and that it was not meant for passage but had to be passed around.
In the reconstruction there is a wooden grille in place of the adscititious iron grille mentioned
above, which kept out bats, swallows, and pigeons. The present grille is evidently otiose,
since the Metropolitan Museum does not appear to be bothered by such pests.
Original position and function
Though Burgess and Cousens fail to state explicitly the position of this room in the total
temple ensemble and its function, we may make deductions on these points with a fair degree
of confidence. We may start by referring to the main features of temples in Gujarat. There, as
is general in India, the essential part is the cell or shrine called garbha (“womb interio”)
or garbhagṛha (“womb-house”), which houses the image of the deity or, with the Jains, the
Tīrthaṅkara who is being honored. This usually has only one opening, the door. Above the
cell is ceiling or false roof, over which in temples of any pretensions rises a spire (śikhara).
All this is called the vimāna (“celestial car”,”palace”) of the god, and it may in itself
constitute the entire temple. Usually, however, there are additional elements. Before
the vimāna may be a maṇḍapa (“porch, hall”), which may be either open on the sides or
enclosed by walls. In a temple of any size at all this has columns. When the porch has
enclosed sides it is called antarāla (“passage way”) or gūḍhamaṇḍapa (“enclosed porch”). In
front of this frequently appears, especially in large temples, another maṇḍapa serving for
groups of people to use in various connections indicated by the names applied to it, which
are sabhāmaṇḍapa (“assembly hall”) raṅgamaṇḍapa (“theatrical hall”), nṛtyasala (“dance
hall”). This may be attached to the temple structurally or may stand independently of it in
front. When it is without walls it may be known as an ākṅśamaṇḍapa (“open-air hall”). In
a sabhāmaṇḍapa the ceiling is frequently a heavily carved dome, as in the example in the
Vimalasahi temple on Mount Abu, which has as its chief theme the sixteen Jain Vidyādevīs,
or in the detailed example at Kanoda or that at Modhera. There are many modifications of
temple plans, with variation in the relative size, shape, and situation of elements, and with the
addition in some large temples of still other accessory units.

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To identify the purpose of the Metropolitan’s maṇḍapa, we may note three point. First,
Cousens’ drawing clearly indicates that it was free standing. Second, Burgess and Cousens in
referring to the long inscription say that it was “built into the wall of the principal maṇḍapa of
this temple”. Since the only part of the temple which they describe is the porch (maṇḍapa)
which we are discussing, it seems clear that if the inscription had been on it, they would have
said so explicitly. In referring to the principal porch, they must have been referring to another
than this; that would have been the maṇḍapa just before the vimāna, which in any case would
have been the natural place to set an inscription. Third, the Metropolitan’s being awkward to
pass through, would not have been meant to give access to the shrine. It was to be passed
around except when being put to its own special use. We may conclude, I think with
assurance, that the room was constructed as a sabhāmaṇḍapa (“assembly hall”) open to the
air.
Our maṇḍapa may have been erected at the same time as the main shrine or at a later time,
and either by the same patrons or by some other. There is no way to determine this point with
complete certainty. It could have been a separate expression of religious feeling by some
sincere soul who set it up, a small jewel of a building, edifying to enter and behold,
commemorating some specific occasion for gratitude to the superhuman powers or
celebrating some pious purpose happily achieved. In it the patron and his family or some
other small group might on occasion have entertained a distinguished monk to have the
blessing of listening to his discourse or have had the Scripture recited at a festival season or
have viewed a dance in honor of some exalted figure or have engaged in some other
profitable exercise. It scarcely seems likely to have had frequent and regular use.
Date
In view of the remarks made just above it is evident that there is no positive and unequivocal
evidence about the date of the maṇḍapa. Burgess and Cousens in discussing
the maṇḍapa refer to the inscription and imply that they consider the dates which it gives as
applying to the whole temple including this part of it. The inscription says that the
construction was begun “in the reign of the Pādishāh, the illustrious Akabbara, in the year
1651 after the era of the illustrious king Vikrama, on the 9 th of the bright half of Mārgaśīrsa,
on the civil day Monday, under the lunar asterism Pūrvabhadrā, in a propitious hour.” This is
equivalent to November 11, 1594. The image was consecrated on May 13, 1596. But, as is
intimated above, the maṇḍapa may have been built later than the vimāna and its porch. To
answer the problem of the date, therefore, we must seek other criteria than the inscription.
There are a few which may be used. One is the headdress worn by Tīrthaṅkaras. This is either
a triple-tiered parasol or crown, such as appears in illustrated Jain manuscripts of the
16th century, or a crown with points of varied length or a parasol, such as appear in
manuscripts of the 17th and 18th centuries but cannot be absolutely denied for the late
16th century. Further, the goddess Lakṣmī had her attendants, who are shown on the parapets
of the balconies, wear crowns with flaring points, such as are assigned by Goetz and Shah to
the 16th and 17th centuries. Again, the bullock carts on the parapets compare with one shown
by Goetz and Shah, though it is more elaborate and has four wheels, and assigned by those
authors to the late 16th century.
If the maṇḍapa was carved later than the dates in the inscription, the time seems unlikely to
have been much later. It seems that we should take it to be of about the beginning of the
17th century.
Iconography

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When the room was constructed, it is likely that the architect and his patrons, or patron, had
some overall unifying principle in the iconography. This we may try to deduce.
The temple of which it was a part commemorated Pārśva, the twenty third of the twenty-four
Tīrthaṅkaras, but as a maṇḍapa it did not house an image, and the theme of the carvings is
not Pārśva or any series of circumstances relating to him, nor is it concerned with the
Tīrthaṅkaras as a whole. Those representations of Tīrthaṅkaras which occur in the room are
in a secondary position. They are four, appearing in the pediments of the balconies, and are
not easy to identify, since the characteristic marks (lāñchana) which differentiate
Tīrthaṅkaras are here damaged. They seem to be as follows: in the eastern balcony (as now
installed) Ṛṣabha, with his bull; in the southern, Ṛṣabha, with bull; in the western, Ṛṣabha,
with bull; in the northern, Śānti with deer. All four are shown as perfected souls ( siddha) in
Īṣatprāgbhāra at the top of the universe. 16 There they exist as pure and incorporeal soul, and
hence have no resemblance to anything material, whether animate or inanimate. But to
symbolize them, and only for the purpose of symbolism, they are shown through the medium
of the human body. The human body does not depict them; it only suggests them. When the
Śvetāmbaras so symbolize their Saviours, they show them arrayed, ornamented, and crowned
as kings, with royal parasols overhead, and flanked by attendants bearing fly-whisks and
waterpots. A temporal world-conqueror would be similarly presented, and we may recall that
according to Jain mythology each of the twenty-four Saviours could have had such a worldly
career if he had not elected instead to follow the religious life and become a Jina
(“Conqueror”) in the spiritual struggle. In this room the Jinas appear to be incidental to the
main iconographic themes.
The main themes deal with lower goals than the difficult spiritual victory achieved by the
Perfected Beings. They are, instead, the aims of creatures reconciled to remaining for an
indefinite period in the transient phenomenal universe, where they are bound by the action of
the senses and destined, therefore, to experience innumerable rebirths in the revolving
samsara (“round of existence”). Such beings are satisfied with the temporary goals of
prosperity, joy, and protection from evil, and these are the themes of the carving in
the maṇḍapa. They are illustrated in a heavenly environment, and in an earthly. The creatures
seeking and enjoying them or aiding mortals to enjoy them or to commemorate them are
divinities and their attendants, human beings, and possibly some subterranean entities.
Protection from evil is the chief motif of the dome. Its hemisphere represents the vault of
heaven, which meets the square earth at its circumference,reaches to some great height at the
zenith above us, and encompasses the activities of men and gods. It features carvings of the
eight deities whose function it is to guard the universe at the cardinal and intermediate
directions so that it may be free of molestation from any evil forces. The idea is a common
one to all Indian faiths. It stems from the old notion of the Ṛg Veda that the universe
operates, or should operate, in conformity with a body of cosmic law called the ṛta, which
when fully observed insures its equilibrium or harmony. Unfortunately, there exist forces
contrary to the ṛta, characterized as anṛta, which are constantly endeavouring to enter the
universe of gods and men and disrupt its orderly cycle. These are demons (yakṣas) and beings
whom they induce to do their will. The gods are continually engaged in repelling these evil
forces, and men have the duty of assisting the gods, chiefly through due celebration of the
sacrifice. In post-Vedic India the need for protection is formally recognized by designating
certain gods, most of whom already in the Veda, as world protectors
(lokapāla, dikpāla, vāstudevāta). They defend against evil intruding from the horizontal
directions, either at the four cardinal points of the compass or at eight. They need not watch
the nadir which is protected by the Earth goddess (pṛthivī, bhūmi, bhū), nor the zenith, which

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appears to need no protection, since the only opening in it, in Vedic mythology, appears to be
that “straight path” (sādhu pathi; cf. RV 10. 14. 10) that leads to the realm of the gods and the
blessed dead, where no evil is ever found. Protection by the Direction Guardians is invoked
in India in many circumstances. At the dedication of a building in Gujarat, for example, as
one of the final ceremonies, the master craftsman with attendants and a priest or two mounts
a platform raised on a high scaffolding and calls to the regents of the eight airts. In Jain
temples these same figures often appear on the domed ceiling of a maṇḍapa. This is the case
with the Metropolitan’s carved room. To start at the east, which is the normal point of
departure in India, and box the eight points of the compass, the deities with their vehicles
(vahanas) in the original construction were:18
East; Indra and elephant
Southeast; Agni and ram (looking, however, more like a goat or deer)
South; Yama with buffalo (from some views looking like a horse)
Southwest; Niṛīti with dog
West: Varua with boar
Northwest; Vāyu or Marut with gazelle
North; Kubera with elephant
Northeast; Iśāna with bull
Each deity is set in an architectural niche and is flanked by two attendants. In many cases
distinguishing attributes have been broken off. Between these eight gods originally stood
eight female figures, but these were already disposed of before the room was acquired for the
Museum, and the pieces of wood on which they were carved have now been replaced by
blank substitutes. We can get a rough idea of them from Cousens’ drawings of the dome.
They may have been meant for heavenly women (apsaras or surasundarī) or more probably
the Direction Maidens (dikkumārī), who are fifty-six in number and assist at various
important functions, such as the heavenly bathing of the future Tīrthaṅkara when born on
earth for his last existence. 19 They stood on lotuses, which are still preserved, and play
musical instruments (lute, both single-bowled and double-bowled, flute, drum, cymbals,
flute), and danced.
Ancillary to the main figures in the dome and their attendants were other figures, human,
animal, and hybrid in form, and a profusion of auspicious vegetation designs.
The most conspicuous position occupied by any of these was on the pendant, which was
decorated with eight figures of female musicians and dancers, again likely to be
either apsarases or dikkumārīs.
Next to the pendant is a ring of conventionalized flowers, then a ring of animals—lion, tiger,
elephant, cow, camel, horse, buffalo, deer, bird, snake, mongoose, śarabha (lion’s body with
elephant’s trunk), another hybrid consisting of quadruped’s body with a bird’s head. Some
are suckling young; other may be engaged in fight— śarabha with lion, lion with elephant,
snake with mongoose. These various creatures perhaps represent the animal world as it is
considered to exist in the heavens.
The next ring consists of musicians whose instruments are drums, lutes (vīṇā), trumpets,
flutes, cymbals. One has a horn with a bend like a saxophone. Many of the musicians have
bird’s legs and tail on a human torso, or a bull’s head or monkey’s head and tail on a human
torso, and are therefore, kiṁnaras (“what sort of man”, “near-man”).
Outside this ring is a ring of conventionalized flowers. Then come the main figures, already
mentioned, and below them is a ring of elephants in procession, Under these are suspended

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the eight conventionalized lotuses on which originally stood the eight female figures now
missing, which may be meant to represent the Direction Maidens. On a level with these
flowers is another ring of musicians, playing a variety of instruments, and singers. Beneath
this are the other ring-courses of the dome, showing conventionalized vegetation decoration.
Next, below the lowest ring is a sixteen sided course carved with three half-lotuses to a side.
Then appears an eight-sided course in two registers, of which the upper contains sixty-four
male figures seated, each holding a jar or a rosary. Though these have only two hands each, it
is possible that they represent the sixty-four Indras. In each side with its eight male figures
are nine attendant fly-whisk bearers, many of whom are in dance poses. The lower register
has an elaborate foliage design. In each of the squinches under the cross pieces at the room’s
four corners was an elaborate floral design ending in the corner in a krtimukha (“glory face”).
These are now all badly damaged, but one has two kiṁnaras playing flutes and
two makaras (sea monster) standing up right on their curled tails, with bodies twisted as in
the dance. The decoration of the squinches seems to end the representation of heavenly
regions. All there has been joyousness secure by the protection of the Direction Guardians
with probably the accompanying Direction Maidens.
Below the squinches we come to a representation of the four-square earth, and there the
significant subject matter is treated in the carvings of the balconies. Each of these is an
elaborate architectural unit surmounted by a pediment in which is seated a Tirhankara as a
perfected being, flanked by attendants. The structural elements are heavily decorated with
jars and other lucky symbols. But the most important feature of each is the parapet which has
as its theme adoration of the goddess Lakṣmī. She is the dispenser of prosperity, especially
worshipped by merchants, and therefore supremely favored by the Jain community. Her
annual festival in the autumn, when shopkeepers close their accounts, people pay their debts,
and the prudent worship the rupee, bears the name of Dīvalī (Skt. Dīpāvali “row of lights”),
and with Jains it not only honors the goddess but also marks the entry into
complete nirvāṇa of Mahāvīra, the last of their twenty four Tīrthaṅkaras, (Saviours), which
they say occurred on this day.
The central figure in each balcony carving is clearly this goddess Lakṣmī, because the four
hands hold her regular attributes. In the upper ones are lotuses; in the lower are a rosary and a
small jar. Still more, two elephants stand beside and above her, sprinkling her with water
from their trunks. Her seat is regularly a lotus, not shown here as a seat, but appearing triply
in the dado, below, and she symbolizes the productive earth resting upon the cosmic waters,
while the clouds, represented by the two elephants, send down the fructifying rain.
In the different balconies, the figures which accompany the goddess vary. In that now at the
north they are female musicians and dancers, crowned as she is, some of them playing
the vīṇā, the Indian lute. At each end is a lay figure holding a rosary and leaning upon a long
bamboo staff, which in India is still a common weapon. He is perhaps a pious warder.
In the present eastern balcony fly-whisk bearers attend the goddess, while musicians blow
trumpets, and girls with joined hands dance around a tree, probably meant for the tulasi, or
basil, which is sacred to Lakṣmī. 21 Here seems to be a reference to one of Lakṣmī’s autumn
harvest festivals, when there is feasting, and young girls dressed in white sing and dance.
In each of the other balconies the accompanying carving is of two oxcarts (over one is a bird)
and their drivers with small figures seated in their passenger’s compartments dressed as
monks preaching, but surely not really monks, since the latter are forbidden to travel on land
in vehicles. These scenes suggest a custom of wealthy pious Jains to go on pilgrimages and to
finance large parties of accompanying pilgrims. Such a layman usually takes a monk’s vows

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temporarily, travels on foot, and goes to Mount Śatruñjaya in Kathiawar, about 150 miles
from Pāṭan, where our maṇḍapa was constructed. Śatruñjaya is sacred to Ṛṣabha, first of the
Tīrthaṅkaras in the present world-cycle, who died there. It is he who seems to be represented
in the pediments of those balconies whose parapets show the carts. At the top of Mount
Śatruñjaya is a fortress filled with temples, of which the chief is dedicated to Ṛṣabha.
Pilgrims who can afford the price may ride around this shrine in a silver cart, thus putting a
perfect finish on the sanctified journey.
In the two balcony scenes showing carts the attendants standing at the ends hold fly-whisk
and water jar, as did the attendants flanking the Saviours in the pediments. The pillars beside
the goddess Lakṣmī appropriately enough terminate with the vessel of plenty.
The floor of the balconies is at the same level as the walkway around the interior of the room
and was originally, as has been indicated, at the level of the ground outside. Between the
walkway and the sunken floor is the dado. The drop to a level below the surface of the
ground may signify that this, the lowest part of the structure, represents that part of the
subterranean world which is just below the earth’s surface and above the hells. Here dwell the
eight classes of kindly creatures known as the Vyantara gods, who are custodians of the
treasure within the earth and are known sometimes in Jain texts as sajjana, literally “good
folk”. In a well-ruled city filled with righteous people they spread their treasures abundantly.
As appearing in our carving they are male and female; some carry jars, presumably full of
riches; some have weapons, swords and battle axes; some are attendants bearing fly-whisks;
some beat drums; some dance.
On the same level with these figures are lotuses shown in three medallions below each
balcony, possibly to represent the earth as Lakṣmī’s seat, resting upon the cosmic waters.
Underneath the row of figures is a procession of haṁsas, each carrying a spray of leaves or a
flower bud in its beak. Below the lotuses and in the same register with the haṁsas are panels
of jālī (“network”), wood pierced in delicate geometric designs. Underneath this register were
originally further carved wooden courses, a few inches in height, which can be seen in the
Archaeological Survey’s photograph but are missing from the Museum installation.
The dado is surmounted by a low railing which borders the walkway. It consists of a repeated
motif common as an ornament on Jain buildings, which is highly conventionalized but may
perhaps have one of two origins. It may be geometric or even foliage motif from Islamic art,
since many such items appear in Western India after the Muslims established themselves
there. The other possibility is that it derives from the vase of plenty which is well known in
Jain symbolism. In late times this is shown in a kind of cusped niche which frames
it. 24 Between the separate examples of this motif are shown pots with sprigs of some plant
whose leaves grow in threes. 25 The significance of the motif seems in any case to be good
fortune.
Interpretation
What now is the general content of the carving which decorates the room; Taking together
the ideas illustrated in the dome, on the balconies, and on the dado, we may find in this room,
I think, an epitome of practical Jainism for a well-to-do pious layman. He knows and lauds
the great goal of salvation which those mighty Victors, the twenty-four Jinas, have won, and
the others of the Perfected Beings. He recognizes the importance of the shrine at the rear of
the temple which honors one of them, the Tīrthaṅkara Pārśva. But few indeed are those who
have ever attained such success. He knows that he could not become one of them. He is more
modest in his pretensions and aspirations; he must be content with something less lofty, less

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 abstract, less difficult. And so he does not frequent that cell which points to salvation in the
non-phenomenal world. Rather, he stops in the phenomenal universe to make the most of it,
and in it he takes his seat under the well-guarded vault of heaven. No harm will come to him,
thanks to the vigilance of the Direction Guardians. He may even hope, by virtuous living,
appropriate alms-giving, reverence to the holy ones, abstinence from killing and other vices,
and the practice of not too severe austerities, to check the worst effects of karma and cultivate
good ones, and some day himself win to a celestial abode where he will hear the divine music
and enjoy the divine pleasure. That is his highest expectation. Meanwhile, whatever may be
his lot in the unpredictable future, he can count with some more assured hope upon the best
that life can give in the here and now. Lakṣmī has favoured him with the wealth to achieve
expensive pilgrimages, erect costly temples, practice lavish philanthropies. It is only fitting
that he should honor her—honor her, and thank her too. And thank her not only for favours
already granted, but also, with a bow to her proverbially fickle nature, thank her for favours
still to be received. With her have co-operated the yakṣas and other subterranean beings who
guard the treasures beneath the earth’s surface. Them, too, he honors that they may prolong
their generosity. In this way he will continue to enjoy the comfort and plenty brought to him,
one of the deserving rich, by the united action of heaven, earth, and the underworld. His are
the solid blessings of the successful business man.
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 1.Otherwise known as Anahilavāḍa-Pattana.

 2.See description of this temple in James Burgess and Henry Cousens, The Architectural Antiquities of
Northern Gujarat (Archaeological survey of Western India, Volume IX), 1908. pp. 49-51, Plates IV, XX, XXI

 3.Published by W. Norman Brown, A Pillared Hall from a Temple at Madura, India, in the Philadelphia
Museum of Art, Philadelphia, 1940

 4.See Footnote No. 2

 5.Annual Report of the Archaeological Department. Baroda state for the year ending 31 st July. 1938 (Baroda
State Press, 1939), p. 15 and plate XII. The Director, Dr. Hirananda Sastri, thought only one balcony was
involved, not a whole room. For some other examples of wood carving from Northern Gujarat, see Burgess
and Cousens, op. cit. , plates XXXVI and XLVI.

 6.See Burgess and Cousens, op. cit. , plates XLVIII, XLIX, L for an especially elaborate example at Modera.

 7.For the Indian temple in general see Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, 2 vols, Calcutta, 1946 For temples
in Gujarat, see Burgess and Cousens. op. cit. , pp. 21-32, from which the material following in this paper is
drawn.

 8.See Kramrisch, op. cit. , I. pp. 21-7, 257.

 9.See Muni Vidyavijaya, Ābū, Sirohi, 1933. p. 64

 10.See Burgess and Cousens. op. cit. , pp. 71 ff. , 110f. , plates VII, XLVII. XLVIII, XII; cf. Also p. 108,
plates LXXXII, LXXXIV, LXXXVI.

 11.See Burgess and Cousens, Passim.

 12.Burgess and Cousens, op. cit. , pp. 49f

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 13.Cf. W. Norman Brown, Miniature Paintings of the Jaina Kalpasutra, Washington. 1984 fig. 101

 14.Goetz and Shah, op. cit. , figs 24, 27, 28, 30, 59.

 15.Goetz and Shah, op. cit. , fig 13.

 16.Cf. Brown, op. cit. , figs 81, 100, 114, 128

 17.Cf. Kramrisch, op. cit. , I, p. 29

 18.In the Metropolitan’s installation these have been moved backward two places.

 19.Cf. Brown, op. cit. , pp. 30f These female figures hardly seem likely to represent the Vidyā devis, which
are shown in other sabhamaṇḍapas (cf. footnote 9 above).

 20.Cf. W. Norman Brown, op. cit. , p 40

 21.Cf. Goetz and Shah, op. cit. , fig 27

 22.For a painted cloth depicting such pilgrimages, now owned by the Brooklyn Museum of
Art. See an article by W. Norman Brown in Art and Thought ( Studies in Honour of A. K.
Coomara swamy), pp. 68-72

 23.Comparison of the installation of the balconies in the Museum with the photograph of a
balcony when in situ published by Burgess and Cousens shows that the pierced wooden
panels belonging originally to it are now under another balcony. The pieces of the dado
originally on the two sides of the balcony have also been placed elsewhere; so, too, the
beam of the octagon originally above the balcony has been moved to some other place.

 24.Cf. Brown, op. cit. , figs 4, 28, 132. For a late example see Helen
Johnson Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacaritra, Vol I, Ādīśvaracaritra (Baroda, Gaekwad’s Oriental
Series, Vol. II, 1931); plate IV.

 25.Cf. Goetz and Shah, plate I, fig. 1; plate VI. Fig. 19; the lintel in the former figure,
showing this motif, appears to be upside down.

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 VII
The HERMENEUTIC EXPOSITION OF THE JAIN
TEMPLE CLUSTER AT KHAJURAHO

Jainism is religion as well as a beautiful concept. Jainism is having its own significant history,
contemporary art and architectural style. Also there are many universal concepts been derived
and illustrated in Jainism.

Jain temples are everywhere in India. Jainism is basically a way of living that has merged itself
with the culture around. In Jainism there are only rules and regulations that enhances the seven
points of enlightment in human being, also Jainism is a step towards conservation of nature and
the planet earth.

Generally in every state there are Jain tourism spots (majorly at the highest point of every state)
like

 Dilwada Temple, Mount abu, Rajasthan

 Ksharavanvelgola, Karnataka
 Shikharji, Bihar
 Girnarji, Gujrat
 Akshardham, Delhi
 Kundalpur, Damoh, Madhya Pradesh
and many more. Jain tourism provides all the facilities inside the premises. Mainly Jain
architecture is a composition of huge stones placed to form a structure, there are identical shapes,
elements and components in it.

There is an entire literature about Jainism available online, if you are packing your bags for a
tour, there are many options around the world (Mainly southern asia) to choose from.
Jain doctrine teaches that Jainism has always existed and will always exist. Like most
ancient Indian religions, Jainism has its roots from the Indus Valley civilization, reflecting
native spirituality prior to the Indo-Aryan migration into India. Other scholars suggested
the Shramana traditions were separate and contemporaneous with Indo-Aryan religious
practices of the historical Vedic religion. In August 2005, the Supreme Court of India ruled
that Jainism, Sikhism (and Buddhism) are distinct religions but are inter-connected and inter-
related to Hinduism, so these three are part of wider broader Hindu religion, based on the
historic background on how the Constitution had come into existence after. However, in the
2006 verdict, the Supreme Court found that the "Jain Religion is indisputably not a part of the
Hindu Religion"

Why do Jains have temples?

Jains, the believers of Jainism are known fOr magnificent temples. The question is why Jains
prefer having or constructing temples instead of praying at home.

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Three reasons

1. Jains believe in teachings of 24 divine Tirthankaras, last being Mahavir for the current
era is believed to have lived 2600 years ago, since there is no Tirthankara at present,
there's no pious assembly i.e Shamavsharan where Tirthankaras give sermons, temples
in Jainism is mere representation of that preaching hall, a replica of Tirthankaras sabha,
Jain's believe that In temple they can feel the auspiciousness and peace similar to
which was present when Tirthankaras were dwelling this very earth.
2. Jains also believe that no matter how much we try at home, it's near to impossible to
create that sacred environment at home like we get in temple. At home we do many
works which aren't appropriate like we gossip, people bitch, eat, fight, make love, poop
and what not. The energy levels and environment at home is quite not suitable. This
simply doesn't make home a good place for meditation and aren't sanct enough to keep
idols.
3. Walking to a temple is putting an effort, reaching a temple is significant dedication and
performing pooja bhakti meditation or reading scriptures is determination. With the
beginning of thought 'lets go to temple’ one gets an directed orientation, an aim is
generated and efforts followed. Once the task is performed the peace and satisfaction is
one that's acheived.

These are some of the many reasons why Jains have temples, why they prefer worship away from
their homes in beautifully constructed temples. And I find these reasons quite amazing.

Jain temple, New Delhi, India.

The elements of Jain architecture are characterized by their simplicity, elegance, and
emphasis on symmetry and proportion.

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  With regard to architecture, the Jains adopted the local building traditions
of Vaishnava and Dravidian styles while evolving their style.
 The exquisite Jain architecture consists of caves, temples, monasteries and other
structures.
 In ancient times, they received great patronage under the ruling dynasties
of Cholas, Pallavas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas and other kingdoms.

Types of Jain architectures

 Stupa (Chaitya)
 Layana (Caves)
 Jinalaya (Temples)

Stupa (Chaitya)

 The Jains erected them for devotional purposes.

 The earliest Jain stupa was built in the 8th century BCE, before the Jina Parsvanatha.
 Structure: Jain stupa has a peculiar cylindrical three-tier structure that is quite
reminiscent of the Samavasarana, by which it was replaced as an object of worship.
 As used in Jain inscriptions, the name for a stupa is the standard word "thupe".
 Mathura Jain Stupas: A Jain stupa dated to the 1st century BCE-1st Kankali Tila
moundcentury CE was excavated at Mathura in the 19th century, in the .
 Ayagapatas: The Jain devotional reliefs, called Ayagapatas, show a probable design
of the Jain stupa.
o The stupa drum is set on a high platform and accessed by a flight of stairs and
an ornate torana gate, quite similar in style to the toranas of Sanchi.
o The drum of the stupa is elongated and cylindrical and formed of three
superposed tiers separated by railings and decorated bands.
o The platform may have been squared, with Persepolitan-type columns in
each corner.
o On the Vasu Ayagapata, one of the Persepolitan pillars is surmounted by
a Dharmachakra wheel, and the other pillar was probably surmounted by an
animal, as seen in other similar Ayagapatas.

Layana (Caves)

 Caves, the earlier architecture found in Maharashtra, are of the Digambara Jain
sect.
 These are found from the 6th century during the Chalukya period and continued
during the Rashtrakuta period.
 Rock-cut architecture: The method of building a structure by cutting it out of raw is
known as rock-cut architecture.
o It is done by excavating solid rock where it naturally exists to create
structures, buildings, and sculptures.
o Temples, tombs, and caves were the principal rock-cut architecture
applications.

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 Jain Caves
Name Description
Ellora Caves (Maharashtra)  Cave numbers 30-35 at Ellora are Jain caves carved
in the 10th century.
 These caves belong to the Digambara sect.
 All of the Ellora monuments were built during
the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
 Emphasis is placed on the depiction of the twenty-
four Jinas.
 The Jain caves contain some of the
earliest Samavasarana images among their
devotional carvings.
 Pairing of sacred figures in Jainism,
specifically Parsvanatha and Bahubali.
 Other artworks of significance include those of the
deities Sarasvati, Sri, Saudharmendra,
Sarvanubhuti, Gomukha, Ambika, Cakresvari,
Padmavati, Ksetrapala, and Hanuman.

Udaygiri Caves (Odisha)  There are 18 caves in Udayagiri, and the most
important is Rani Gumpha.
o This cave is occupied by the Queen of
Lalakendu, Kesari.
o It contains scriptures depicting the victory
march of King Kharavela.
 Ganesh Gumpha Cave: Carvings in this cave tell
the story of the Princess of Ujjayini with King
Udayana of Kausambi
o This cave has two giant statues of elephants
carrying garlands at the entrance.

Sittanavasal Caves (Tamil  The monument is a rock-cut monastery or temple.

Nadu)  Created by Tamil Sramana, it is called the Arivar
Koil and is a rock-cut cave temple of the Arihant.
 It contains remnants of notable frescoes from the
7th century.
 Ancient structures such as Gol
Gumbaz, Talagirisvara Temple, and this one are
claimed to be relatively unappreciated.
 The Sittanavasal Cave is listed as one of
the Adarsh Smarak Monuments by the
Archaeological Survey of India.

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  The temple cave was initially dated to Pallava
King Mahendravarman I (580–630 AD) before
converting from Jainism to Hinduism as a Shaivite.

Jinalaya (Temples)

Jain temple architecture is a style of temple architecture that developed as a part of Jainism.
This ancient Indian religion emphasizes on non-violence and respect for all living things.

 Each element of Jain temples, like Mandapa, Garbhagriha, Mukhmandapa,

Shikhar, Devakoshta etc, are designed to create a peaceful and harmonious
atmosphere for meditation and worship.
 Some key elements of Jain temple architecture include:

 Jain temples have numerous pillars with a well-designed structure, forming squares.
 The squares thus formed create chambers, which are used as small chapels and
contain the image of a deity.
 From these pillars, there are richly carved brackets that emerge at about two-thirds
of their height.
 The only architectural variation specific to Jain temples is the frequently seen four-
faced or Chaumukh design.

 Types of Jain temples: There are mainly two types of Jain temples: Shikar-bandhi
Jain temple and Ghar Jain temple.

Features Shikar-bandhi Jain temple Ghar Jain temple

Size of They are more traditional and large temples. These are smaller, more
temple intimate temples meant to be
used as personal shrines
within a household.
Structural  Dome-like structure (Shikhar) on top. These temples do not have a
features  These temples often have multiple levels dome and are typically less
and large, elaborate entrance ornate than Shikar-bandhi
halls (mandapas) with intricate carvings temples.
and sculptures
 They have many marble pillars carved
beautifully with demi-gold posture.

Serves as The central shrine in a Shikar-bandhi temple They are used for daily

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 houses an image of a Tirthankara, and the temple prayers and rituals.
serves as a gathering place for Jain devotees.

Types of Jain temples

Jain Religious Sites

Places Description
Dilwara Temple (Rajasthan)  There are two major temple complexes.
o One was built around 1030 A.D.
by Vimala Shah, dedicated to the first
Tirthankara.
o The second one was dedicated to
the Tirthankara Neminatha and was
founded around 1230 A.D.
by Tejapala.
 Each temple complex stands in a rectangular
walled area decorated with statues in niches
around the circumference.
 They are famous for using pure white
marble and intricate marble carvings.

Ranakpur temple (Rajasthan)  Built by Darna Shah in 1437 CE.

 It is a Svetambara Jain temple dedicated to
Tirthankara Rishabhdev.
 It is famous for its intricate carvings and
unique architecture (Maru-Gurjara
architecture).

Temples (Gujarat)  They are large groups of Jain temples.

 These temples were built in and after the 11th
century CE.
 It is one of the most sacred sites of
the Svetambara tradition.
 The main temple is dedicated to Rishabhdev.

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Mount Mangi Tungi (Maharashtra)  Numerous temples are considered sacred in
Jainism.
 It enshrines images of Tirthankaras in several
postures, including Padmasana and
Kayotsarga.
 In 2016, the Statue of Ahimsa, a 108 ft idol
carved in monolithic stone, was consecrated
here, and it is recorded in the Guinness Book
of World Records as the tallest Jain idol in the
world.
 Ram and Hanuman attained moksha from
Mount Mangi Tungi.

Shikharji (Jharkhand)  It is located on Parasnath Hill.

 important Jain Tirtha by both Digambara and
Svetambara.
 It is where twenty of the twenty-four Jain
Tirthankaras attained Moksha.
 The current structure of temples at Shikharji
was rebuilt by Jagat Seth in 1768 CE.

Khajuraho Group of  They are a group of Hindu and Jain temples.

Monuments (Madhya Pradesh)  The Jain temples are located in the east-
southeast region of the Khajuraho
monuments.
 Most were built between 885 CE and 1000 CE
by the Chandela dynasty.
 The temples are famous for their Nagara-style
architectural symbolism and a few erotic
sculptures.
 They are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Jain religious sites

Paintings

One facet of Jain art is painting, generally known as miniature paintings because most
pictures are rendered in small sizes. Jain miniature paintings were developed all over India in
the 7th century A.D. and reached maturity during the 15th century A.D.

Jain Paintings
Mural Paintings  The work on walls or solid structures is
called murals.

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  The manuscript text most frequently illustrated is
the Kalpa Sutra, which contains the biographies
of the Tirthankaras, notably Parshvanatha and
Mahavira.
o The illustrations are square-ish panels set
in the text, with "wiry drawing" and
"brilliant, even jewel-like color."
 Rishabha, the first Tirthankara, is usually depicted
in either the lotus position or kayotsarga, the
standing position.

Western Indian style of painting  The Western Indian style prevailed in the region
comprising Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Malwa.
 Features: certain physical traits, such as eyes,
breasts, and hips, are enlarged.
o Figures are flat, with the angularity of
features and the further eye protruding into
space.
o palm-leaf was used for the manuscripts.
o The Kalpasutra and the Kalakacharya-
Katha, the two very popular Jain texts,
were repeatedly written and illustrated with
paintings.

Sittanavasal Paintings  Famous for its fresco-secco technique with many

mineral colors.
 The painting themes depict a beautiful lotus pond
and flowers, people collecting lotuses from the
pond, two dancing figures, lilies, fish, buffaloes,
and elephants.
 The paintings are on the theme of Jain
Samasvasarana, the most attractive heavenly
pavilion, referring to the attainment of Nirvana
and Khatika Bhumi.

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Architecture

Jal Mandir, Shikharji///Ranakpur Jain temple built in 15th century///Lodhurva Jain temple

Saavira Kambada Basadi//Luna Vasahi, Dilwara Temples//Palitana temples

Like Buddhists, Jains participated in Indian rock-cut architecture from a very early date.
Remnants of ancient jaina temples and monasteries temples can be found all around India,
and much early Jain sculpture is reliefs in these. Ellora Caves in Maharashtra, and the Jain
temples at Dilwara near Mount Abu, Rajasthan. The Jain tower in Chittor, Rajasthan is a
good example of Jain architecture

Modern and medieval Jains built many Jain temples, especially in western India. In particular
the complex of five Dilwara Temples of the 11th to 13th centuries at Mount
Abu in Rajasthan is a much-visited attraction. The Jain pilgrimage in Shatrunjay hills near
Patilana, Gujarat is called "The city of Temples". Both of these complexes use the style of
Solanki or Māru-Gurjara architecture, which developed in west India in the 10th century in
both Hindu and Jain temples, but became especially popular with Jain patrons, who kept it in
use and spread it to some other parts of India. It continues to be used in Jain temples, now
across the world, and has recently revived in popularity for Hindu temples.

A Jain temple or Derasar is the place of worship for Jains, the followers of Jainism.[11] Jain
architecture is essentially restricted to temples and monasteries, and secular Jain buildings
generally reflect the prevailing style of the place and time they were built. Derasar is a word
used for a Jain temple in Gujarat and southern Rajasthan. Basadi is a Jain shrine or temple in
Karnataka. The word is generally used in South India. Its historical use in North India is
preserved in the names of the Vimala Vasahi and Luna Vasahi temples of Mount Abu. The
Sanskrit word is vasati, it implies an institution including residences of scholars attached to
the shrine.

Temples may be divided into Shikar-bandhi Jain temples, public dedicated temple buildings,
normally with a high superstructure, typically a north Indian shikhara tower above the shrine)
and the Ghar Jain temple, a private Jain house shrine. A Jain temple which is known as a
pilgrimage centre is often termed a Tirtha.

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The main image of a Jain temple is known as a mula nayak[ A Manastambha (column of
honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. It has four 'Moortis' i.e.
stone figures of the main god of that temple. One facing each direction: North, East, South
and West.

Jain paintings

Depiction of Tirthankars- The most voluminous and important aspect of idolatery and
paintings of the Jains is depicting the HOLY MEN. A tirthankara or Jina is represented either
seated in lotus position (Padmasana) or standing in the meditation Khadgasana (Kayotsarga)
posture. This latter, which is similar to the military standing at attention is a difficult posture
to hold for a long period, and has the attraction to Jains that it reduces to the minimum the
amount of the body in contact with the earth, and so posing a risk to the sentient creatures
living in or on it. If seated, they are usually depicted seated with their legs crossed in front,
the toes of one foot resting close upon the knee of the other, and the right hand lying over the
left in the lap

Tirthanakar images do not have distinctive facial features, clothing or (mostly) hair-styles,
and are differentiated on the basis of the symbol or emblem (Lanchhana) belonging to each
tirthanakar except Parshvanatha. Statues of Parshvanath have a snake crown on the head. The
first Tirthankara Rishabha can be identified by the locks of hair falling on his shoulders.
Sometimes Suparshvanath is shown with a small snake-hood. The symbols are marked in the
centre or in the corner of the pedestal of the statue. The sects of
Jainism Digambara and Śvetāmbara have different depictions of idols. Digambara images are
naked without any ornamentation, whereas Śvetāmbara ones may be clothed and in worship
may be decorated with temporary ornaments. The images are often marked with Srivatsa on
the chest and Tilaka on the forehead. Srivatsa is one of the ashtamangala (auspicious
symbols). It can look somewhat like a fleur-de-lis, an endless knot, a flower or diamond-
shaped symbol.

The bodies of tirthanakar statues are exceptionally consistent throughout the over 2,000 years
of the historical record. The bodies are rather slight, with very wide shoulders and a narrow
waist. Even more than is usual in Indian sculpture, the depiction takes relatively little interest
in the accurate depiction of the underlying musculature and bones, but is interested in the
modelling of the outer surfaces as broad swelling forms. The ears are extremely elongated,
suggesting the heavy earrings the figures wore in their early lives before they took the path to
enlightenment, when most were wealthy if not royal.

Sculptures with four tirthanakars, or their heads, facing in four directions, are not uncommon
in early sculpture, but unlike the comparable Hindu images, these represent four different
tirthanakars, not four aspects of the same deity. Multiple extra arms are avoided in tirthanakar
images, though their attendants or guardians may have them.

Jain Sculptural Reliefs

The brilliance of the Jain sculptures can be seen from the delicate images of the Jain
Tirthankaras. The sculpture can depict any of the twenty-four Tirthankaras, with images
depicting Parshvanatha, Rishabanatha, or Mahavira being more popular.

Mathura School of Sculptures:

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This school was developed around Mathura, an important city on the Uttarapatha and the
second capital of the Kushanas.

 The images discovered here belong to all three religions: Buddhism, Brahmanism and
Jainism.
o These were created using red spotted sandstone, readily available in the
nearby Aravalli region.

 Features of Jain sculptures in Mathura school:

o They depict Jina in a seated or standing pose.
o The standing Jina is straight, with hands long enough to reach the knee.
o The seated Jina is in padmasana (lotus position or cross-legged posture) with
hands in dhyana mudra. They are generally nude.
o Jaina venerates 24 Tirthankaras who are distinguished by different emblems
on their throne or chest: a lion for Mahavira, a bull for Rishabh etc.
o They also donated reliefs to the stupa, known as ayagapatas, in the form of
square slabs depicting Jina stupa, swastika, twin fish symbols, various scenes
etc.
 Jain sculptures have been recovered from a ruined stupa at Kankali Tila.
o Kankali Tila is a mound located in Mathura.
o Numerous Jain sculptures, Ayagapattas, and pillars were found here during
excavations.

Examples of Jain Sculptures

 Lohanipur torso: It is a polished sandstone statue in Patliputra, Bihar, representing

a Jain Tirthankara in a damaged state.
 Gopachal rock-cut Jain monuments: located around the walls of Gwalior
Fort, Madhya Pradesh.
o They depict Tirthankaras in seated Padmasana posture and Kayotsarga
posture in typical naked form.
 Vasantgarh hoard: it is located in Rajasthan; evidence shows a strong foothold of
Jainism in this area as 240 Jain bronze idols were discovered.
o Idols of this hoard show images of Tirthankara, sashandevatas (yaksha and
yakshi) and Jain deities in Shwetambar iconography.

TYPES

According to Sramana (Jaina) scriptures,

Chaityas(Jinalaya/Jain temple) are classified into two types-

1. Krutrim Chaityas
2. Akrutrim Chaityas
Krutrim Chaityas are that which are made by humans and celestial beings and
are subjected to destruction with time(Ashashwat).

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Akrutrim Chaityas are that which are not made by anyone(Anadhinidhan). They are not
subjected to destruction with time(Shashwat).In the Akrutrim Chaityas, there are 4-sided
(Chaumukhi) idols of only the 4 Shashwat
Jinas i.e Rushabhanan, Chandranan, Vardhamanan and Varishen. They are worshipped by
the Vyantar, Vaimanik,Bhavanvasi and Jyotish devas(celestial beings).

In the 3 worlds i.e Upper world(Urdhwa lok), Middle world(Madhya lok) and Lower
world(Adho lok), there are many Krutrim Chaityas and Akrutrim Chaityas.

In the Chaitya-vandana Sutra, there are mentions to the exact number of Akrutrim Chaityas
in the 3 worlds as they are fixed in number and do not vary with time.

Whereas the number of Krutrim Chaityas are not fixed in number and vary with time.

What is the difference between a Jain temple and a Vaishnava temple?

1.A Gujarati/ Rajasthani in Western India visualises the architect of a temple in a different way
than a Bengali in Eastern India.

2.I don't think Vardhman Mahavir proposed idol worship, forget about worshipping him in a
temple.

3.Sects influenced a lot of differences within themselves: Digambharas and Sverambharas;

Vaishnavites and Sri Vaishnavites.

How do Hindu temples differ from Buddhist or Jain temples?

“Hindu” means Indian.

So asking how are “Hindu temples” different from Bauddha or Jaina temples is meaningless.
After all, Bauddha and Jaina are Hindu darsana, with their own sampradaya.

You could instead reword it to: How are Bauddha and Jaina temples different to the temples of
the other sampradaya like Sikhi, Shaiva, Shakta, Vaishnava and so on.

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You could say that there is no difference since all temples are a focal point for the community
which they serve. And the purpose of all temples is to educate you “about yourself” and by
inference, your dharma!

However there is an essential difference.

Vaishnava temples for example educate the masses through a visual representation of the nature
of reality, with the sanctum containing the material representation or vigraha of the focal point of
practices, which is nothing but a “higher human ideal” that defines a path to the ultimate
objective, which is moksha. It also educates you on the other ideals and qualities (represented by
other deities) essential to realizing your objective through mnemonic narratives (folklore)
associated with the main deity.

Bauddha and Jaina temples instead focus on educating scholars (monks) of their tradition on the
teachings of the Buddha and the Jaina Tirthankaras and are hence usually part of a larger complex
that houses the students and teachers.

While the education in Vaishnava temples involves passive learning, those in Bauddha and Jaina
temples involve active learning. Active learning for scholars in the Vaishnava tradition happens
only in a Gurukula.
miscellania
What is the difference between Jain Agama of Digambara and Jain Agama of
Shvetambara?

Aagama means, knowledge which gandhara has learned from Tirathankara and then
translated/converted them into sutra (prakrut/sanskrit language) form, those sutra we known as
Aagama.

So Shvetambara sect believe in 45/32 Aagama, based on their belief as it’s speech/knowledge of
tirathankara. Shwetambar agams sometimes consider vyavahaar nay, which is practical point of
view.

As per my knowledge, Digambar sect puts more emphasis on nishchay nay. Nishchay nay may
be defined as ideal situation or idealistic point of view.

However, most Jainism writers, while writing explanation, put a note about the different opinions
(if there are any). They conclude such notes with a statement ‘Tattva Kevali Gamya, which
means only omniscient people know the truth.

There are very few such opinions which differ, say just one percent. Such differences are seen
when we refer to explanations of original scriptures, written by various scholars. Many times,
people like me prefer to go with the opinion that appears logically correct. Also, there are people
who refer to original scripture lines (ardha-maagadhi ones) and go by its meaning.Whereas
Digambara sect doesn’t believe in these, as per their belief Aagama got obsolete after 609 years
(as far as I remember) of Lord Mahaveer’s nirvana.
They have their own sutra (i don’t know what they call them) like Shatkhandagama, which is
written by their primitive aacharya. They have the same respect for these sutra as Shwetamabara
have for Aagama.
What is the difference between Hindu temple (Devalay) and Jain temple (Derasar)?

 Devalaya is a Sanskrit word - resident of God or house of God.

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  and Derasar is a Gujarati word which mean Temple. Both are same in view of worship of
God.
 Jain use word Derasar for Temple and worship to Arihanta and Siddha.
 and Devalaya is used for all temple belongs to Hindu or Jain or any other religion.

Why do Jains worship the Hindu God 'Ganesha'?

Jains never worship dietes followed by Hindus. Jains worship Veetragi dev (Jinendra dev). All
our Teerthankaras and every soul who attained salvation are Jinendra. Veetragi means free from
all kinds of attachment, both physical and mental. If you see Jain God's idol at Terapanthi
Digambar Jain temples, you will see that it's without clothes, ornaments, and weapons. There
won't be any devi besides it as God doesn't have wife. Nor does he have children, family, friends,
servants, any kind of property, or vehicle. He doesn't need anything. He is either in padmasan
posture with both hands in his lap or standing posture with both hands on side. His eyes are
neither open nor closed. It's Nasa dhrashti. It means looking at the tip of nose. Closed eyes are a
sign of lazyness and sleep while open eyes signifies raag (attachment) towards worldly and
materialistic life. Hence, the eyes of idol is set on the tip of the nose. It conveys that God is not
interested in worldly beings, worldly life, worldly pleasures or miseries or materials. He is
meditating in his own soul and he gets divine pleasure and eternal bliss in that. He is never
hungry or thirsty. He is never sleepy or tired. He never becomes ill. He never moves or travel. He
is not impressed by anyone nor he will be angry on anyone. He doesn't reward or punish. He is
neither creator nor destroyer. He is not a sustainer of the world either. He doesn't need anyone or
anything to be happy as he is experiencing eternal bliss in his own soul. That's how our souls are
too. Eternal bliss lies in our own soul but unlike Veetragi Lord Jinendra, we are not able to
experience it because our soul is bounded by karma since time imemmorial. Lord Jinendra had
destroyed all karma so he's experiencing eternal bliss. That's the reason we pray him. We don't
pray to beg for worldly pleasures like it's done in some other religions. We pray to show respect
towards him and we just wish that just like God destroyed all karma, may I get courage to do the
same. There is a saying “Jain mandir bhikshalay nahin, Shikshalay hai”. It means Jain temple
is not a place to beg for worldly pleasures. It is a place to learn to experience your soul to get
eternal bliss. You can only experience soul once you have complete self absorption and
detachment from the world and all kinds of worldly pleasures, people, and materialistic life.
When you neither have raag (love or attachment) nor dhwesh (anger or hatred) It's called
veetragta.

We don't refer idol as murti. We call it pratima which means reflection. Just like when you go
near mirror, you are not interested to see the mirror. You are interested to see your reflection.
Similarly, the purpose of praying idol is that we realize that our soul is just like this and if we
follow the footsteps of God, we can be God too just like him. Despite having eternal bliss in our
own soul, we try to find happiness in outside world. We have imagined that happiness is in
family, friends, spouse, children, food, money, sex, car, big house, luxuries, luxurious lifestyle,
good looks, fame, etc. But none last long. All those stuff just create illusion of happiness and
doesn't have real happiness.

Coming to the point, why Jains pray Ganesha? No we don't. Jain aagams do acknowledge Shri
Ram and Shri Krishna existed whom Hindus believe as God, but nowhere I found the mention of
Bhrahma, Vishnu, Shiv, Parvati, Ganesha, Kali Mata, etc. I have not seen any Jain temple where
there is idol of Ganesha. However, if any Jain temple has it, it's probably because he is believed
to be the yaksha of Teerthankar’s samavasaran according to some Jain people. However, I have

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not read about Shri Ganesha in any Jain texts. To know what is samavasaran, please
refer Samavasarana - Wikipedia and समवसरणकीमहिमा - ENCYCLOPEDIA

When Teerthankar attains kewal gyan (enlightenment) and becomes omniscient, the king of
heaven Indra orders Kuber dev to create samavasaran, a divine preaching hall where Teerthankar
preaches the path of salvation to human beings, heavenly beings, and animals. Yes, along with
human beings, animals and heavenly beings also come to hear the preachings of Teerthankara.
Many heavenly deities with supernatural power participate in samavasaran. Just like human
beings, they also come to hear the preachings of Teerthankaras. There are also yaksha and
yakshini in samavasaran who are one kind of heavenly deities. Some Jain temples may have idols
of kshetrapal, Padmavati devi, etc but those idols are not main. The main idol (mul nayak) is of
always Lord Jinendra (Teerthankar). The idols of heavenly deities are kept in the temple but most
Jains don't worship them. They just show respect to them. Those idols are kept in Jain
Temples just out of respect. It's like, you go to Temple to worship God but you also
appreciate people who contributed in the construction of temple. Similarly, Jains show
respect to those deities as they are also true followers of Teerthankaras, they took care of
Teerthankaras' samavasaran.

There are a few Jains who worship heavenly deities but that doesn't mean those deities are
God per Jainism. God is the one who is enlightened and who had achieved salvation. Those
heavenly beings are subject to birth and death, just like us. Their life span is much longer
than us and they also have supernatural powers as they are in heaven but their lifespan
eventually ends and they can be reborn as human, animal, or even as tree or plant based on
their karma. Heaven and hell are not eternal in Jainism. Many of the heavenly dieites
including yakshas and yakshinis in Teerthankara’s Samavasaran are samyag dhrashti (self-
realized) and they eventually attain salvation in their upcoming birth.

Those who worship deities for worldly pleasures, offers fruits and flowers to God, and
believes in decorating idol of Lord Jinendra actually doesn't know the true form of God. God
in Jainism - Wikipedia, The Concept of God in Jainism

Because such idols are found in Jain temples and because some sects of Jainism decorate
idols, stick chakshu, offer flowers and fruits, I believe it is misunderstood and misinterpreted
that Jainism is somewhat similar to Hinduism but it's not. It has nothing to do with Hinduism
or Buddhism or any other religion. The base ideology of God as creator, sustainer, destroyer,
punisher, or giver itself is not accepted in Jainism. Jainism is the only religion in the world
which says God isn't creator, sustainer, or destroyer of the world and doesn't punish or reward
anyone. We ourselves automatically bear fruit of our own karma, good or bad.

What is a Hindu-Jain temple?

Jain temple converted into a Hindu temple can be probably called Hindu - Jain temple.

This is Gnana Sarasvati temple in Basar. It used to be a Jain temple.

Sarasvati looks weird ?

She sure does, because it was a Tirthankara statue converted into Saraswati.

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Padmakshi temple was once a Jain temple, again a Tirthankar statue converted into Goddess
statue

7th Century Mahavira statue is morphed into Aadhali Amman. (Tamilnadu) It looks like this :
But, then we have this underneath :

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Dodappa Temple Karnataka :

Draw some Tripundra (Pattai) on the Tirthankara statue !

Mahamaya shaktipeeth Ratanpur Chhattisgarh :

Take a look at the door frame : how the Goddess looks :

This is a common pattern when Jain temples are taken over :

1. The Idol will be fully covered at all times

2. The face of the Idol will be covered with turmeric completely or it will have silver,
bronze or gold plating.
This is an account of how Jain caves were converted to Hindu temple from a Jain Blogger :

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Lord Parshwanath as Vishnu, Padmavati as Durga!

Recently I visited Udaygiri-Khandgiri caves near Bhuvaneshwar in Orissa....

http://jainsamachar.blogspot.com/2008/04/lord-parshwanath-as-vishnu-padmavati-as.html?
m=1

This was all done after Bhakti movement gained momentum and Jainism was rooted out from
the South.Some excerpts from the book :

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It is an inherent quality of any religion to try and dominate others, take over their places of
worship. From Kabba to Angkor wat, the dominant faith has taken over the religious places
of worship of others.

Architecture in Jain temples

The Jain Temple architecture is a style that emerged as a part of Jainism,

an ancient Indian religion emphasising non-violence and respect for all
living things. Their basic yet graceful design and emphasis on symmetry
and proportion characterise Jain temples. Many these temples were
initially constructed alongside Buddhist temples in the rock-cut style.
Based on the idea of immortality mountains, Jains began building temple
cities on hills; being closer to the heavens would facilitate a deeper
connection with the divine.

Types of Jain Temple

There are 2 main types :

1. Shikar-bandhi Jain temple: These are the more traditional, larger
Jain temples that have a shikhar (dome-like structure) on top. Many
levels and large, elaborate entrance halls (mandapas) with intricate
carving and sculptures are found in these temples an image of a
Tirthankara is often seen in the center shrine of this temple, which
also serves as a gathering place for devotees.

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 Temple
Oshwal Centre_©Vrdah
1. Ghar Jain temple: They are more compact, intimate temples
designed to serve as personal shrines within a household. These
temples lack a dome and are often less detailed than Shikar-bandhi
temples. Despite their smaller size, Ghar temples are used for
everyday prayers and rituals.

Elements of Temple Architecture

The ideal plan of a Jain temple can differ depending on regional and
historical factors. There are various key elements found in the
architecture of temples.

1. Entrance: The entrance of the Jain temple is typically a large and

elaborately decorated portal that serves as the gateway to the
temple complex, adorned with carvings, sculptures, and inscriptions that
depict religious themes and symbols.
2. Mandapa: The mandapa is a pillared hall or portico that leads to the main
shrine. It serves as a gathering place for devotees and may be open on one
or more sides.
3. Garbhagriha: The garbhagriha is the innermost sanctuary of the temple,
where the main idol or image of the deity is present. It is usually a small
room with a single entrance.
4. Shikhar: The Shikhar is the ornate spire or dome rising above the
garbhagriha, decorated with intricate carvings and sculptures.
5. Chaumukha or Panchmukhi: Some temples have a central shrine with
four entrances, known as a chaumukha temple, while others have five
entrances, known as a panchmukhi temple. These entrances represent the
four or five directions of the universe.
6. Manastambha: The manastambha is a tall, columnar pillar often located
near the temple’s entrance. It is decorated with carvings and serves as a
symbol of Jainism’s emphasis on non-violence.

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Ideal plan of temple_©ArchiMonarch

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 Manastambha_©Vijay J
Sheth

The Jain Temple architecture is characterised by intricate carvings,

sculptures, and murals that reflect the rich cultural heritage of Jainism.
The temples are designed to create a sense of serenity and contemplation
and to help devotees connect with their inner selves and the divine.

Key Features

The Jain Temple architecture is a unique and beautiful Indian architecture

with a distinct style and design. Some of the key features of Jain temple
architecture include:
Symmetry: Jain temple architecture is known for its symmetrical layout.
The main shrine is usually located in the centre of the temple and
surrounded by smaller shrines or chambers on all sides.

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Symmetry in plan_©ArchiMonarch

Intricate carvings: Jain temple architecture is famous for its intricate

carvings and sculptures, which depict scenes from Jain mythology and
history. The carvings are usually made of stone or marble and are highly
detailed and ornate.
Pillars: Jain temples feature tall, ornate pillars beautified with intricate
carvings and sculptures. These pillars are important structural elements,
supporting the roof’s weight and other temple parts.

Pillars at the Mirpur Temple_©Nihir Shah23

Domed roofs: Many Jain temples have domed roofs planned to symbolise
the universe and the path to enlightenment. The roofs are enriched with
intricate carvings and paintings that depict Jain cosmology.

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 Domed roof of
Kumbharia temple _©Kshitij Charania

Ornate doorways: The entrance to a Jain temple is usually marked by an

ornate doorway decorated with intricate carvings and sculptures. The
doorway is designed to be a symbolic gateway to the spiritual realm.
Marble flooring: Many Jain temples feature beautiful marble flooring
decorated with intricate patterns and designs. The marble is excellent and
helps create a peaceful and serene atmosphere inside the temple.

Historic Temple-1000 Pillar Jain Temple

Saavira Kambada Temple is a 15th-century Jain temple noted for its 1000
pillars in Moodabidri, Karnataka, India. It took 31 years to complete and
was renovated in 1962.

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Savira Kambada Basadi_©Nerenki Parshwanath

No two pillars in this temple are the same, which gives them their
individuality. A thousand pillars are decorated with beautiful rock
carvings; pillars are symmetrical and carved to resemble an octagonal
wooden log with one bearing an inscription.

Carving of
pillar_©Nymishanandini

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1000 pillar Jain temple comprises three distinct floors, in which the top
two storeys are carved in wood and the lowest in stone. The temple
complex has seven mandaps supported by beautifully carved pillars. From
mythical creatures to Mother Nature inspirations- the pillars’ engraving
appears to tell various tales and is a stunning representation of classical
art and culture.

Sa
vira Kambada Basadi-back side_©Nerenki Parshwanath

The wooden panels inside this Jain temple have carvings of Tirthankaras
flanked by elephants, guardian deities and female attendants
holding flowers. Many bronze Jain idols in decorated frames are placed in
the—Interior of the garbhagriha, with the 8 ft idol of Chandranatha Swami
made of panchayats. The architecture of this Jain temple leaves visitors in
awe.
References:
 Archi-Monarch. (2021). * Archi-Monarch *. [online] Available at: https://archi-
monarch.com/jain-temple-architecture/.
 Wikipedia Contributors (2019). [online] Wikipedia. Available at:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_temple.
 Mudde, R. (2020). Saavira Kambada Basadi, Moodabidri. [online]
Karnataka.com. Available at:
https://www.karnataka.com/mangalore/saavira-kambada-basadi-moodbidri/
[Accessed 24 Mar. 2023].
 Karnataka Tourism. (n.d.). Thousand Pillars Temple – Saavira Kambada
Basadi. [online] Available at:
https://karnatakatourism.org/tour-item/thousand-pillars-temple/ [Accessed
24 Mar. 2023].

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India is known to have more than 2 million Hindu temples. These temples reflect the variety
of Indian culture and way of life. Temple architecture in India has always embodied an
underlying vision. It is a representation of experience, space and time.
The art and architecture involved in the construction of Hindu Temples is well defined in
the Shilpa Shastra. It mentions three main kinds of temple architecture in India: Nagara or
the Northern Style, Dravida or the Southern style and Vesara or the Mixed style.
The defining features of a Nagara style are Garbhagriha (Sanctum
Sanctorum), Shikhara (Curvilinear tower), and Mandapa (Entrance Hall). The Nagara style
developed gradually as the earlier temples had only one Shikhara, while the later temples
were constructed with multiple Shikharas and the Garbhagriha can always be found under
the tallest tower.

The Temples of Khajuraho are a magnificent example of the Nagara style of temples as the
temples consist of a sanctum, a narrow ante-chamber (antarala), a transept (mahamandapa),
additional halls (ardha mandapa), a mandapa or nave and an ambulatory passage
(Pradakshina-path) which is lighted by large windows.

Khajuraho, known for its ornate temples, was built by the Chandela rulers between 900 CE to
1130 CE. The first mention of Khajuraho and its temples is in the accounts of Abu
Rahyan al Biruni ( 1022 CE) and Ibn Batuta (1335 CE). The temples were said to have
been spread across 20 square kilometres and there were around 85 temples in the 12th
century. The ravages of time have reduced the number of temples in Khajuraho to just 20
today.

The Chandela Empire ruled central India from the tenth to the fourteenth centuries.
Chandelas were well known for their interest in art and architecture. Although followers
of Shaivism, the Chandelas were also said to have been inclined
towards Vaishnavism and Jainism as well.

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The carvings at the temples seem to be predominantly about Hindu deities and mythology.
The architectural style also follows Hindu traditions. This can be validated by various factors.
A predominant feature of the construction of a Hindu temple is that the face of the temple
should be towards the direction of sunrise. All the temples of Khajuraho have been built with
this in mind. Moreover, the carvings reflect the four goals of life in Hinduism, viz, dharma,
kama, artha, moksha.

The monuments built by the Chandelas were famous for their architectural and sculptural
glory. The Chandelas were also deeply interested in performance arts and the various forms
of music and dance. This is evident from the sculptural representation of various scenes of
music and dance depicted on the walls of these temples.

Erotic imagery is very common in the Temples of Khajuraho. Sculptures of celestial nymphs
with broad hips, heavy breasts and languishing eyes are commonly found in the Kandariya
Mahadeva and Vishwanath Temple. These sculptures are believed to reflect the idea of
female beauty and fertility. Other scenes depicted on the walls of the temples are a part of
the Narathara (the human life cycle) signifying how sexual procreation and kama are an
essential aspect of human life.
The major focus of the study of the Temples of Khajuraho have been on the sculptures. The
walls of these temples have some of the best sculptures of the time, making Khajuraho a
representation of excellent artistic features. It is believed that the temples constitute five
different sets of sculptures:
1. cult images
2. the parivara, parsva and avarana devatas
3. the apsaras and the surasundaris
4. secular sculptures of miscellaneous themes (dancers, musicians, disciples and domestic
scenes)
5. mythical creatures (vyalas, sardula and other animals)
These sets of sculptures and erotic images represent scenes from day to day life.

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 Khajuraho Group of Temples. Picture Courtesy - Wikimedia Commons

Quite a few stories revolve around the history of these temples. One theory posits their
construction can be understood as a part of the proliferation of the Siva-Sakti cult. The other
theory is that the temples are a representation of the devadasis who were once a major part of
the temple activities. The most beautiful women were brought from Magadha, Malwa and
Rajputana to be trained as devadasis in the Temples of Khajuraho. People say that
the Surasundaris, who cover the interior and the exterior walls of the temples, were taken
from real life and juxtaposed with the sculptures of Gods and Goddesses. Another theory says
that the sculptures represent the life-cycle of a normal human being. It is difficult to state
with certainty which of these theories is correct, as no written texts describing the
construction exist today. Regardless of the reason behind the sculptures, what we do know is
that we have been gifted with a set of the most ornate, intricate and beautiful sculptures
extant anywhere in the world.
The Temples of Khajuraho are divided into three groups, the Western Group, the Eastern
Group and the Southern Group.
The architecture of the Temples of Khajuraho is very complex. The main components of
these temples are:
1. The Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) with antarala, a narrow ante-chamber
2. The Maha Mandapa, a large hall
3. The Ardha Mandapa and a mandapa, which are smaller additional halls
4. The Pradakshina Path, a circumambulation path.
A few temples at Khajuraho are of the Panchayatana type, with four shrines dedicated to the
divinities and often another shrine in front of the portico dedicated to the vahana (vehicle) of
the principal deity.

The Temples of Khajuraho are believed to have been built of light-coloured sandstone
imported from the quarries of Panna, from the east bank of the Kane River. Iron clamps are
also freely employed in the construction of the temples. A few other smaller temples are built
partly of sandstone and partly of granite.

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Khajuraho Group Of Temples

Panna Quarries M.P.

Khajuaroa temples are located in Madhya Pradesh which is one of the most beautiful temples
in India. In 1986 it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. There are total of 25
temples still standing out of said 85 temples. These were built during 900 and 1130 AD by

159
the Chandella rulers. It is said that every Chandella ruler built one temple during his reign. So
it was a kind of tradition between them.
Khajuraho temples are the most beautiful medieval monuments in India.
FACTS ABOUT KHAJURAHO TEMPLES

1. The Khajuraho Group of Monuments is a collection of Hindu and Jain temples

located around 175 kilometres (109 miles) southeast of Jhansi in Madhya Pradesh (in
the Chhatarpur district).

2. In Hindi, the words "Khajura" and "Vahika" signify "Date" and "Bearing,"
respectively. Khajuraho has also been referred to as Jejakbhukti in the past.

3. The temple is located in Central India's Vindhya Mountain range.

4. Between the years 900 and 1130, the Chandella monarchs built these temples.

5. In 1986, UNESCO designated these temples as World Heritage Sites.

6. The Khajuraho temples are composed of sandstone, with a nearly buried granite base.

7. The temples are known for their sexual sculptures and Nagara-style architectural
symbolism.

8. The Vaishnavism School of Hinduism, Saivism School of Hinduism, and Jainism all
have temples in Khajuraho.

9. Every Chandella ruler is thought to have erected at least one temple during his reign.
As a result, no single Chandella king is responsible for the construction of all
Khajuraho Temples. Chandella kings had a habit of building temples, which was
carried on by practically all of the Chandella dynasty's rulers.

10. Abu Rihan al Biruni in AD 1022 and the Arab explorer Ibn Battuta in AD 1335 were
the first to mention the Khajuraho temples.

11. Local estimates place the number of temples in Khajuraho at 85, with only 25
remaining after various levels of preservation and care. All of these temples are
spread out over a 9-square-mile area.

12. When the Chandella kingdom fell (about AD 1150), Muslim invaders in this area
destroyed and disfigured the Khajuraho Temples, forcing the people to flee
Khajuraho.

13. Kandariya Mahadev, the most visited temple, has a Shikhara (spire) that rises 116 feet
and occupies an area of around 6,500 square feet.

14. The Khajuraho temples were hidden under forest cover from the 13th century until the
18th century, until they were rediscovered by British engineer T. S. Burt.

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ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES OF THE TEMPLES
The temples of Khajuraho are remarkable examples of Nagara temple design, with a sanctum,
a tiny ante-chamber (antarala), a transept (mahamandapa), extra halls (ardha mandapa), a
mandapa or nave, and an ambulatory corridor (Pradakshina-path) lit by enormous windows.
The temple carvings appear to be mostly about Hindu deities and mythology. The
architectural style is also Hindu in nature. Various factors can substantiate this. A prominent
component of the architecture of a Hindu temple is that the temple's face should face the
direction of sunrise. All of Khajuraho's temples were designed with this in mind.
Furthermore, the carvings represent Hinduism's four life goals: dharma, kama, artha, and
moksha. The Chandelas' monuments were known for their architectural and sculptural
splendour. The Chandelas were extremely passionate about the performing arts, as well as
numerous types of music and dance. The sculptural representations of varied scenes of music
and dancing displayed on the walls of these temples demonstrate this. The Temples of
Khajuraho are filled with erotic iconography. The Kandariya Mahadeva and Vishwanath
Temple both have sculptures of celestial nymphs with large hips, massive breasts, and
yearning eyes. The theme of female beauty and fecundity is thought to be reflected in these
sculptures. Other images portrayed on the temple walls are from the Narathara (human life
cycle), which emphasises the importance of sexual procreation and kama in human life.

The sculptures have been a prominent topic of research at the Khajuraho Temples. Some of
the best sculptures of the time may be found on the walls of these temples, giving Khajuraho
a depiction of excellent aesthetic features. The temples are thought to have five distinct sets
of sculptures:
• images of cults
• the devatas parivara, parsva, and avarana
• the surasundaris and the apsaras
• Sculptures with a variety of subjects that are secular in nature (dancers, musicians,
disciples and domestic scenes)
• mythical creatures (vyalas, sardula and other animals)
The Western Group, the Eastern Group, and the Southern Group are the three groupings that
make up Khajuraho's temples. The architecture of the Khajuraho Temples is extremely
intricate. The following are the key features of these temples:
• With antarala, a tiny ante-chamber, the Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum)
• A huge hall known as the Maha Mandapa
• The Ardha Mandapa and a mandapa are tiny additions to the main hall.
• A circumambulation trail known as the Pradakshina Path.

At Khajuraho, a few temples are of the Panchayatana type, with four shrines dedicated to the
divinities and often another shrine in front of the portico dedicated to the major deity's vahana
(vehicle). The Khajuraho Temples are thought to have been constructed of light-colored
sandstone imported from the Panna quarries on the Kane River's east bank. The construction
of the temples also makes extensive use of iron clamps. A few smaller temples are
constructed partially of sandstone and partially of granite.

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Western Group of Temples

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The Western Group of Temples are situated on the west of the Bamitha-Rajnagar road on the
banks of Sib-Sagar.
They comprise six major edifices and are dedicated to the Shaivite and Vaishnavite cults.

1) Chausath Jogini Temple -

The temple premises consists of 64 small cells corresponding to the number of Yoginis, the
female attendants of Goddess Kali, after whom the temple is named. No images remain on
any of the 64 cells. This temple stands on the low rocky eminence to the south west of
the Sib-Sagar Lake. This is the only temple in Khajuraho which is built entirely of granite
and is oriented north-east and south-west. The temple stands upon a massive plinth and
comprises a courtyard which is 104 feet in length and 60 feet in breadth. It is surrounded by
65 cells, of which only 35 have survived. The cells are roofed with small spires
or sikharas, the lower part of which are adorned with triangular ornaments in imitation of
the chaitya windows. There is no dated inscription to show the precise age of the temple.

Chausath Jogini Temple. Picture Courtesy - Wikimedia Commons

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.

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Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.-Largest of all the temples in Khajuraho, it dates back to the
10th century CE. It is 109 feet high and 60 feet wide . The interior arrangement of the temple
differs from the usual construction of a Hindu temple as it has an open passage around the
sanctum, thus forming a high altar at the inner portion of the temple. The walls of the
Kandariya temple carry nearly nine hundred images. The height of the figures varies from 2.5
feet to 3 feet. The entrance of the temple is in the shape of an arch and is decorated with
figures of deities and musicians. Also, the entrance of the sanctum has elaborate floral
carvings interspersed with figures of ascetics engaged in penance. The female figures at the
base of the jambs are identified to be Goddess Ganga (River Ganga) and
Goddess Jumna (River Yamuna). The Goddesses are accompanied by their respective
vehicles, the crocodile and the tortoise. Inside the sanctum stands a marble linga, the symbol
of Lord Shiva. There are also numerous figures of apsaras or nymphs in all sorts of delicate
postures.

3) Devi Jagdamba Temple –

Around 77 feet in length and 50 feet in breadth, this temple is now known by the name
of Devi Jagdamba or the ‘Mother Goddess of the World’. It was originally believed to have
been dedicated to Lord Vishnu as his figure occupies the centre of the entrance to the
sanctum. It also has the figures of Lord Shiva and Lord Brahma to the right and left. Inside
the sanctum, there is an elaborate statue of a four-armed female figure holding lotus flowers.
Another figure of Goddess Laxmi (consort of Lord Vishnu), is also present in the temple.
Based on some inscriptions found here it is assumed that the temple was built in the tenth or
eleventh century, the period in which the Chandela rule flourished. A figure of Yama lies on
the south side of the sanctum while a figure of Lord Shiva (eight handed and three headed) is
present on the lower niche. Devi Jagdamba Temple is part of the Western Group of Temples

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of Khajuraho. This piece of architecture is one-of-its-kind in the world; hence it is often
referred to as thechef-d'oeuvre. The temple showcases the typical triple panel of sculptures,
wherein the topmost has someof the most erotic carvings. Despite being smaller in size,
compared to other shrines in the western wing, it stands as an epitome of marvellous artistry.

This ancient shrine is dedicated to the Hindu Goddess of the Universe, Jagdamba and her
statue can be seen in the garbha griha (the innermost sanctum). A visit to this temple is a
must for any art aficionado as it features intricately carved sculptures showcasing brilliant
craftsmanship.

Chitragupta or Bharatji’s Temple. Picture Courtesy- Archaeological Survey of India

4) Chitragupta or Bharatji’s Temple -

This temple faces east and is 75 feet in length and 52 feet in breadth. Dedicated to the Sun
God (Surya), an image of the Sun God is enshrined within the sanctum, wearing high boots
and driving a chariot of seven horses. The length of the image is 5 feet while another image
of the Sun God can be found over the entrance. Another sculpture of interest is an eleven-
headed image of Lord Vishnu enshrined in the central niche to the south of the sanctum. The
central head is of Vishnu himself, while the remaining ten heads are symbolic of his ten

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incarnations. There are no inscriptions on the temple therefore the period of its construction

cannot be defined.

5) Vishwanath Temple -

Vishwanath, or the ‘Lord of the Universe’, is another name for Lord Shiva to whom this
temple is dedicated. As tall as 90 feet, the entrance of the sanctum sanctorum has a figure of
Lord Shiva seated on Nandi (bull). There are also figures of Lord Brahma on his vehicle, (the
Goose) and Lord Vishnu on his vehicle (the Eagle) to the right and left. Inside the shrine is
a lingam and inside the mandapa are two Sanskrit inscriptions engraved on stone slabs. The
larger inscription to the left is dated Vikrama Samvat of 1059 or 1002 CE. It gives an account
of the genealogy of the Chandela kings from King Nannuka to King Dhanga. According to
the inscription, the temple was built under the supervision of King Dhanga who dedicated it
to Lord Shiva by installing a Linga with an emerald placed inside it.

Laxmana Temple.

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6) Laxmana Temple -

Also known as the Chaturbhuj Temple, this temple is around 99 feet in length and 46 feet in
breadth. It is popularly known for its innovation in the technique of architecture. Ornate
bands began to be of the Apsaras. The entrance to the temple has an elegant torana, and the
ceiling of the mandapa or nave is relieved with ingenious devices of cusped and coffered
circles. The entrance to the sanctum bears a figure of Goddess Laxmi along with the figures
of Lord Brahma and Lord Shiva. It is believed that the temple was built around the 11th
century CE .
Other significant temples within the Western Complex include the Lalguan Mahadev temple,
the Nandi temple, the Parvati temple, the Mahadev temple and the Varaha temple.

Nandi Temple. Picture Courtesy- Archaeological Survey of India

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 Varaha Temple. Picture Courtesy- Archaeological Survey of India

Parvati Temple. Picture Courtesy - Wikimedia CommonsParvati Temple is a temple

dedicated to the goddess Parvati, consort of Shiva.This structure is one of the monuments
among Khajuraho Group of Monuments, a World Heritage Site in India. The temple is
located in the Western Group of Temple Complex Khajuraho. Inside the temple complex, it is
located south-west to Vishvanath Temple.
Khajuraho is a small village in Chattarpur District of Madhya Pradesh, India.
It has heavily restored small sanctum. The porch is completely lost and of the sanctum only
the plinth has survived. The arch above sanctum door depicts sculpture
of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Also numerous erotic sculptures of couples can be seen on the
front wall (on the side of sanctum door. The side and back walls do not have any sculptures

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Lalguan Mahadev Temple.
The Lalguan Mahadeva temple is a ruined Shiva temple.The construction of the Lalguan
Mahadeva temple can be dated to approximately 900 CE. It is the second oldest surviving
temple at Khajuraho, after the Chausath Yogini temple. Both the temples are made of granite.
[2]
The temple seems to have been constructed in a period when sandstone (used in other
temples of Khajuraho) was being introduced, but the use of granite had not completely
stopped.[3]
The Lalguan temple was built on the bank of a lake, now called Lalguan Sagar. Compared to
the later temples of Khajuraho, it is small in size and plain in design. Its plan and design are
similar to that of the nearby Brahma temple. It has a pyramid-shaped roof. The only carving
on the doorway is a diamond motif.
The temple is now in ruins: the curvilinear tower of its sanctum has fallen, and the entrance
porch had disappeared. The building has been classified as a Monument of National
Importance by the Archaeological Survey of India.

Eastern Group of Temples

The Eastern Group of Temples are situated in close proximity to the village
of Khajuraho. The complex comprises three Brahmanical (or Hindu) and three large Jain
temples, viz, the Ghantai temple, the temple of Adinath and that of Parsawanatha. The Hindu
temples are those of Brahma, Vamana and Javari.

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1) Brahma Temple -
Situated on the banks of Khajuraho Sagar, it is believed that the four-
faced (chaturmukha) image inside the sanctum can possibly be of Lord Shiva but has been
mistaken by the local worshippers for an image of Lord Brahma. The central positions on the
lintels of the sanctum and west windows are occupied by the figures of Lord Vishnu. This is
one of the few temples of Khajuraho constructed both of granite and sandstone. It is believed
that this temple was constructed around the latter half of the 9th or the earlier half of the 10th
century CE.

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 Brahma Temple. Idol of Brahma threin

Vamana Temple.

2) Vamana Temple -
Situated on the north-east side of the Brahma Temple, this temple is around 63 feet in length
and 46 feet in breadth and stands on an exceptionally high platform. Inside the sanctum is an
interesting image, 5 feet in height, of Lord Vamana, the dwarf incarnation of Lord Vishnu. It
also has figures of the incarnations of Vishnu carved in its framework along with a figure of
Lord Brahma in the bhumisparsa-mudra or earth touching gesture. The upper row round the
sanctum portrays Brahma with his consort on the south and Vishnu with his consort towards
the north. The lower row contains the images of Varaha, Narasimha and Vamana.

Ghantai Temple. Picture Courtesy- Archaeological Survey of India

3) Ghantai Temple -
This temple got its name from the bells suspended on chains which adorn the pillars of its
portico. It has 11 naked statues of the Jaina Tirthankaras and two of their Yakshinis. Above
the entrance of the temple is an image of an eight armed Jaina Goddess riding on Garuda and
holding various weapons. Each end of the lintel has a figure of a Tirthankara. The nine
figures in the left denote the nine planets (Navagraha). The pillars on the portico are
gracefully decorated with bands of horned heads (kirtimukha) or ‘faces of glory’ along with

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the figures of ascetics and gandharvas. The ceiling of the temple is bordered by rows of
panels depicting groups of musicians dancing and playing on many kinds of instruments. The
space above the lintel displays the elephant, bull, lion, Lakshmi, garland and other auspicious
objects which the mother of Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, saw in her dream before his
birth.

Parsawanatha Jain Temple.

4) Parsawanatha Jain Temple -

It is the largest of the Jaina temples, 69 feet long and 35 feet wide. It is believed to be a shrine
of Parsawanatha, the 22nd Jain Tirthankara. The temple has a naked male figure on the left
side of the door and a naked female figure on the right side, with three seated female figures
over the centre. Above the entrance is a ten-armed Jaina Goddess holding various arms and
weapons riding on a garuda. Two other goddesses, riding respectively on a goose and a
peacock, are carved at the ends of the lintel. Inside the temple, is a small seated figure of
Parsawanatha giving the temple its name. On the jambs of the door are three short
records of pilgrims in characters of the tenth or eleventh century, which is the most probable
date of the origin of the temple.
The Eastern Complex also includes other important temples such as the Javari temple, the
Adinatha temple and the Santinatha temple.

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Javari Temple. Picture Courtesy -

Adinath Temple.

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 Santinatha temple. Picture Courtesy - Wikimedia Commons

Southern Group of Temples -

The Southern Group consists of two temples, the Duladeo and the Jatkari temple.

1) Duladeo Temple -
It is about a mile and a half away from the main Khajuraho Temples and was originally
dedicated to the Siva cult. Measuring 70 feet high and 41 feet wide, this temple has five
chambers. It has a unique set of carvings consisting of an effigy of the four-armed Gana and
a conch shell. It is believed that the temple was constructed around the 10th century CE .

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 Duladeo Temple. Picture Courtesy- Archaeological Survey of India

Jatkari or Chaturbhuja Temple. Picture Courtesy - Wikimedia Commons

2) Jatkari or Chaturbhuja Temple -

Situated near the Jatkari village, this temple faces west. It is dedicated to Lord Vishnu and an
image of the deity of about nine feet in height is enshrined in the sanctum. This four armed
(Chaturbhuja) image of Lord Vishnu is adorned with a crown and other ornaments. The
upper right hand of the image is raised in benediction (abhaya-mudra) which bears a circular
mark on the palm while the left hand holds a stalk of a lotus and a sacred book tied with a
string. The outer portion of the sanctum is decorated with three rows of sculptures
representing Hindu Gods and Goddesses .

In the framework of the formal design of the temples, the craftsmen of a thousand years ago
thus created a whole cycle of life and depict different facets of Hindu and Jain deities.
Moreover, the sculptures are remarkable for the great variety of subjects portrayed. Also,
beautifully depicted are the sensuously modelled bodies and waves and curves of garments
and jewellery of the Surasundaris. Thus, the Temples of Khajuraho perhaps constitute the
most humanistic representation of the arts of our country in the early times.

00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
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 VIII

Mahavir in marble – Stunning 19th-Century Photographs of the

Jain Temples of Palitana
Among Jains, of course, the significance of these temples cannot be overstated. Built on
Mount Shatrunjaya in the town of Palitana, these 863 temples receive millions of visitors
each year. Of the 24 Tirthankaras or spiritual leaders (though a more accurate translation
would be spiritual saviours) in Jainism, 23 have visited this holy site. The first Tirthankara,
Adinath or Adishwar is believed to have preached his first sermon here.

Historically, Palitana was the royal center of the region during the reign of the Mughals. The
town was ruled by the Gohil family, who have ruled parts of Saurashtra starting in the
12th Century and right up till the princely state was merged into the Union of India in 1947.
Despite its exalted status thanks to the presence of the exquisite Jain temples, though,
Palitana is not your typical temple town.

According to literature shared with Sarmaya by Brijeswari Gohil, founder of the Bhavnagar
Heritage Preservation Society, “It is only, tourists, art and cultural enthusiasts who choose to
splurge during their visit to Palitana. These tourists too, are not permitted to eat or drink
anything including water once they reach up to the temple complex. No individual is
permitted to reside in the Temple complex and for that reason by evening the entire group of

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staff including temple priests walk down the hills. This has been a rule since the time of
inception in order to preserve the sanctity of the site.”

Peak devotion

The Jain temples are dedicated to the religious icon Rushabdev, another name for the first of
the Tirthankaras. The building of these temples was estimated to have taken over 900 years,
and the construction took place over two phases. The primary phase was during the 11th -
12th centuries, followed by a reconstruction and restoration in the 16th century, after invasions
by Islamic rulers in the 14th -15th centuries. A significant proportion of the original
architectural elements and sculptures were preserved in the renovation, making these temples
a great example of how a cultural legacy may be preserved.

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The temples are spread across nine main clusters or toonks, which extend right from the base
to the peak of the Shatrunjaya Hills. Tourists and pilgrims shuffle uphill on a 3.5-kilometre
path, climbing close to 3950 steps in the process of getting to the top-most temple on the hill-
range. Each temple is fairly large and some even boast three-tiered towers, on which are
perched four life-sized idols of Mahavira, the last Tirthankara, looking out over the
surrounding greens.

The clusters of Palitana temples are closely tied with the fortunes and scions of the Solanki or
Chalukya dynasty. The oldest temples, dating from the 11th and 12th, centuries have
inscriptions that document the donations made to the Shatrunjaya temples during the reign of

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 emperor Siddharaja Jayasimha, who ruled from 1092-1142 and was known for his generous
patronage of the Jain community.

The temple architecture of the Shatrunjaya temples, typical of most Solanki architecture, is
highly ornate with a lot of attention paid to elaborately rendering each distinctive feature and
detail. Other representations include auspicious Hindu and Jain deities like Kali and Ganesha.
Sculptural motifs and reliefs include hunting and war scenes, and references to conquests
made by rulers before their conversion to Jainism also feature in the art here. Abounding
among these are sculptures of dancers, musicians and the kirtimukha, or ‘face of glory’, a
fanged lion-like beast that guards thresholds at the behest of Shiva.

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There is a prominent degree of stylistic uniformity within the architectural reliefs and
sculptures at the various temple sites. This structural uniformity is observable in the more
contemporary sites of the temple as well. The temples are all 108 feet high and measure
around 108 feet in circumference too, making for neatly balanced proportions. In Jainism,
Buddhism and Hinduism, the number 108 is considered to be sacred. One possible reason
could be that 108 suggests temporal wholeness as it is the lowest common multiple of 12, the
number of months in a year, and 27, the number of visible constellations forming a pattern in
the night sky. This theme carries over in the Samavasarana temple constructed in 1985 at the
base of Mount Shatrunjaya, which holds 108 idols of Parshvanath, the Tirthankara who
preceded Mahavira.

Celebration on the hills

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 Mahavir Jayanti, also known as Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, is the most significant of Jain
festivals and it celebrates the birth of the last Tirthankara of the kalyuga or the modern era.
Mahavira is the 24th and last Tirthankara, born to King Siddhartha and Queen Trishala of the

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Ikshvaku dynasty in 599 BCE. Contemporary Jain philosophy focuses chiefly on the life and
preaching or vani of Mahavira.

Several loyal devotees and pilgrims make their way to various toonks at Palitana every year
around March-April to observe Mahavir Jayanti. It’s a solemn festival marked with
meditation and sermons rather than pomp and revelry. Temples are decorated with flags and

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 flowers, deities are bathed in a ritual abhishekam, and processions with the idols are led to
offer believers a chance to pay their respects. Acts of charity, fasting and periods of quiet
introspection are encouraged at this time.

Interestingly, Palitana is special to those of other faiths too. There’s the shrine to Angar Pir
located right next to the Adheshwara temple. This is the tomb of a Muslim saint who is said
to have protected Palitana’s temples against Islamic invaders. It is now a spiritual destination
for couples seeking to be blessed with children.

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Each Jain temple on Shatrunjaya Hill has its own unique architectural features that blend the
sensibilities of the monks who inspired their foundation as well that of the patrons who
funded them.

184
 Edmund David Lyon was a British photographer who worked out of Ooty in Tamil Nadu
between 1865 and 1869. From his base in the Nilgiris, Lyon undertook many commissions by
the British government to document the monuments and landmarks of the Bombay and
Madras presidencies.

185
8

According to this profile by Luminous Lint, “His photographs were shown in the
Photographic Society of London Exhibition of 1869 and were there praised for their
‘tenderness and delicacy’.”

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 Abhiniti Ahuja is a Curatorial Assistant at Sarmaya

References:

The Peaceful Liberators, Jain Art from India by Pratapaditya Pal, Los Angeles County
Museum of Art. First published in 1994 by Museum Associates, Los Angeles County
Museum of Art. From the Sarmaya Library

Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History by John Cort. Published by
Oxford University Press.

Live History India: Palitana, The Jain Temple Town

ANNEXURE A

19th century MODERN MARU GURJARA

There was a considerable number of new Jain temples in the 19th century, as the Jain
community continued to grow and prosper. Temples were built by wealthy Jains, often
individually, or by community trusts. The large Hutheesing Jain Temple (1848)
in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, was built by the Hutheesing family. It uses the Māru-Gurjara style,
with many similarities to Bhadreshwar and Ranakpur. There is a good deal of "sharply
sculpted" decoration, "but figures appear only at the brackets". There are three sanctuaries in
a row, and so three shikharas, but the porch and the outer mandapa each have three domes.

But the style is not invariably used: the large Ajmer Jain temple (1864–1895) in Rajasthan
uses a kind of Neo-Mughal style. This is a Digambar foundation, and the Digambar wing of
Jainism always favoured the Māru-Gurjara style rather less, at least in India itself. The
large Anandji Kalyanji Trust, which devotes itself to temple-building and renovation, has
played a role in promoting the Māru-Gurjara style, at Palitana in particular.

The 20th and 21st centuries, especially from about 1950, have seen increasing
Jain diaspora communities in many parts of the world. In India there has been much
construction of large temples and complexes, and the smaller diaspora communities have
constructed buildings on a somewhat smaller scale. In both cases use of the Māru-Gurjara
style is very common, although the thoroughness with which it is adopted varies greatly.
Some buildings mix Māru-Gurjara elements with those of local temple styles and modern
international ones. Generally, where there is elaborate carving, often still done by craftsmen
from Gujarat or Rajasthan, this has more ornamental and decorative work than small figures.
A similar mix is seen in many modern Hindu temples in India and abroad, for example those
of the Swaminarayan sect, or the Prem Mandir, Vrindavan near Mathura (built 2001-2011).
Sometimes the Māru-Gurjara influence is limited to the "flying arches" and mandapa ceiling
rosettes, and a preference for white marble.

Water, a finite and vulnerable resource, is the basis for not only all livelihoods, development,
and the environment but a vital element in the evolution of cities, communities and
civilization in general. This is evident since most of the primordial civilization thrived around
water bodies rivers, Oceans and major waterways. 1 In today’s world, water is a major
constraint for both agricultural production and the income of rural poor populations. Poverty

187
reduction, food security, job creation, and GDP growth thrive primarily on water, which
plays an important role in the world economy and sustainable development. Water resources
help to strike a sustainable balance between the social, economic, and ecological needs of the
human race. Indus Valley or Harappan Civilisation had some major settlements like
Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Ganeriwala, etc. The presence of wells and other water
conservation structures there proves that the idea and need for preserving water, are ancient.

Due to Urbanization, the demand for water has increased manifolds since these ancient times.
Today it is important to conserve water. The collective efforts in this respect are seen to
produce more cost-effective results. This shows that water management was and is one of the
most important environmental practices for a healthy life and for global well-being . Water
management includes the conservation of water and the re-use of wastewater, which are two
different, but intertwined, strategies. Although water conservation focuses on demand, the
goal of wastewater reuse and recycling is to reduce this demand by closing the water loop and
encouraging circularity in the flow of wastewater from the built to the natural environment.

Throughout history, many water conservation and management strategies have been
employed, but only a few have proved successful. . But this is no news. Use of stepwells or
Vav, as they are called in Gujarat or baoli/bawri, being called in Rajasthan area, is one such
method which collects and store rainwater on a larger scale and made it available for masses
since ancient times. Stepwells were one such effective water management technologies used
in India. Stepwells were constructed based on their geographical and topographical
suitability, which revealed socio-cultural behaviors and beliefs. They form a unique, efficient
system of hydraulic engineering that demonstrates the region’s traditional understanding of
the sustainable use and management of its land, water, and agricultural biodiversity. Ancient
water harvesting techniques integrated stepwells into agricultural and irrigation networks
using prefabricated structures, to allow open channel flow, networked with surface water
bodies.

1. The Mandala of the Water World, Dr Uday

Dokras--https://www.academia.edu/91643818/The_Mandala_of_the_WATER_WOR
LD

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 Annexure B
Hindu Maru Gurjara Designs

Khajuraho in Orccha
What is the famous things in Orchha?

This author has studied the temples at Orccha on two seperate visits. He is of the opinion that
though the palace is Mewar architecture the Laxmi Narayan Mandir resembles the Maru
Gurjara form. Orccha is a famous tourist destination and is known for the exploits of Rani
Jhansi, who played an important role in fighting the British during the revolt of 1857. A
number of monuments belonging to this period including Jhansi Fort and Rani Jhansi's Palace
are important tourist attractions of Jhansi.

Chaturbhuj Temple. Dedicated to lord Vishnu, Chaturbhuj Temple is the main tourist
attraction in Orchha.The temple was built by Yasovarman of the Chandela Dynasty in c. 1100
CE. This is the only temple in Khajuraho which lacks erotic sculptures.
 Chhatris. The 'Chhatris' or cenotaphs of Orchha were constructed in honour of its rulers. ...
 Jahangir Mahal. ...
 Laxmi Narayan Temple. ...
 Orchha Bird Sancturay. ...
 Raja Mahal. ...
 Ram Raja Temple. ...
 River Rafting.
More than that the jewel in the crown of Orchha is the Chaturbhuj temple has tall spires in the
shape of pine cones built atop a high platform of 4.5 metres (15 ft) height. The overall height

189
of the temple is 105 metres (344 ft) high and its layout is compared to that of a Basilica and
planned to resemble the four arms of Vishnu for whom it was built.

Which temple is known as Chaturbhuj Mandir?

Carved into a sheer rock face, Chaturbhuj temple, also known as the temple of the four
armed Lord, stands on the eastern approach to the Gwalior Fort. Dedicated to Lord Vishnu,
the temple is said to have been constructed in 876 BC.

Chaturbhuj Temple, Jahangir Mahal, Raja Mahal, Lakshmi Temple

Orchha (or Urchha) is a town in Niwari district of Madhya Pradesh state, India. The town was
established by rajput ruler Rudra Pratap Singh some time after 1501, as the seat of an
eponymous former princely state of covering parts of central & north India, in
the Bundelkhand region. Orchha lies on the Betwa River, 80 km from Tikamgarh & 15 km
from Jhansi in Uttar Pradesh.

/Ram Raja Temple

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 The Mughal Army led by Prince Aurangzeb, Syed Khan-i-Jahan, Abdullah Khan Bahadur Firuz
Jang and Khan Dauran enter Orchha.

Orchha was founded in 1531 (the 16th century AD) by the Bundela chief, Rudra Pratap
Singh, who became the first King of Orchha, (r. 1501–1531) and also built the Fort of
Orchha. The Chaturbhuj Temple was built by the queen of Orchha, Ganesh Kunwar
(गणेशकुँवर), while Raj Mandir was built by 'Raja Madhukar Shah' during his reign,
1554 to 1591. Orchha was captured by imperial forces of the Mughal Army led by
Prince Aurangzeb in October 1635.

Royal Chhatris/Purana Mandir/Orchha Fort complex-View of Raja Mahal from Jahangir Mahal with Ram
Raja Temple and Chaturbhuj Temple in the background.

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On a seasonal island on the bank of the Betwa River, which has been surrounded by a
battlement wall, stands a huge palace-fort. The fort consists of several connected buildings
erected at different times, the most noteworthy of which is the Raja Mahal.

Chaturbhuj Temple at Orchha, is noted for having one of the tallest Vimana among Hindu temples standing at 344 feet.

The Ram Raja Temple is built on a square base and has an almost entirely plain exterior,
relieved by projecting windows and a line of delicate domes along the summit. The Jahangir
Mahal is built on a rectangular base and is relieved by a circular tower at each corner
surmounted by a dome, while two lines of graceful balconies supported on brackets mark the
central storeys. The roof is crowned by eight large fluted domes, with smaller domes between
them, connected by an ornamental balustrade. The Jahangir Mahal is considered to be a
singularly beautiful specimen of Mughal architecture. A point worth mentioning here is that
the mother of Jahangir, Mariam-uz-Zamani, was a Rajput princess. It is with this in mind that
the Rajput king of Orchha had built the Jahangir Mahal. There is a spectacular light and
sound show in the evening hours in the Jahangir Mahal. The show displays the history of the
city of Orchha and the Jahangir Mahal. Chaturbhuj Temple is an old temple from the 9th
century, and is noted for having one of the tallest Vimana among Hindu temples standing at
344 feet.

The Uth Khana (Camel Shelter) where the King's camels were stationed is right next to the
fort and is a must-see. Tourists can also climb on the roof of the Uth Khana and get a
fantastic view of Orchha town. The ruins behind the fort complex are an even greater sight. It
makes a tourist travel back in time and is an integral part of a visit to Orchha. It houses the
residences of various military officers, ministers (housing, roads), gunpowder factory, etc.
Numerous cenotaphs or chhatris dot the vicinity of the fort and the Betwa river. Elsewhere
about the town there is an unusual variety of temples and tombs, including the Chaturbhuj
temple, which is built on a vast platform of stone. The more unguarded and neglected of these
buildings are popular hangouts for tropical bees, wasps, and other such excitable stinging
creatures.
In 2006, Orchha's buildings were being documented by the LIK Team of IIT Roorkee, India.

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 Chhatris on the bank of the Betwa River./Lakshmi Temple, Orchha./Hardaul ki Baithak Memorial
at Orchha.
As of 2001 India census, Orchha had a population of 8501. Males constitute 53% of the
population and females 47%. Orchha has an average literacy rate of 54%, lower than the
national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 64%, and female literacy is 42%, 18% of the
population is under 6 years of age.

Chaturbhuj Temple, dedicated to Vishnu, is situated at Orchha in Madhya Pradesh, India.

The name Chaturbhuj is a combination of 'chatur' meaning "four" and 'bhuj' meaning "arms"
which literally translates to "one who has four arms" and refers to Rama an Avatar of Vishnu.
The temple has a complex multi-storied structural view which is a blend of temple, fort and
palace architectural features.
The temple was originally built to deify an image of Rama, as the chief deity, which was
installed in the Rama Raja Temple inside the Orchha Fort complex. At present an image

193
of Radha Krishna is worshiped in the temple. The temple is noted for having one of the tallest
Vimana among Hindu temples standing at 344 feet.
The temple is located in the Orccha town, just outside the limits of the Orchha Fort complex,
to the south of the Rama Raja Temple. It is in an island formed by the Betwa River. [4] Orccha
is accessible by air from Gwalior airport which is 119 kilometres (74 mi) away; regular
flights operate from Delhi and Bhopal. By road it is accessible from a diversion from
the Jhansi-Khajuraho highway. The nearest rail-head is Jhansi which is 16 kilometres
(9.9 mi) away.
The temple was constructed by the Bundela Rajputs of the kingdom of Orchha during the
reign of Mughal emperor Akbar. Its construction was begun by Madhukar Shah and
completed by his son, Vir Singh Deo in the 16th century. Madhukar Shah built the temple for
his wife, Rani Ganeshkuwari.
According to a local legend, the temple was built after the queen had a "dream visitation" by
Lord Rama directing her to build a temple for Him; while Madhukar Shah was a devotee
of Krishna, his wife's dedication was to Rama. Following the approval to build the
Chaturbhuja Temple, the queen went to Ayodhya to obtain an image of Lord Rama that was
to be enshrined in her new temple. When she came back from Ayodhya with the image of
Rama, initially she kept the idol in her palace, called Rani Mahal, as the Chaturbhuj Temple
was still under construction. She was, however, unaware of an injunction that the image to be
deified in a temple could not be kept in a palace. Once the temple construction was
completed and the idol of the lord had to be moved for installation at the Chatrubhuj Temple,
it refused to be shifted from the palace. Hence, instead of the Chaturbuj temple, the Rama's
idol remained in the palace whereas the Chaturbhuj Temple remained without an idol in its
sanctum. As Rama was worshiped in the palace it was converted into the Ram Raja Temple;
it is the only shrine in the country where Rama is worshiped as a king.

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The management of the temple on a day-to-day basis is the responsibility of the Ram Raja
Trust. However, the conservation of the temple structure itself is under the control of the
State Archaeology Department. The Chaturbhuj temple has tall spires in the shape of pine
cones built atop a high platform of 4.5 metres (15 ft) height. The overall height of the temple
is 105 metres (344 ft) high and its layout is compared to that of a Basilica and planned to
resemble the four arms of Vishnu for whom it was built. The imposing view of the temple is
that of multi-storied palace with arcaded openings, a very large entrance, a large central tower
and fortifications The climb to the temple facade involves climbing steep and narrow steps
numbering 67, each of about 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) height, forming a winding stairway. The
interior has many halls and the main hall or mandapa of the temple is built in the shape of a
cross or cruciform and is stated to be a mix of Māru-Gurjara architecture, and it is at right
angles to the vestibule, of identical layout on either side.
The temple's exterior is richly ornamented with lotus symbols. The building displays a blend
of religious and secular styles taken from temple and fort architecture. The temple faces east
and is located on an axis with the nearby Ram Mandir, which is inside Orccha Fort complex.
However, there is not much ornamentation in the interior part of the temple. The ceiling of
the central dome, which has several kiosks, is covered with bloomed lotuses. The exterior
architectural features include "petaled stone moldings, painted floral and geometric designs,
cornices supported on lotus bud pendantive brackets, jewelled stone girdles, false balcony
projections".
It is said that the towers of the temple, when built, had been covered with gold plating which
over the years has been pilfered.
The roof of the temple is accessible from where one can see the scenic views of the Orccha
town, the winding Betwa River, the Sawan Bhadon, the Rama Raja Temple and the imposing
Laxmi Narayan temple some distance away.

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 Ceilin

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 g of the temple

The palace made now into a Hotel

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Chaturbhuj Temple at Orchha, is noted for having one of the tallest Vimana among Hindu temples standing at 344 feet.

Ardha Narasimha Statute

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