Phnom Bakheng- the temple mountains of

KRISHNA
Dr Uday Dokras

2 MOUNTAINS that REPRESENT MOUNT MERU

How Hinduism reached S.E. Asian countries is a mystery that is speculated upon. Be as it
may, the Funan and Champa and then later on Khmer kingdoms from the time of
Jayavarman II were all steeped deep into Hinduism.

The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles was incorporated into
ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara (Śikhara) — a Sanskrit word translating
literally to "mountain peak." Early examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata
Temple and Harshnath Temple from the 8th century CE in Rajasthan, Western India. This
concept also continued outside India, such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers.
Scholars believe that placing the temple on an island in the middle of a body of water or
nearby served to identify it symbolically with Mount Meru, home of the gods, which
in Hindu mythology is surrounded by the world oceans.
Yasovarman I (889 - 910 A.D.): After succeeding the throne in 889 A.D, Yasovarman I
built a new Angkor capital called Yasodharapura, located not far away from Roluos on the
vast plain of Siemreap and about eight kilometers north of the the Great Lake Tonle Sap. At
the center of this capital was the Phnom Bakeng Hill on top of which a temple was built with
its galleries branching out in four directions to represent the heavenly residence of Hindu
gods with the central Mount Meru and the other four sacred peaks. One of the earliest of the
Temple Mountains and-quincunx
The Mountains that Reflet Mount Meru

Mount Mandara (Sanskrit: मन्दर, मन्दार; mandara, mandāra) is the name of the
mountain that appears in the Samudra manthan episode in the Hindu Puranas, where it was
used as a churning rod to churn the ocean of milk. Mahadev's serpent, Vasuki, offered to
serve as the rope pulled on one side by a team of asuras, and on the other, by a team of devas.
The Puranas refer to various sacred places on the hill that are also believed to be the abode of
god Krishna as Madhusudana or the destroyer of the demon called Madhu who was killed by
Krishna and then covered by the Mount Mandara.
Some legends identify Mandar Parvat, a hill in Banka district (near Bhagalpur district) in
Bihar with Mount Mandara. The Mandar Parvat has the sculpture of what is believed to be of
Demon Madhu.
Kalidasa's Kumarasambhava refers to foot marks of Lord Vishnu on the slopes of
Mandara. The hill is replete with relics of bygone ages. Besides inscriptions and statues there
are numerous rock cut sculptures depicting various Brahmanical images. The hill is equally

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revered by the Jains who believe that their
12th Tirthankara Shri Vasupujya attained nirvana here on the summit of the hill.

Mandar Parvat
The depiction of the Churning of the Ocean of Milk became very popular in Khmer art,
perhaps because their creation myth involved a Nāga ancestor. It is a popular motif in both
Khmer and Thai art; one of the most dramatic depictions is one of the eight friezes that can be
seen around the inner wall of Angkor Wat--the others being the Battle
of Kurukshetra, Suryavarman's Military Review, scenes from Heaven and Hell, the battle
between Vishnu and the asuras, the Battle between Krishna and Banasura, a battle between
the gods and asuras, and the Battle of Lanka.The Mount Olympus of the Hindu gods and
goddesses, Mount Meru, or sometimes Mandara, is, according to the Mahabharata, a golden
mass of intense energy. It is the axis mundi, the world center .
THE STORY OF SHRI KRISHNA LIFTING GOVARDHAN HILL

There is an interesting story in the Bhagwata and other Puranas about Shri Krishna lifting the
‘Govardhan Parvat’ or Govardhan Hill when he was only a small child. The story goes like
this:

Once, when the elder people of Braj including Nanda Maharaj were planning for the Puja of
Lord Indra, Shri Krishna, a child then, questioned them as to why they were doing so. Nanda

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Maharaj explained to Krishna that this was done every year to please Lord Indra so that he
continued to grace the people of Braj by providing rain as and when required. But little
Krishna debated that they were farmers and they should only do their duty or ‘Karma’ to the
best of their abilities, by concentrating on farming and protecting their cattle, rather than
performing pujas or conduct sacrifices like this for any natural phenomenon. Finally
convinced by Krishna, the villagers did not perform with the puja.

Furious with the inhabitants of Braj for listening to the little child Krishna and worshipping
the Govardhan Hill instead of him, lndra, the King of Heaven, decided to punish them by
sending terrible rain clouds to flood the land of Vrindavan. Calling the Samavartaka clouds of
devastation, lndra ordered them to lash upon Vrindavan with torrents of rain and
thunderstorms and cause extensive floods that would destroy the livelihood of the inhabitants.

As terrible rains and thunderstorms ravaged the land and submerged it under water, the
frightened and helpless inhabitants of Vrindavan approached Lord Krishna for help. Krishna,
who understood the situation perfectly well, lifted up the entire Govardhan Hill at once with
His left hand, and held it up like an umbrella. One by one all the inhabitants of Vrindavan,
along with their cows and other household possessions, took shelter under Govardhan Hill.
For seven days they stayed under the hill, safe from the terrible rains and surprisingly
undisturbed by hunger or thirst. They were also astounded to see the huge Govardhan Hill
resting perfectly balanced on Krishna’s little finger.

Stunned and mystified with the order of events, King Indra called back the clouds of
devastation, thus stopping the thunderstorms and the rains. The sky became clear again and
the sun shone brightly over Vrindavan. Little Krishna asked the inhabitants to return home
without any fear, and gently placed the Govardhan Hill back to exactly where it was. All the
inhabitants of Braj including Nanda Maharaj, Yasoda and Balarama hailed Krishna and
embraced Him with happiness.

This was how the false pride of King Indra was shattered to pieces. He came to Lord Krishna
with folded hands and prayed to Him for forgiveness. Shri Krishna, being the Supreme
Personality of Godhead, bestowed his grace on Indra and also enlightened him about his
‘Dharma’ and duties.

Sonya Rhie Mace and Bertrand Porte in their book Revealing Krishna: Essays on the
History, Context, and Conservation of Krishna Lifting Mount Govardhan from Phnom Da
2021 talk about an over life-size sculpture of Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, in one of
the earliest sculptural representations from Cambodia. The sculpture depicts him lifting
Mount Govardhan. Dating from c 600 CE, it is a depictions of the story of Krishna and the
mountain in the art of India and Southeast Asia. It is a reference to images of the ideal ruler,
protector of the realm, and clan hero. It has been installed in the cave sanctuary of Angkor
Borei amid the delta floodplains, and its connections with the nearby royal center .

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In 1973, the Cleveland Museum of Art (CMA) acquired a fragmentary masterpiece of pre-
Angkorian Khmer sculpture of Krishna Govardhana. Carved from a monolithic block of
sandstone about 1,500 years ago, it depicts the young Hindu god Krishna in the superhuman
act of holding aloft a low mountain. It comes from a cave at the top of a small granite
outcrop, Phnom Da (Stone Mountain), in southern Cambodia near the ancient capital of
Angkor Borei.

The Sanctuaries of Phnom Da

The sanctuaries of Phnom Da are recorded as the earliest monumental Hindu temple complex
in Cambodia from surviving Khmer and Sanskrit inscriptions during the reign of King
Rudravarman (514-539). The site also houses the earliest surviving Khmer stone temple
dating to the 6th century. The caves on Phnom Da seem to have been first visited in the 1880s
by a French civil servant. The next record comes from the archaeologist Henri Parmentier
(1871-1949) of the École française d’Extrême-Orient (EFEO) in the report of his visit in June
1911.

The extensive sculptural finds from Angkor Borei and the nearby sacred
sites of Phnom Da depict a wide range of Hindu and Buddhist imagery,
probably based on descriptions in texts brought from India with Hindu
priests and Buddhist monks. Sandstone as a medium for sculpture rose to
prominence in the 500s, and within a century, Cambodian artists in
Angkor Borei developed exceptional stone-carving skills and a local style
widely celebrated for its power and sensitivity.

Adolphe Stoclet and Khmer Art

However, this particular story begins in 1920 with Adolphe Stoclet (1871-
1949) and his wife Suzanne. They purchased many Khmer fragments,
including the limbless head and torso section of a Krishna Govardhana
sculpture from Phnom Da, as part of the frenzy of collecting to fill their

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new grand residence in Brussels, designed by Josef Hoffman and the
Wiener Werkstatte. By 1937, many more Khmer fragments entered the
Stoclet Collection via a French architect and conservator, Henri Mauger,
who was then working in Cambodia, including what has become CMA’s
Krishna Lifting Mount Govardhan.

Installed in their mansion, the Stoclet Palace, it achieved renown

throughout the art world as a masterpiece of early Cambodian art. In
1935, Henri Mauger (1903-?) of the (EFEO) found 14 further sandstone
fragments of arms, legs, feet, and a hand near the caves on Phnom Da.
Believing that they included the pieces to complete their statue, the
Stoclets arranged for the fragments to be shipped to Brussels.
Dissatisfied with the appearance after multiple attempts to attach limb
fragments to the torso at the home of their neighbour, sculptor Marcel
Wolfers (1886-1976), the Stoclets abandoned the project. When new
owners moved into the Wolfers’s villa, they used the stone fragments to
support a new underground cistern and to edge the flower bed, where
they remained unnoticed until the 1970s.

The Cleveland Krishna

Back in the US, in 1973, the Cleveland Museum of Art purchased the
head and torso section of the Krishna Govardhana sculpture from the
Stoclet estate. The Cleveland Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, is
believed to be from a cave temple halfway up the northern slope of
Phnom Da and is one of the five two-armed heroic figures of Phnom Da
and one of two depicting his elevation of Mount Govardhan

Four years later, CMA curator Stanislaw Czuma managed to locate the
buried fragments and transfer them to Cleveland. Conservators used
eight of the pieces to create as complete a figure of the Krishna
Govardhana as possible, and this elegantly restored sculpture was a
centrepiece in the CMA galleries for nearly 40 years. In 2005, the
Cleveland Museum of Art transferred the nine unused pieces to the
National Museum of Cambodia in Phnom Penh. Conservators there
attached six of the pieces to another limbless Krishna Lifting Mount
Govardhan figure that was brought from Phnom Da in 1944.

From 2014 to 2018, following increased communications between

curators and conservators in Cleveland and Phnom Penh, Bertrand Porte
with the EFEO and SOK Soda of the National Museum of Cambodia
recognised that the disposition of the fragments required further
adjustments. Using 3-D modelling, CT scanning, and extensive analysis of
stone samples, a team of scholars and specialists from Cambodia, France,
and the US worked cooperatively to determine which fragments belonged
with which sculpture.

This latest exhibition aims to reveal the context, history, and myth of the
Cleveland Krishna Govardhana as understood today. Four digital
galleries present the riverine landscape where it was made, its global

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travels and restorations – and life-size three-dimensional projections of
all eight monumental stone sculptures from Phnom Da, and the role of
geopolitics and museums in their discovery and conservation are in the
show. In two sculpture galleries, the Cleveland Krishna is reunited with
contemporaneous works from the same region for the first time in
centuries (there are eight main sculptures and main sanctuaries at
Phnom Da).

As revealed in these many years of examination, two of the pieces that

were in Phnom Penh actually belonged with the Cleveland Krishna, and
six of the pieces that were in Cleveland belonged to the Phnom Penh
Krishna. Cleveland conservators then completed the arduous, delicate
process of disassembling the 1978/79 restoration.

In 2020, the unprecedented exchange of sculptural fragments between

the US and the Cambodia led to the latest reconstruction of both Krishna
Lifting Mount Govardhan sculptures in 2021. Though neither sculpture is
complete, they are now reunited with their correct fragments.

Krishna Lifting Mount Govardhan, circa 600, after 2020 restoration,

Southern Cambodia, Takeo Province, Phnom Da, sandstone, overall
203.1 x 68 x 55.5 cm, The Cleveland Museum of Art, John L
Severance Fund 1973

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Krishna of Cambodia in the Cleaveland Museum of Art before its relocation to Cambodia
HTTPS://ASIANARTNEWSPAPER.COM/KRISHNA-GOVARDHANA-JOURNEY-TO-CAMBODIA/

The above discoveries show that the concept of Mountains as vehicles to

represent the Hindu Gods, Vishnu and his incarnation KRISHNA was well
entranched in the domain of Hinduism as practiced in the Khmer Empire
and its antecedents.
Phnom Bakheng or Prasat Phnum Bakhêng as Mount Mandara and
Govardhan

Phnom Bakheng or Prasat Phnum Bakhêng, is a Hindu and Buddhist

temple in the form of a temple mountain in Siem Reap
Province, Cambodia. Dedicated to Shiva, it was built at the end of the 9th
century, during the reign of King Yasovarman (889-910). Located atop a
hill, it is nowadays a popular tourist spot for sunset views of the much
bigger temple Angkor Wat, which lies amid the jungle about 1.5 km to the
southeast. The large number of visitors makes Phnom Bakheng one of the
most threatened monuments of Angkor. Since 2004, World Monuments
Fund has been working to conserve the temple in partnership
with APSARA.
Constructed more than two centuries before Angkor Wat, Phnom Bakheng
was in its day the principal temple of the Angkor region, historians
believe. It was the architectural centerpiece of a new capital,
Yasodharapura, that Yasovarman built when he moved the court from the
capital Hariharalaya in the Roluos area located to the southeast.
An inscription dated 1052 AD and found at the Sdok Kak Thom temple in
present-day Thailand states in Sanskrit: "When Sri Yasovardhana became
king under the name of Yasovarman, the able Vamasiva continued as his

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guru. By the king's order, he set up a linga on Sri Yasodharagiri, a
mountain equal in beauty to the king of mountains.”
Scholars believe that this passage refers to the consecration of the Phnom
Bakheng temple approximately a century and a half earlier.Phnom
Bakheng is one of 3 hilltop temples in the Angkor region that are
attributed to Yasovarman's reign. The other two are Phnom Krom to the
south near the Tonle Sap lake, and Phnom Bok, northeast of the East
Baray reservoir.
Surrounding the mount and temple, labor teams built an outer moat.
Avenues radiated out in the four cardinal directions from the mount. A
causeway ran in a northwest–southeast orientation from the old capital
area to the east section of the new capital's outer moat and then, turning
to an east–west orientation, connected directly to the east entrance of the
temple.
Phnom Bakheng is a symbolic representation of Mount Meru, home of
the Hindu gods, a status emphasized by the temple's location atop a
steep hill 65 m above the surrounding plain. The temple is built in a
pyramid form of seven levels, representing the seven heavens.
At the top level, five sandstone sanctuaries, in various states of repair,
stand in a quincunx pattern—one in the center and one at each corner of
the level's square. Originally, 108 small towers were arrayed around the
temple at ground level and on various of its tiers; most of them have
collapsed. A quincunx (/ˈkwɪn.kʌŋks/) is a geometric pattern consisting of
five points arranged in a cross, with four of them forming
a square or rectangle and a fifth at its center. It forms the arrangement of
five units in the pattern corresponding to the five-spot on six-
sided dice, playing cards, and dominoes. It is represented
in Unicode as U+2059 ⁙ FIVE DOT PUNCTUATION or (for the die
pattern) U+2684 ⚄ DIE FACE-5.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------https://www.wmf.org/sites/
default/files/article/pdfs/Phnom_Bakheng_Conservation_Master_Plan_Vol_1.pdf

ORIGIN

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A quincunx coin////Portuguese shield
The quincunx was originally a coin issued by the Roman Republic c. 211–
200 BC, whose value was five twelfths (quinque and uncia) of an as, the
Roman standard bronze coin. On the Roman quincunx coins, the value
was sometimes indicated by a pattern of five dots or pellets. However,
these dots were not always arranged in a quincunx pattern.
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) dates the first appearances of the
Latin word in English as 1545 and 1574 ("in the sense 'five-twelfths of a
pound or as'"; i.e. 100 old pence). The first citation for a geometric
meaning, as "a pattern used for planting trees", dates from 1606. The
OED also cites a 1647 reference to the German astronomer Kepler for an
astronomical/astrological meaning, an angle of 5/12 of a whole
circle. Jackson (1821) states that the word refers to the pattern of trees in
an orchard, but then uses it more abstractly for a version of the orchard-
planting problem involving patterns of points and lines in the plane (for
which the quincunx pattern provides the optimal solution for five points).

Quincunx patterns occur in many contexts:

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The flag of the Solomon Islands features a quincunx of stars./A quincuncial
map/12th-century Cosmatesque mosaic in the Cappella Palatina, Palermo,
Sicily

Drawn by Timothy M Ciccone following Claude Jacques, Michael Freeman, and Jean
Laur.of thr Bakeng

Phnom Bakheng as a quincunx

 In heraldry, groups of five elements (charges) are often arranged in a

quincunx pattern, called in saltire in heraldic terminology. The flag of
the Solomon Islands features this pattern, with its five stars
representing the five main island groups in the Solomon Islands.
Another instance of this pattern occurred in the flag of the 19th-
century Republic of Yucatán, where it signified the five departments
into which the republic was divided.
 Quincunxes are used in modern computer graphics as a pattern
for multisample anti-aliasing. Quincunx antialiasing samples scenes at

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 the corners and centers of each pixel. These five sample points, in the
shape of a quincunx, are combined to produce each displayed pixel.
However, samples at the corner points are shared with adjacent pixels,
so the number of samples needed is only twice the number of
displayed pixels.
 In numerical analysis, the quincunx pattern describes the two-
dimensional five-point stencil, a sampling pattern used to derive finite
difference approximations to derivatives.
 In architecture, a quincuncial plan, also defined as a "cross-in-square",
is the plan of an edifice composed of nine bays. The central and the
four angular ones are covered with domes or groin vaults so that the
pattern of these domes forms a quincunx; the other four bays are
surmounted by barrel vaults. In Khmer architecture, the towers of a
temple, such as Angkor Wat, are sometimes arranged in a quincunx to
represent the five peaks of Mount Meru
 A quincunx is one of the quintessential designs of Cosmatesque inlay
stonework.
 A quincuncial map is a conformal map projection that maps the poles
of the sphere to the centre and four corners of a square, thus forming
a quincunx.
 The points on each face of a unit cell of a face-centred cubic lattice
form a quincunx.
 The quincunx as a tattoo is known as the five dots tattoo. It has been
variously interpreted as a fertility symbol, a reminder of sayings on
how to treat women or police, a recognition symbol among the Romani
people, a group of close friends, standing alone in the world, or time
spent in prison (with the outer four dots representing the prison walls
and the inner dot representing the prisoner). Thomas Edison, whose
many inventions included an electric pen which later became the basis
of a tattooing machine created by Samuel O'Reilly, had this pattern
tattooed on his forearm.
 The first two stages of the Saturn V super heavy-lift rocket had engines
in a quincunx arrangement.
 A baseball diamond forms a quincunx with the four bases and the
pitcher's mound.
 Early African American scientist Benjamin Banneker describes a dream
in which he is asked to measure the shape of the soul after death. The
answer is "quincunx". Research locates his ancestry in Senegal, where
the quincunx is a common religious symbol.
 Place des Quinconces in Bordeaux, France, one of the largest public
squares in Europe, is named for its trees, which were formerly
arranged in quincunx patterns.
Various literary works use or refer to the quincunx pattern for its symbolic
value:
 The English physician Sir Thomas Browne in his philosophical
discourse The Garden of Cyrus (1658) elaborates upon evidence of the
quincunx pattern in art, nature and mystically as evidence of "the
wisdom of God". Although Browne wrote about quincunx in its

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 geometric meaning, he may have been influenced by
English astrology, as the astrological meaning of "quincunx" (unrelated
to the pattern) was introduced by the astronomer Kepler in 1604.

 James Joyce uses the term in "Grace", a short story in Dubliners of

1914, to describe the seating arrangement of five men in a church
service. Lobnerargues that in this context the pattern serves as a
symbol both of the wounds of Christ and of the Greek cross.

 Lawrence Durrell's novel sequence The Avignon Quintet is arranged in

the form of a quincunx, according to the author; the final novel in the
sequence is called Quinx, the plot of which includes the discovery of a
quincunx of stones.

 The Quincunx is the title of a lengthy and elaborate novel by Charles

Palliser set in 19th-century England, published in 1989; the pattern
appears in the text as a heraldic device, and is also reflected in the
structure of the book.

 In the first chapter of The Rings of Saturn, W. G. Sebald's narrator cites

Browne's writing on the quincunx. The quincunx in turn becomes a
model for the way in which the rest of the novel unfolds.

 Séamus Heaney describes Ireland's historical provinces as together

forming a quincunx, as the Irish word for province cúige (literally: "fifth
part") also explicates. The five provinces of Ireland
were Ulster (north), Leinster (east), Connacht (west), Munster (south)
and Meath (center, and now a county within Leinster). More
specifically, in his essay Frontiers of Writing, Heaney creates an image
of five towers forming a quincunx pattern within Ireland, one tower for
each of the five provinces, each having literary significance.

 The Polish historian Feliks Koneczny used the term 'quincunx' to

describe five categories of human life which define civilisations, these
categories including truth and good on the spiritual side, well-
being and health on the physical side and beauty encompassing both
sides.

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Bhutanese thangka of Mount Meru and the Buddhist universe, 19th
century, Trongsa Dzong, Trongsa, Bhutan//The MahaBodhi Temple, a
famous Buddhist temple at Bodhgaya, India, representing Mount Meru
Mount Meru : मेरु, also recognized as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is
the sacred five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist
cosmology and is considered to be the centre of all
the physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes.
Many famous Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu temples have been built as
symbolic representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne" 須彌座
xūmízuò style base is a common feature[citation needed] of Chinese pagodas.
The highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat, a Burmese-style multi-
tiered roof, represents Mount Meru.
Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru (Pāli Meru), to
which is added the approbatory prefix su-, resulting in the meaning
"excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru". Meru is also the name of the central
bead in a mālā.
In other languages, Mount Meru is pronounced:

1. Burmese: ([mjɪ̰ ɴ mò tàʊɰ̃ ])

2. Chinese: 須彌山 (Xūmíshān)
3. Japanese: 須弥山 (Shumisen)
4. Javanese: ꦱꦼꦩꦺꦫꦸ (Semeru)
5. Kannada: ಮೇರು ಪರ್ವತ
6. Khmer: ភ្នំព្រះសុមេរុ (Phnom Preah Someru) or (Phnom Preah
Somae)
7. Korean: 수미산 (Sumisan)
8. Malayalam: മഹാമേരു പർവ്വതം (Mahameru Parvatham)
9. Pāli: Sineru
10. Tamil: மகா மேரு மலை

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 11. Telugu: మేరు పర్వతం
12. Tibetan: ཪི་རྒྱལ་པོ་རི་རབ་
13. Thai: เขาพระสุเมรุ (Khao phra sumen)
14. Vietnamese: Núi Tu-di

GEOGRAPHY; The dimensions attributed to Mount Meru — which all refer

to it as a part of the Cosmic Ocean, along with several other statements
that describe it in geographically vague terms (e.g., "the Sun along with
all the planets circle the mountain") — make the determination of its
location most difficult, according to most scholars.
Some researchers identify Mount Meru or Sumeru with the Pamirs,
northwest of Kashmir.
The Suryasiddhanta mentions that Mt. Meru lies in the middle of the
Earth ("bhuva-madhya") in the land of the Jambunad
(Jampudvīpa). Narapatijayacharyasvarodaya, a ninth-century text, based
on mostly unpublished texts of Yāmal Tantr, mentions:
"Sumeruḥ Prithvī-madhye shrūyate drishyate na tu"
(Su-meru is heard to be in the middle of the Earth, but is not seen there).
Several versions of cosmology can be found in existing Hindu texts. In
one of them, cosmologically, the Meru mountain was also described as
being surrounded by Mandrachala Mountain to the east, Suparshva
Mountain to the west, Kumuda Mountain to the north and Kailasa to the
south

Yuan dynasty 1271–1368) Chinese mandala depicting Mount

Meru as an inverted pyramid topped by a lotus.
According to Buddhist cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru) is at the
centre of the world, and Jambūdvīpa is south of it. It is
80,000 yojanas wide and 80,000 yojanas high according to
the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam and 84,000 yojanas high according to
the Long Āgama Sutra. Trāyastriṃśa is on its peak, where Śakra resides.
The Sun and the Moon revolve around Mount Meru, and as the Sun passes

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behind it, it becomes nighttime. The mountain has four faces — each one
made of a different material; the northern face is made of gold, the
eastern one is made of crystal, the southern one is made of lapis lazuli,
and the western one is made of ruby.
According to Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam (philosophical
writings), Sumeru is 80,000 yojanas tall. The exact measure of
one yojana is uncertain, but some accounts put it at about 24,000 feet, or
approximately 4-1/2 miles, but other accounts put it at about 7-9 miles. It
also descends beneath the surface of the surrounding waters to a depth of
80,000 yojanas, being founded upon the basal layer of Earth. Sumeru is
often used as a simile for both size and stability in Buddhist texts.
Sumeru is said to be shaped like an hourglass, with a top and base of
80,000 yojanas square, but narrowing in the middle (i.e., at a height of
40,000 yojanas) to 20,000 yojanas square.
Sumeru is the polar center of a mandala-like complex of seas and
mountains. The square base of Sumeru is surrounded by a square moat-
like ocean, which is in turn surrounded by a ring (or rather square) wall of
mountains, which is in turn surrounded by a sea, each diminishing in
width and height from the one closer to Sumeru. There are seven seas
and seven surrounding mountain-walls, until one comes to the vast outer
sea which forms most of the surface of the world, in which the known
continents are merely small islands. The known world, which is on the
continent of Jambudvipa, is directly south of Sumeru.
The dimensions stated in the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam are shown in the
table below:

Name Width Height/Depth

80,000
Sumeru (Sineru) mountain 80,000 yojanas
yojanas

80,000
Sea 80,000 yojanas
yojanas

40,000
Yugandhara mountains 40,000 yojanas
yojanas

40,000
Sea 40,000 yojanas
yojanas

Iṣadhara (Isadhara) mountains 20,000 20,000 yojanas

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 yojanas

20,000
Sea 20,000 yojanas
yojanas

10,000
Khadiraka (Karavīka) mountains 10,000 yojanas
yojanas

10,000
Sea 10,000 yojanas
yojanas

Sudarśana (Sudassana) mountains 5,000 yojanas 5,000 yojanas

Sea 5,000 yojanas 5,000 yojanas

Aśvakarṇa (Assakaṇṇa) mountains 2,500 yojanas 2,500 yojanas

Sea 2,500 yojanas 2,500 yojanas

Vinadhara (Vinataka) mountains 1,250 yojanas 1,250 yojanas

Sea 1,250 yojanas 1,250 yojanas

Nimindhara (Nemindhara)
625 yojanas 625 yojanas
mountains

32,000 relatively
Outer Sea
yojanas shallow

Cakravāḍa (Cakkavāḷa) mountains

312.5 yojanas 312.5 yojanas
(circular edge of the world)

16
The 80,000 yojana square top of Sumeru constitutes
the Trāyastriṃśa "heaven" (devaloka), which is the highest plane in direct
physical contact with the earth. The next 40,000 yojanas below this
heaven consist of sheer precipice, narrowing in like an inverted mountain
until it is 20,000 yojanas square at a heigh of 40,000 yojanas above the
sea.
From this point Sumeru expands again, going down in four terraced
ledges, each broader than the one above. The first terrace constitutes the
"heaven" of the Four Great Kings and is divided into four parts, facing
north, south, east and west. Each section is governed by one of the Four
Great Kings, who faces outward toward the quarter of the world that he
supervises.
40,000 yojanas is also the height at which the Sun and Moon circle
Sumeru in a clockwise direction. This rotation explains the alteration of
day and night; when the Sun is north of Sumeru, the shadow of the
mountain is cast over the continent of Jambudvīpa, and it is night there; at
the same time it is noon in the opposing northern continent of Uttarakuru,
dawn in the eastern continent of Pūrvavideha, and dusk in the western
continent of Aparagodānīya. Half a day later, when the Sun has moved to
the south, it is noon in Jambudvīpa, dusk in Pūrvavideha, dawn in
Aparagodānīya, and midnight in Uttarakuru.
The next three terraces down the slopes of Sumeru are each longer and
broader by a factor of two. They contain the followers of the Four Great
Kings, namely nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, and kumbhāṇḍas.
The names and dimensions of the terraces on the lower slopes of Sumeru
are given below:

Height above Length (on one

Name Breadth
the sea side)

2,000
Cāturmahārājika 40,000 yojanas 24,000 yojanas
yojanas

4,000
Sadāmada 30,000 yojanas 32,000 yojanas
yojanas

8,000
Mālādhara 20,000 yojanas 48,000 yojanas
yojanas

16,000
Karoṭapāni 10,000 yojanas 80,000 yojanas
yojanas

17
Below Sumeru, in the seas around it, is the abode of the Asuras who are at
war with the Trāyastriṃśa gods.
Certain traditional Buddhist ideas about the world are incompatible with
modern science and have been abandoned by numerous modern
Buddhists. One of the most well known of these ideas is Mount Meru.
According to Donald S. Lopez Jr., "the human realm that Buddhist texts
describe is a flat earth, or perhaps more accurately a flat ocean, its waters
contained by a ring of iron mountains. In that ocean is a great central
mountain, surrounded in the four cardinal directions by island continents."
As Lopez notes, as early as the 18th century, Buddhist scholars
like Tominaga Nakamoto (1715–1746) began to question this classical
Buddhist cosmography, holding that they were adopted by the Buddha
from Indian theories, but that they were incidental and thus not at the
heart of Buddha's teaching. While some traditional Buddhists did defend
the traditional cosmology, others like Shimaji Mokurai (1838–1911) argued
that it was not foundational to Buddhism and was merely an element of
Indian mythology. Others like Kimura Taiken (1881–1930), went further
and argued that this traditional cosmography was not part of original
Buddhism.

In Vajrayāna, maṇḍala offerings often include Mount Meru, as they in part

represent the entire universe.It is also believed that Mount Meru is the
home of the buddha Cakrasaṃvara

Tibetan Cakrasaṃvara sand mandala with Mount Meru in the

centre. / Tibetan Buddhist embroidery representing Mount
Sumeru.

18
 Hindu cosmology

The cosmic tortoise, and Mount Meru

Mount Meru of Hindu traditions is described as 84,000 yojanas high, about
1,082,000 km (672,000 mi), which would be 85 times the Earth's
diameter. The Sun, along with all the planets in the Solar System, revolve
around Mt. Meru as one unit.
One yojana can be taken to mean about 11.5 km (9 miles), though its
magnitude seems to differ over time periods — e.g., the Earth's
circumference is 3,200 yojanas according to Varahamihira and slightly
less so in the Aryabhatiya, but is said to be 5,026.5 yojanas in the
Suryasiddhānta. The Matsya Purana and the Bhagvata Purana, along with
some other Hindu texts, consistently give the height of 84,000 yojanas to
Mount Meru, which translates into 672,000 miles or 1,082,000 kilometers.
Mount Meru was said to be the residence of King Padamja Brahma in
antiquity.
19
According to Charles Allen, Mount Kailash is identified with Mount Meru.
One description in the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states that its four
faces are made of crystal, ruby, gold, and lapis lazuli.[23] It is a pillar of the
world and is located at the heart of six mountain ranges symbolizing a
lotus.[23]

Javanese Legends: This mythical mountain of gods was mentioned in

the Tantu Pagelaran, an Old Javanese manuscript written in the 15th-
century Majapahit period. The manuscript describes the mythical origin of
the island of Java, as well as the legendary movement of portions of
Mount Meru to Java. The manuscript explains that Batara Guru (Shiva)
ordered the gods Brahma and Vishnu to fill Java with human beings.
However, at that time, Java island was floating freely on the ocean, always
tumbling and shaking. To stop the island's movement, the gods decided to
nail it to the Earth by moving the part of Mahameru in Jambudvipa (India)
and attaching it to Java. The resulting mountain is Mount Semeru, the
tallest mountain on Java.
Mount Semeru, a large active volcano on Java, is named after the mount.

The five central towers of Angkor Wat, before a Hindu and later a Buddhist
temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia, symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru.

Architectural Element of Mount Meru

The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles was

incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture with
a Shikhara (Śikhara) — a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain
peak." Early examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata

20
Temple and Harshnath Temple from the 8th century CE
in Rajasthan, Western India. This concept also continued outside India,
such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers.
In Buddhist temples, the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is the earliest
example of the 5th- to 6th-century depiction. Many other Buddhist
temples took on this form, such as the Wat Arun in Thailand and
the Hsinbyume Pagoda in Myanmar.

1. Prang of Wat Phutthaisawan, a Buddhist temple in Samphao Lom,

Thailand, representing Mount Meru
2. A Buddhist prang in Wat Arun, Bangkok, representing Mount Sumeru
3. Hsinbyume Pagoda in Mandalay, Myanmar, representing Mount
Sumeru
4. The meru of Pura Ulun Danu Bratan is dedicated to Shiva and his
consort Parvathi

Depiction of Mount Meru at Jambudweep, a Jain temple in Uttar

Pradesh

Jean Filliozat of the Ecole Francaise, a leading western authority on Indian

cosmology and astronomy, interpreted the symbolism of the temple. The
temple sits on a rectangular base and rises in five levels and is crowned

21
by five main towers. One hundred four smaller towers are distributed over
the lower four levels, placed so symmetrically that only 33 can be seen
from the center of any side. Thirty-three is the number of gods who dwelt
on Mount Meru. Phnom Bakheng's total number of towers is also
significant. The center one represents the axis of the world and the 108
smaller ones represent the four lunar phases, each with 27 days. The
seven levels of the monument represent the seven heavens and each
terrace contains 12 towers which represent the 12-year cycle of Jupiter.
According to University of Chicago scholar Paul Wheatley, it is "an
astronomical calendar in stone."[
Following Angkor's rediscovery by the outside world in the mid-19th
century, decades passed before archeologists grasped Phnom Bakheng's
historical significance. For many years, scholars' consensus view was that
the Bayon, the temple located at the center of Angkor Thom city, was the
edifice to which the Sdok Kak Thom inscription referred. Later work
identified the Bayon as a Buddhist site, built almost three centuries later
than originally thought, in the late 12th century, and Phnom Bakheng as
King Yasovarman's state temple
Sun set of Phnom Bakheng
The view of the Angkor Wat from the top of Phnom Bakheng is featured in
the movie Tomb Raider (when Lara Croft looks through the binoculars
upon arriving in Cambodia).

Phnom Bakheng/Angkor Wat seen from Phnom Bakheng at sunset

1. General view

22
 2. Upper terrace
3. Stone tower and Angkor Wat far afield

Bas-relief in Phnom Bakheng

What was Phnom bakheng used for?

Phnom Bakheng is a symbolic representation of Mount Meru, home

of the Hindu gods, a status emphasized by the temple's location atop a
steep hill 65 m above the surrounding plain. The temple is built in a
pyramid form of seven levels, representing the seven heavens. Who built
bakheng?

King Yasovarman
It is possible to see: the five towers of Angkor Wat in the west, Phnom
Krom to the southwest near the Grand Lake, Phnom Bok in the northeast,
Phnom Kulen in the east, and the West Baray. Phnom Bakheng was built
in late ninth to early tenth century by King Yasovarman dedicated to
Siva (Hindi). Why is Prasat kravan unusual?

23
Kravan is an unusual arrangement of five towers in a row on one
terrace. They are built of brick; the lintels and columns are of sandstone.
This is the only tower with recessed tiers intact, which are visible on the
interior. The columns are octagonal, with four bare sides and sandstone
rings.

Phnom Bakheng (Bhnaṃ Pākhaeṅ):

These sources of the inscriptions have indicated the place name vakoṅ,
which is located around the Siem Reap province, and possibly make sense
with regard to the origin of the modern name Bakong. On the other hand,
the old Khmer place name vakoṅ is now still the name of the village near
the Bakong temple, namely “Phum Vakong.” This temple, which not long
ago was called by the local inhabitants “Bayon,” has the same name as
the Bayon located at the center of Angkor Thom.

In sum, the modern name of Phnom Bakheng used to be Vnaṃ Kanṭāl

(Phnom Kandal, Central Mountain) in the ancient period, which mountain
was located in the center of Yaśodharapura (the city of Yaśovarman). It
was also called Yaśodharagiri (the mountain of Yaśovarman) wherein was
installed the linga on the top of the mountain, named Yaśodhareśvara (the
lord of king Yaśovarman).
Hence, the meaning of the modern name Bakheng has the same sense as
installing the Royal Linga,and it means “force, power, or the male
reproductive organ.” It was also a symbol of the king’s power at that time.
This temple is located on the top of the natural mountain ‘Phnom
Bakheng,’ along the road between Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom. It was
built in the beginning of the 10th century, during the reign of king
Yashovarman I, who accepted Brahmanism under the posthumous name
Paramaśivaloka.

24
The present name of Bakheng is a Khmer word meaning “force, or power,”
and it also means the “male reproductive organ that is effective.” Perhaps
this word indicates the Shiva Linga, which was adapted by the local
people in memory of the 10th century royal Linga of Yaśodharapura,
namely Yaśodhareśvara (the lord of Yaśovarman).

The word “Kheng, or Khaeṅ” has rarely been used in the Khmer language,
but it is currently used in the Thai language. However, the word Kheng is
found in the Khmer Rāmakerti, in the scene of the giant Kūkhan, “ri
Kūkhan khaeṅ mohhimā rūp rū pabbatā”, “Kūkhan force, colossal, form
similar to a mountain…” and “khluon khloh khlāmṅ kheṅ beñ bāl,
“youthful, force, power.” Bakheng could be equivalent to the old Khmer
vraḥ kheṅ, if the two particles braḥ and pā are interchanged for writing as
place names. We can say that braḥ which is equivalent to pā, indicates a
sacred vocabulary, and it could be equal to the word “khaeṅ”, or it may
have the meaning of the Linga.

There are several names of Phnom Bakheng in the ancient period, which
are found in the inscriptions. In the inscription of Sdok Kak Thom, it is
clearly affirmed that Yaśodharapura (the name of the ancient city of
Angkor) was established on the top of Phnom Bakheng by the king
Yashovarman I (889-910 AD). The name of this mountain was also
Yaśodharagiri (mountain ofYaśovarman), Indrādri, and Madhyādri in the
12th century, and it was also called by the old Khmer name Vnaṃ Kanṭāl
(central mountain).

The inscription of Sdok Kak Thom mentioned the following: “ … vraḥ pāda
paramaśivaloka oy vraḥ liṅga dvihasta saṃnal=ti sthāpanā āy vnaṃ
kanṭāl gi [t]i sthāpanā āy bhadrapattana… which mean “The majesty king-
Paramashivaloka gives (him) two cubits high of unused (stone) from
construction at Vnaṃ Kanṭāl for establishing royal Linga at
Bhadrapattana.” Paramashivaloka established the royal city of Śri
Yaśodharapura, and took the Devarāja from Hariharālaya to this city, and
he subsequently established the Vnaṃ Kanṭāl (Central Mountain) and
installed a Linga in the center.56 The Phnom Bakheng inscription, K.
684,57 informs us of the purchase of a piece of land for two people (loñ)
who were the devotees (pādamūla) of Vnaṃ Kanṭāl: “ (8) loñ prāṇa
pādamūla kamrateṅ (9) jagat vnaṃ kanṭāl ti vraḥ kamrateṅ” The name of
Vnaṃ Kanṭāl (Central Mountain) moreover clearly indicates the
representative Mount Meru, if we study the Sanskrit text. The temple itself
that was built on the top of the mountain (Phnom), presents the symbol of
the mountain in the center of the world, Meru or Sumeru of Indian
cosmology.

The issue of Mount Meru was also discussed by modern Buddhist

intellectuals like Gendun Chopel and the 14th Dalai Lama.
According to Choepel, the Meru cosmology is a provisional teaching
taught in accord with the ideas of ancient India, but not appropriate for

25
the modern era. Similarly, the 14th Dalai Lama writes that "my own view
is that Buddhism must abandon many aspects of the Abhidharma
cosmology". The Dalai Lama sees the falsehood of this traditional
cosmology as not affecting the core of Buddhism (the teaching of the four
noble truths and liberation) since it is "secondary to the account of the
nature and origins of sentient beings

BAUPHON as MOUNT MERU

26
Just northwest of Bayon Temple lies an elevated platform connected to a
walkway leading to the Baphuon Temple. The platform sits next to the
Elephant Terrace and both the Temple and its elevated 200-meter
sandstone causeway lie just outside the royal enclosure of Angkor Thom.
Baphuon Temple was located on the cardinal axis of the ancient city of
Yasodharapura, sacked by the Chams in 1177. When Angkor Thom was
rebuilt, Baphuon was located just south of the Royal Enclosure, as can be
seen on the map. Originally built as a temple to Shiva in the 11th Century,
it was the most imposing structure of the ancient city -- renowned for its bronze tower
that earned it the title of the “Tower of Gold. At 120 metres long, 100 metres wide and
34 metres tall, the main temple structure is roughly the same size as its famous
neighbour, but in a worse state of repair, which may partially explain the
comparative lack of popularity. Being at the end of a 225-metre-long elevated
walkway – entirely exposed to the hot Cambodian sun – may also be a factor, putting
off temple explorers who have already been worn out by The Bayon.

Baphuon Temple - one of the highlights of 5 Great Angkor Temples in 3

Days and 10 Must-See Temples in Siem Reap (Read all about Siem Reap here)

”The temple sits within 3 successive enclosures and is constructed of 5 levels of equal size,
giving it the appearance of a mountain -- in this case, the sacred Hindu Mt. Meru. This top of
the tower held a Shiva linga. In the 15th century, it was converted into a Buddhist temple,
and the tower was disassembled, with many of the stones used to begin construction of an

27
unfinished, reclining Buddha on the west side of the rectangular structure. History of
Baphuon Temple

3 tier of BAPUON
The triple-tiered temple mountain of the Baphuon Temple was the state temple of
King Udayadityavarman II. Its pyramid shape represents the mythical Hindu Mount
Meru and marks the centre of the city that was here before Angkor Thom.
It is immediately to the south of the royal palace of Phimeanakas, and the old walls
of the palace can be seen in the shade of the trees north of the temple, making for a
pleasant route to walk back towards the main road along.

Contemporary sources say that a striking 8-metre-tall tower once stood on top of the
temple, probably made of wood gilded with bronze. This is thought to have been
demolished in the late-15th century when the temple was converted from being
dedicated to the Hindu God Shiva to Buddha.
A reclining Buddha statue – 9 metres tall and 70 metres long – was added to the
second tier on the west-facing side. Sadly, even by this time, it is thought that much
of the temple’s structure had already collapsed, due to the fact that it was hastily
built on land filled with sand.

You can find Baphuon Temple slightly northwest of Bayon Temple. Photographing it
in the morning will give you the best light on the temple.

28
Ta Keo called 'Hemasringagiri' or 'the mountain with golden peaks,'
meaning Mount Meru—is enormous, rising over 21.6 meters, making it
one of the tallest buildings at Angkor with a base of 122 by 106 meters,
while the outer moat stretched 255 by 195 meters. It was the state
temple of Jayavarman V, who ruled from 968 to 1001. Around the year
975, work was begun on Ta Keo temple in the center of the new capital.
Where the kinghad taken up residence on the east side of the East
Baray. It is unfinished as the king was subjugated in year 1001.

Later in its history, Phnom Bakheng was converted into a Buddhist temple.
A monumental Sitting Buddha, now lost, was created on its upper tier.
Across its west side, a Reclining Buddha of similar scale was crafted in
stone. The outlines of this figure are still visible.

The Temple Mountain of Prasat Lolei

The picturesque island temple, Prasat Lolei, situated in the centre of the baray, was

completed by the king's son and successor, Yasovarman I.Once an island temple, Lolei was

located on an island slightly north of centre in the now dry Indratataka baray, construction of

which had nearly been completed under Yasovarman's father and predecessor Indravarman I.

It is the northernmost temple of the Roluos group of three late 9th century Hindu temples

at Angkor, Cambodia, the others members of which are Preah Ko and the Bakong. Lolei was

the last of the three temples to be built as part of the city of Hariharalaya that once flourished

at Roluos, and in 893 the Khmer king Yasovarman I dedicated it to Shiva and to members of

the royal family. The name "Lolei" is thought to be a modern corruption of the ancient name

"Hariharalaya," which means "the city of Harihara." Scholars believe that placing the temple

29
on an island in the middle of a body of water served to identify it symbolically with Mount

Meru, home of the gods, which in Hindu mythology is surrounded by the world oceans.

Lolei consists of four brick temple towers grouped together on a terrace.

The king build Lolei for his ancestors. The front two towers are for the
males while the two towers at the back are for the females . One for his
grandfather, one for his grandmother, one for his father, and one for his
mother. The two taller towers are for his grandparents while the two
shorter towers are for his parents. Originally, the towers were enclosed
by an outer wall access through which was through a gopura, but neither
wall nor gopura have survived to the present. Today, the temple is next
to a monastery, just as in the 9th century it was next to an ashrama.
The temple towers are known for their decorative elements, including
their false doors, their carved lintels, and their
carved devatas and dvarapalas who flank both real and false doors. Some
of the motifs represented in the lintels and other sandstone carvings are
the sky-god Indra mounted on the elephant Airavata, serpent-like
monsters called makaras, and multi-headed nagas.

30
This sandstone carving at Lolei shows a fanged dvarapala armed with a trident standing in an
arched doorway. At the level of his elbows, two makara heads face outward.

Angkor Site Index

Monument Date (A.D.) Ruler

Preah Ko, Roluos 879 Indravarman I

31
Bakong, Roluos 881 Indravarman I

Lolei, Roluos 893 Yashovarman I

Prasat Kravan 921 Harshavarman I

East Mebon 953 Rajendravarman

Pre Rup 961 Rajendravarman

Ta Keo late 10th c. Jayavarman V

Angkor Wat first half of 12th c. Suryavarman II

Ta Prohm 1186 Jayavarman VII

Preah Khan 1191 Jayavarman VII

Ta Som late 12th c. Jayavarman VII

Hospital Chapel late 12th c. Jayavarman VII

early 11th - late Suryavarman I -

Angkor Thom
12th c. Jayavarman VII

Spean Thma 16th c. Unknown

32