State the mechanical considerations for making of PCB.

 Types of Boards: Single sided, double sided. (In PTH boards, via
holes should be utilized only for through contacts and not for
component mounting.)
In order to take a decision on the number of sides, single-sided or
double-sided, it is important to take into consideration the component
surface area (C), which is a fairly constant percentage of the total PCB
area (S), useful for mounting components. It may be noted that 'S' is
normally computed on one side of the board.
 Optimal board size compatible with the PCB manufacturing process;
 Position of board mounting holes, brackets, clamps, clips, shielding
boxes and heat sinks;
 Proper fixation arrangement for heavy components;
 Proper hole diameter for component mounting;
 Assembled board to withstand the mechanical stress and vibrations
occurring in transportation;
 Type of installation of the board (vertical/horizontal);
 Method of cooling; and
 Specific locational requirements of components like front panel
operated components such as push buttons, variable resistors, etc.
 Component area: (Vertical/horizontal placement of component),
manufacturer of component provides dimensions, The parts to be
mounted on the PCB should be detailed on the parts list.
 While working on the board size, locational constraints in respect of
the following components are encountered:
Connectors or connecting tabs;
Fixtures or anchoring areas; and
Control or adjusting devices such as switches and potentiometers.
 Board Mounting Technique: The choice of board mounting technique
would depend upon the following factors:
Board size and shape
Input/output terminations
Board removal requirements
Heat dissipation requirements
Shielding required
Type of mounting hardware
 Available equipment space and
Type of circuit and its relation with other
 Board Extraction
 Testing and Servicing
 Mechanical Stress and Board Thickness
State the electrical considerations for making of PCB.
In general, conductor width is determined by:
 Component packing density;
 Minimum spacing between conductors and components; and
 Geometrical constraints due to component outlines.
 Resistance: The copper printed tracks on a PCB have a finite resistance
which introduces a voltage drop proportional to the current flowing in that
particular conductor.
R = rho * l / A (rho (copper) = 1.724 ¥ 10–6 (at 20° C))
 Capacitance is a parameter of considerable importance, particularly in the
design of PCBs at high
frequency. The capacitance comes into play in the following two situations:
Capacitance between conductors on opposite sides of the PCB; and
Capacitance between adjacent conductors
 Inductance: In designing the conductor patterns for fast signal or high speed
logic circuits, the inductive couplings are also of major concern. In logic
circuits operating at a clock rate of only 10 kHz, high frequency components
of the rectangular shaped signals can often cause problems. Therefore, in
such situations, it is important to know the inductance of a conductor
arrangement.
 Electrical Stress: The increasing density of interconnection in printed circuit
boards demands that the designer
 progressively decrease spacing and the size of conductive parts such as line
sections, PTH diameters,
 pad areas, etc. Therefore, the increasing level of integration is naturally
accompanied by an increase
 in the electrical stresses in the PCB.
What is photoresists? Explain the types of photoresists.
Photo printing of PCBs basically means applying photo-sensitive material
having the ability to form a continuous film, which is sensitive to light or
other radiation so that the exposed (or unexposed) areas of the film can be
further processed without affecting the unexposed (or exposed) areas. This
photo-sensitive material is called ‘photo-resist’.
The essential property of a photo-resist is that an exposure to proper
radiation must produce a change in it to enable a clear distinction in the later
operations between the exposed and unexposed areas. Usually, in all the
photo-resists, a light-induced change in solution forms the basis of their
action.

Photo-resists can be classified as wet film (liquid film) and dry film (solid
film) resists.
The wet film resists are organic liquids which, when exposed to light of a
proper wavelength, chemically change their solubility to certain solvents
(developers).
Liquid film photo-resists are classified as:
Negative acting resists; and Positive acting resists.
Dry film photo-resists are widely used in PCB manufacture, especially for
the production of professional grade PCBs.
The dry film resist is available as a composite material consisting of three
different
Layers.
The photo polymer layer of 17 to 75 mm thickness is sandwiched
between a layer of polyester (mylar) film on one side, and a polyolefin film,
on the other side. The
Draw the flowchart to show the steps involved in PCB making.
As shown in ppt.
Explain any five properties of laminates.
Properties of Laminates:
Electrical Properties : The electrical properties of a laminate depend upon the
electrical properties of the filler, cured resin and the by-products of the curing
reaction. Laminate absorbs moisture to some extent when exposed to high
humidity conditions. Consequently, this absorbed moisture adversely affects the
electrical properties.
Dielectric Strength: This is the ability of an insulating material to resist the
passage of electric current of a disruptive discharge produced by an electrical
stress. It depends upon a large number of factors pertaining to the material such as
chemical composition, molecule structure, degree of moisture, thickness
cleanliness and roughness of surface and material ageing.
Dielectric Constant: Dielectric constant is the ratio of the capacitance of a
capacitor with a given dielectric to the capacitance of the same capacitor with air as
dielectric
Dissipation Factor : The dissipation factor of an insulating material is the ratio of
the total power loss (in watts) in the material to the product of the voltage and
current in the capacitor in which the material is the dielectric. It varies with
frequency, moisture, temperature, etc. and is a dimension-less entity.
Insulation Resistance : This is the ratio of the voltage applied to the current
flowing in the base laminate.
Surface Resistivity : This is the resistance to electrical leakage current along the
surface of an insulating material. This depends upon surface humidity, cleanliness,
finish, temperature, and environmental conditions, among other things.
Volume Resistivity : This is the measured resistance to leakage current through
the body of an insulating material. In other words, volume resistance is the ratio of
the dc potential applied to electrodes embedded in a material to the current
between them. It is usually expressed in ohm-centimeter.
The volume resistivity is governed by:
Volume Resistivity = R X A / t (Ohm-cm),
where R = resistance measured (Ohm)
A = area of guarded electrode (cm2 )
t = thickness of sample (cm)
Dielectric Breakdown: Dielectric breakdown is the disruptive discharge measured
between two electrodes inserted in the laminate on 25.4 mm centres perpendicular
to the lamination.
Explain screen printing.
As given in ppt
Explain various IC packaging types.

Package Type For Linear (Analog ICs)

One letter represents the basic package style. The various letters are:
D = Dual in-line package (hermetic, ceramic);
F = Flat pack;
H = Metal can package;
J = Metal power package (TO-66 outline);
K = Metal power package (TO-3 outline);
P = Dual-in line package (moulded);
R = Mini DIP (hermetic, ceramic);
T = Mini DIP (moulded); and
U = Power package (moulded, TO-220 outline)
Package Type (Digital ICs)
Dual-in-Line Package (DIP): Most TTL and MOS devices in SSI, MSI and
LSI are packaged in
14-,16-,24- or 40- pin DIPs
Mini Dual-in-Line Package (Mini DIP): Mini DIPs are usually 8-pin
packages.
Flat Pack: Flat packages are commonly used in applications where light
weight is an essential
requirement. Many military and space applications use flat packs. The
number of pins on a flat pack
varies from device to device.
TO-5, TO-8 Metal Can: The number of pins on a TO-5 or TO-8 can vary
from 2 to 12
The commonly used packages in semiconductor SMDs:
 SOIC (Small Outline Integrated Circuit)
SOT (Small Outline Transistor) Packages
Cylindrical Diode Packages
SOD (Small Outline Diode) package
MELF (Metal Electrode Face Bonded)
LCCC (Leadless Ceramic Chip Carriers)
PLCC (Plastic Leaded Chip Carriers)
Flat Packs and Quad Packs
LGA (Land Grid Arrays)
BGA (Ball Grid Arrays)
Other Packages:
CBGA - Ceramic Ball Grid Arrays; for high temperature requirements.
fBGA - Flex BGA; uses a flex polyimide substrate.
SBGA - Super BGA; has metal heat spreader on top.
PBGA - Plastic BGA; Industry standard BGA.
LGA - Land Grid Array; pads without the balls.
CGA - Column Grid Array; solder columns instead of balls.
CSP - Chip Scale Package ; Fine-pitch BGA. Package is max. 120%>chip
size.
mBGA - Chip Scale Package; trademark of Tessera
Flip Chip - Die with solder bumps; very small
Explain the use of following in brief:
i)Traces ii) Buried Vias iii) Blind vias
Traces: The metallic conductive strips that provide connections between
components, terminals, etc., on printed circuits.
Blind vias: The blind via hole is a plated through-hole connecting the surface layer
to one or more layers of a multi-layer board which does not go through the entire
board thickness.
In this arrangement, the hole can be used on both sides of a multi-layer board and
can be used in conjunction with the via and component holes which go through the
board.
Blind vias can be stacked on top of each other and can be made smaller, providing
more space or signal lines. The technology is particularly useful with surface
mounted devices and connectors as they do not require large component holes.
Only small via holes are needed to connect the external surface to internal layers,
which allow the designer to fully utilize the advantage of size and weight
reductions offered by surface mount technology for very dense and thick multi-
layer boards.
Buried Vias: A buried via is a plated through-hole connecting two or more layers
of a multi-layer board, buried inside the board structure, but not appearing on the
external surface of the boards. This type of multi-layer board is shown in Figure.

As there is considerable saving in this area as compared to conventional plated

through-hole construction, the buried via technique is used when signal trace
routing is very dense, which requires more via sites connecting signal layers and
more channels for signal traces. However, the routing density advantage will result
in more costly boards because the technique requires added process steps.
Explain immersion and spray etching.
Immersion etching is the semi-plast technique which requires only a tank
containing etching solution into which the boards are immersed as shown in
Figure. The boards are kept immersed until the etching is complete. This requires
a long process time and the etch rate is thereby low. The solution can be heated
to speed up the etching process. This method is suitable for small boards or
prototyping. Normally ammonium persulphate or hydrogen peroxide with
sulphuric acid etching medium is used for immersion etching.

Spray Etching: In its simplest form, a spray etching machine consists of a box type
chamber having a sump below. The etching solution is pumped under pressure
from the sump through a pipe network to the nozzles and splashed onto the
board surface. This allows the fresh solution to be sprayed, giving a high etching
rate. The factors which determine the evenness of etch are: Uniformity of spray
pattern, force, drainage and pattern configuration; Etchant chemistry, the pump
pressure, and nozzle configuration and placement, which determine the rate of
etching; and The spray, which is done on both sides of the PCB in case of double-
sided boards. The boards are etched continuously in this closed loop system. The
etch rate is high in this system with minimum under cut and fine-line definition.
Ammonium chloride etchant is commonly used in this technique for double-sided
PTH boards. The fabricated equipment should be made of acid and alkali resist
material like PVC. However, equipment for sulphuric acid/hydrogen peroxide
etchant system requires stainless steel, poly-carbonate or polypropylene material.
There are two types of spray etching techniques, which are: Horizontal Spraying:
In this technique, etching is done from independently controlled spray nozzle
banks at the top and bottom. Double-sided horizontal etches are generally
preferred in PC manufacturing as a majority of the PCBs are double-sided. The
design of a horizontal spray etcher is shown in Figure.

Explain various surface mounting semiconductor packages.

What are multilayer boards? Explain any two interconnection techniques.
Design non inverting operational amplifier with gain 10. Draw the manual
layout for same.

This is circuit diagram .

Draw the layout for same.
What are PCB laminate materials?
Laminate materials:
FR4
Tetrafunctional epoxy
Polyphenylene ether
Epoxy/polyphenylene oxide
Bismaleimidetriazine Thermount
Cyanate ester
Liquid crystal polymer
Polyimide
Name the etching solutions.
Several chemicals are used for etching. The most common etchants are:
Ferric chloride; Ammonium persulphate; Chromic acid; Cupric chloride; and
Alkaline ammonia.

State any two-design considerations of PCB for microwave circuits.

The requirement of high accuracy for line width for microwave applications is
much higher; otherwise it seriously affects the VSWR (voltage standing wave
ratio).
The wave which propagates along the strip and microstrip transmission line gets
attenuated due to: (i) dielectric loss (ii) loss in the conductor of the line, and (iii)
radiation loss (mainly in the microstrip line). Therefore, PCB materials for
microwave applications should be selected so as to yield minimum loss. This is
achieved by choosing a material with high dielectric constant which reduces
radiation and dielectric loss and results in reduction of the size of the microwave
circuit, thus extending the usefulness of microwave PCBs to higher frequencies.
The dielectric materials used at high frequencies, including microwave frequencies
are Rexolite 1422 polystyrene, Silicon resin with ceramic powder filling and Teflon
fibre-glass
State any two rules for components placement on PCB.
Explain the problems in design of PCBs for digital circuits.
The main problems that can affect digital PCBs, if they are not properly designed;
are:
 Reflections (causing signal delays and double pulsing, i.e. conversion of one
pulse into two or more pulses);
 Cross-talk (interference between neighbouring signal lines);
 Ground and supply signal noise; and
 Electromagnetic interference from pulse type electromagnetic fields
List the types of diodes with circuit symbols. Explain I-V characteristics of
tunnel diode.
Give any three CAD tools for PCB making.
Explain any one method of image transfer.
What is double sided PTH and non-PTH PCB? Explain with neat diagram.
Write a short note on Polyamide laminates.
Draw the circuit diagram of astable multivibrator to generate 5KHz
frequency and draw the manual PCB layout.
Define etching.
List the types of laminates.
What is the purpose of heat sinks on PCB?
What is SIP and DIP packaging?
State any two design considerations of PCB for analog circuits.
What is flexible PCB?
State any two rules for components placement on PCB.
Explain different packaging types used for resistors in PCB design.
Explain artwork for PCB designing.
List the types of memories. Explain difference between SRAM and DRAM.
Explain the importance of software tools for PCB design. List any four tools.
Write a short note on image transfer.
With a neat diagram, explain single sided PCB.
Explain any two types of PCB laminates.
Epoxy Laminates: The base material is reinforced with glass fibre or paper fibre as
filler and epoxy resin and the copper foil is pressed over it to get copper clad
laminates. Hence they are called ‘glass epoxy copper clad laminates’ or ‘paper
epoxy copper clad laminates’ depending upon the type of filler used.
During lamination, the epoxy resin is cured by means of heat, pressure and the
action of an added catalyst. The final product is a thermosetting resin which is
neither feasible nor soluble. They withstand all chemicals, with the exception of
oxidizing acids and are almost indestructible, except at high temperatures.
Some of the special properties of epoxy resins are that they:
 Show very low shrinkage during cure;
 Are tough materials;
 Form an outstanding adhesion bond;
 Exhibit high mechanical strength;
 Have extremely high alkali resistance or even excellent acid and solvent
resistance;
 Exhibit good electrical properties over a wide range of temperatures and
frequencies;
they are excellent insulating materials and have high dielectric strength; and
Demonstrate excellent moisture barriers and low water absorption.
Epoxy resins are usually combined with high quality reinforcing material such as
glass cloth and composite material, and exhibit exceptionally high mechanical
strength and excellent electrical properties.
Polyamide Laminates: Polyamide is reinforced with filler like woven glass fabric,
or aramide fibre or quartz fibre to form laminates with good electrical and
mechanical properties, higher copper bond strength, good heat resistance and
low Z-axis expansion. They find use in demanding military and aerospace
applications and in special multi-layer circuits. They, however, have poor peel
strength, which can result in lifted copper conductors after soldering at high
temperatures.