Audit Sampling

• When designing audit procedures, the auditor

should determine appropriate means of
selecting items for testing.

• The means available to the auditor are:

(a) Selecting all items (100% examination);

(b) Selecting specific items, and
(c) Audit sampling.
• The decision as to which approach to use will
depend on the circumstances, and the application
of any one or combination of the above means
may be appropriate in particular circumstances.

• While the decision as to which means, or

combination of means, to use is made on the basis
of audit risk and audit efficiency, the auditor
needs to be satisfied that methods used are
effective in providing sufficient appropriate audit
evidence to meet the objectives of the test.
 Selecting All Items
The auditor may decide that it will be most appropriate to examine
the entire population of items that make up an account balance or
class of transactions (or a stratum within that population). 100%
examination is unlikely in the case of tests of control; however, it
is more common for substantive procedures. 100% examination may
be appropriate on the following:

a) When the population constitutes a small number of large value

items;
b) When both inherent and control risks are high and other means
do not provide sufficient appropriate audit evidence; or
c) When the repetitive nature of a calculation or other process
performed by a computer information system makes a 100%
examination cost effective.
 Selecting Specific Items
The auditor may decide to select specific
items from a population based on such
factors as knowledge of the client’s business,
preliminary assessments of inherent and
control risks, and the characteristics of the
population being tested.

The judgmental selection of specific items is

subject to non-sampling risk.
 Selecting Specific Items
Specific items selected may include:
• High value or key items. The auditor may decide to
select specific items within a population because they
are of high value, or exhibit some other characteristic,
for example items that are suspicious, unusual,
particularly risk-prone or that have a history of error.

• All items over a certain amount. The auditor may

decide to examine items whose values exceed a certain
amount so as to verify a large proportion of the total
amount of an account balance or class of transactions.
 Selecting Specific Items
• Items to obtain information. The auditor
may examine items to obtain information
about matters such as the client’s business,
the nature of transactions, accounting and
internal control systems.

• Items to test procedures. The auditor may

use judgment to select and examine specific
items to determine whether or not a
particular procedure is being performed.
 Audit Sampling
• The auditor may decide to apply audit
sampling to an account balance or class of
transactions.

• Audit sampling (sampling) involves the

application of audit procedures to less than
100% of items within an account balance or
class of transactions such that all sampling
units have a chance of selection.
 Terms normally associated
with sampling:

• Population
– means the entire set of data from which a
sample is selected and about which the auditor
wishes to draw conclusions. For example, all of
the items in an account balance or a class of
transactions constitute a population. A
population may be divided into strata, or
subpopulations, with each stratum being
examined separately. The term population is
used to include the term stratum.
 Terms normally associated
with sampling:

• Sampling unit
– means the individual items constituting a
population, for example checks listed on deposit
slips, credit entries on bank statements, sales
invoices or debtors’ balances, or a monetary unit.

• Sampling frame
– means the documentary evidence which
physically represents the sampling units in a
given population.
 Terms normally associated
with sampling:

• Sample
– the portion of the population that will be
subjected to audit testing. The selected sample
should be representative of the population.

• Error
– For purposes of PSA 530, means either control
deviations, when performing tests of control, or
misstatements, when performing substantive
procedures.
 Terms normally associated
with sampling:

• Tolerable error
– means the maximum error in a population
that the auditor is willing to accept.

• Stratification
– is the process of dividing a population into
subpopulations, each of which is a group of
sampling units which have similar
characteristics (often monetary value).
• Sampling is not involved in:
1. 100% examination;
2. Selective testing; and
3. Audit procedures which either (1) have very
limited purposes and provide only a small portion
of the evidence needed to meet an audit
objective or (2) intentionally exclude a portion
of the population such as:
a. Performing a walkthrough test;
b. Testing controls that leave no audit trail (such
as observing client personnel as they perform
internal control activities);
c. Performing analytical procedures;
• Advantages of sampling over complete
(100%) verification
1. Timeliness – Sampling requires lesser
time; audit would be completed on a
more timely basis.
2. Efficiency – Sampling can considerably
reduce audit costs.
3. Effectiveness – Sampling can provide
valid conclusions that the sample reflects
the same characteristics as the
population.
 Risk Considerations in
Obtaining Evidence

• Sampling risk and non-sampling risk can

affect the components of audit risk.

• Sampling risk arises from the possibility

that the auditor’s conclusion, based on a
sample may be different from the
conclusion reached if the entire
population were subjected to the same
audit procedure.
 Risk Considerations in
Obtaining Evidence
• Nonsampling risk arises from factors that
cause the auditor to reach an erroneous
conclusion for any reason not related to the
size of the sample, such as:

1. Failure to select appropriate audit

procedures
2. Failure to recognize errors in documents
examined
3. Misinterpreting the results of audit tests
 Risk Considerations in
Obtaining Evidence

• For both tests of control and substantive

tests, sampling risk can be reduced by
increasing sample size, while non-
sampling risk can be reduced by proper
engagement planning, supervision, and
review.
 Types of Sampling Risks
Tests of Controls

1) Risk of under-reliance – Sample does not support the

auditor’s planned degree of reliance on the control when
true compliance rate supports such reliance. Also known as
the risk of assessing control risk too high - the risk the
auditor will conclude that control risk is higher than it
actually is.

2) Risk of over-reliance – Sample supports the auditor’s

planned degree of reliance on the control when true
compliance rate does not justify such reliance. Also known
as the risk of assessing control risk too low - the risk the
auditor will conclude that control risk is lower than it
actually is.
 Types of Sampling Risks
Substantive Testing

1. Risk of incorrect rejection – the risk the

auditor will conclude that a material error
exists when in fact it does not.

2. Risk of incorrect acceptance – the risk

the auditor will conclude that a material
error does not exist when in fact it does.
Effect of Sampling Risk on Audit
1) Efficiency – The risk of under-reliance and the
risk of incorrect rejection (both referred to as
Alpha Risk) affect audit efficiency as it would
usually lead to additional work to establish
that initial conclusions were incorrect.

2) Effectiveness – The risk of over-reliance and

the risk of incorrect acceptance (both referred
to as Beta Risk) affect audit effectiveness and
is more likely to lead to an inappropriate audit
opinion.
 General Approaches to
Audit Sampling

• Statistical sampling – approach to

sampling that has the characteristics of:
• random selection of a sample; and
• use of probability theory to evaluate
sample results, including measurement
of sampling risk.
 General Approaches to
Audit Sampling
Advantages
Helps auditor
1) Design an efficient sample;
2) Measure the sufficiency of evidential matter obtained;
3) Objectively evaluate sample results.

Disadvantages
May involve additional costs in
1) Training auditors;
2) Designing samples;
3) Selecting items to be tested.

When applying statistical sampling, the sample size can be

determined using either probability theory or professional
judgment.
 General Approaches to
Audit Sampling

• Nonstatistical sampling – A sampling

approach that does not have
characteristics of statistical sampling.

• Reasons for use – Often less costly and

time-consuming to apply than statistical
sampling, but can be as effective in
achieving audit objectives.
 General Approaches to
Audit Sampling
• Similarities – Both statistical and
nonstatistical sampling
1. Can provide sufficient, competent
evidential matter;
2. Involve judgment in planning, executing
the sampling plan, and evaluating the
sample results;
3. Require that sample item be selected in
such a way that sample can be expected to
be representative of the population.
 General Approaches to
Audit Sampling
Choice of approach – The decision whether to use a
statistical or non-statistical sampling approach is a matter
for the auditor’s judgment regarding the most efficient
manner to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence in
the particular circumstances.

Sample size is not a valid criterion to distinguish between

statistical and non-statistical approaches.

Sample size is a function of various factors. When

circumstances are similar, the effect on sample size of
certain factors will be similar regardless of whether a
statistical or non-statistical approach is chosen.
 Sample Selection Methods
Appropriate for statistical and non statistical sampling

(a) Use of a computerized random number generator or random

number tables.

(b) Systematic selection, in which the number of sampling units in

the population is divided by the sample size to give a sampling
interval, for example 50, and having determined a starting point
within the first 50, each 50th sampling unit thereafter is selected.
Although the starting point may be determined haphazardly, the
sample is more likely to be truly random if it is determined by use
of a computerized random number generator or random number
tables. When using systematic selection, the auditor would need
to determine that sampling units within the population are not
structured in such a way that the sampling interval corresponds
with a particular pattern in the population.
 Sample Selection Methods
Not appropriate for statistical sampling

(c) Haphazard selection, in which the auditor selects the sample without
following a structured technique. Although no structured technique is used, the
auditor would nonetheless avoid any conscious bias or predictability (for example
avoiding difficult to locate items, or always choosing or avoiding the first or last
entries on a page) and thus attempt to ensure that all items in the population have
a chance of selection. Haphazard selection is not appropriate when using statistical
sampling.

(d) Block selection involves selecting a block(s) of contiguous items from within
the population. Block selection cannot ordinarily be used in audit sampling because
most populations are structured such that items in a sequence can be expected to
have similar characteristics to each other, but different characteristics from items
elsewhere in the population. Although in some circumstances it may be an
appropriate audit procedure to examine a block of items, it would rarely be an
appropriate sample selection technique when the auditor intends to draw valid
inferences about the entire population based on the sample.
 Characteristic of Interest
The characteristic of interest depends on the type of
test that will be performed on the sample selected.

• Test of controls – the characteristic of interest is

the deviation or occurrence rate, which is the
number of times a deviation from the prescribed
internal control occurs in the sample.

• Substantive testing – the characteristic of interest

is the monetary amount of misstatement in an
account balance.
 Types of Sampling Plans
• Attributes sampling – a statistical sampling
plan used in test of controls. This is
appropriate:
1. When the auditor wishes to estimate the
true but unknown population deviation rate;
2. If the expected deviation rate is high based
on prior experience.

• Variables sampling – a sampling plan used in

substantive testing to estimate the total peso
amount (or possibly units) of a population or the
peso amount of an error in a population.
Audit Sampling for
Test of Controls
 Steps in the Application of
Sampling in TOC
1. Determine the control to be tested or objective
of the test
2. Determine the attributes and deviation
conditions
3. Define the population to be sampled and the
sampling unit
4. Specify the risk of assessing control risk too low
(overreliance) and the tolerable deviation rate
5. Estimate the expected population deviation rate
 Steps in the Application of
Sampling in TOC

6. Determine the sample size

7. Select the sample
8. Perform the test of controls procedures
on sample items
9. Evaluate the sample results
10.Document the sampling procedure
 Factors Influencing Sample Size
for Tests of Control
• The following are factors that the auditor considers when
determining the sample size for a test of control. These factors
need to be considered together.
Summary of Factors Influencing Compliance
Test Sample Size
Conditions Leading to
Factors Smaller Sample Size Larger Sample Size
1. Planned reliance on Lower reliance on Higher reliance on
internal control (a) internal control internal control
2. Allowable rate of Higher acceptable Lower acceptable
deviation (tolerable error) rate of deviation rate of deviation
3. Likely rate of Lower expected rate Higher expected rate
population deviation (b) of deviation of deviation
4. Required confidence Decrease in required Increase in required
level confidence level confidence level
5. Number of items in
population No effect

(a) Compliance test are not performed when no reliance on internal

controls is planned
(b) Larger samples are necessary when deviations occur, in order to
obtain more precise conclusions. However, high deviation rate normally
warrant litte, if any, reliance on internal controls and, therefore,
compliance testing might be omitted.
 Compliance Test Risk Matrix

Relevant Internal Control is in fact:

Compliance test indicates Adequate for Inadequate for
reliance on relevant Planned Reliance Planned Reliance
internal control should
be:
Accepted Correct decision Risk of overreliance
Rejected Risk of underreliance Correct decision
 Sample Evaluation
1. Determine the SAMPLE DEVIATION RATE

Sample deviation rate = Number of Deviations

Observed
Sample Size

2. Determine the UPPER DEVIATION RATE and the ALLOWANCE FOR

SAMPLING RISK

Upper deviation Rate = Sample Deviation Rate +

Allowance for Sampling Risk*

*Determined from the standard tables showing maximum deviation

rates at specified risks of overreliance
 Sample Evaluation
3. Compare UPPER DEVIATION RATE and the TOLERABLE
RATE OF DEVIATION

Upper Deviation Rate = Tolerable deviation rate

or <
-- control is effective; Control Risk below Maximum or 100%

Upper Deviation Rate = Tolerable deviation rate

or >
-- control is not effective; Control Risk at Maximum or 100%

4. Consider qualitative information

5. Reach an overall conclusion
 Sampling Techniques
for Test of Controls
• Regular or Classical Attributes Sampling

This sampling plan enables the auditor to estimate the

rate of occurrence of certain characteristics in the
population.

For example, the auditor might use this plan to estimate

the percentage of cash disbursements processed during the
year that were not approved.
 Sampling Techniques
for Test of Controls
• Sequential (Stop-or-Go) sampling
Audit sampling can be accomplished with either a fixed or
sequential sampling plan.

1) Fixed sampling plan – the auditor tests a single plan,

such as attribute estimation.
2) Sequential sampling plan – the sampling is performed in
several steps. Following each step, the auditor decides
whether to stop testing or to go on to the next step.

Sequential sampling plan can be used as an alternative to

attribute estimation when an auditor expects zero or very
few deviations within an audit population.
 □ Sequential sampling decision table

Step Cumulative Stop if Sample Go to Step 5

sample size cumulative more if if deviations
to use deviations deviations are at least
are equal to are
1 30 0 1–3 4
2 48 1 2–3 4
3 63 2 3 4
4 78 3 4
5 Consider increasing assessed level of control risk
 Sampling Techniques
for Test of Controls
• Discovery sampling
Discovery sampling plan may be appropriate when:

1. the audit objective is to observe at least one

deviation at a specified critical rate;
2. the expected population deviation rate is near
zero; and
3. the auditor desires a specified probability of
observing at least one deviation of the actual
population rate exceeds the critical rate (this is
comparable to the tolerable rate in attribute
estimation and sequential sampling).
Audit Sampling for
Substantive Testing
 Variables Sampling for
Substantive Tests
1. Determine the objective(s) of the tests
2. Define the population and sampling unit
3. Determine the initial sample size
4. Use random sampling techniques to identify
the actual items to audit
5. Audit the selected items and identify
misstatements
6. Evaluate the sample results
7. Document the sampling procedure
 Factors Influencing Sample Size
for Substantive Procedures
• The following are factors that the auditor considers when determining the
sample size for a substantive procedure. These factors need to be considered
together.
Factors Influencing Sample Size
for Substantive Procedures
Factor Effect on
Sample Size
1. Increase in the auditor's assessment Increase
of ROMM
2. Increase in the use of other Decrease
substantive procedures directed at the
same assertion
3. Increase in the auditor's desired Increase
level of assurance that tolerable
mmisstatements is not exceeded by
actual misstatement in the population
4. Increase in tolerable misstatement Decrease
5. Increase in the amount of Increase
misstatement the auditor expects to
find in the population
6. Stratification of the population Decrease
when appropriate
7. Number of sampling units in the Negligible effect
population
 Sampling Techniques
Probability-proportional-to-size (PPS) sampling
• PPS sampling is a sampling technique that uses attribute
sampling theory to evaluate the results when a large number of
transactions are captured within a single account. In PPS
sampling, the auditor randomly selects individual pesos from a
population and then audits the balances, transactions, or
documents – called logical units – that include the pesos
selected. Each peso in the population has an equal chance of
being selected, but the likelihood of selecting any one logical
unit for testing is directly proportional to its size.

• PPS sampling is most appropriate when:

1. no errors are expected (although it is also appropriate when
one or few errors are expected); and
2. testing for overstatement (normally for assets and income).
Sample Size Book Value (BV) x Reliability Factor for Risk of Overstatement
= (RF)
Tolerable Misstatement (TM) - Anticipated Misstatement (AM)
x Expansion for AM (EF)
Risk of Incorrect Acceptance = Audit Risk (AR)
Inherent Risk (IR) x Control Risk
(CR) x Analytical Procedure Risk
(AP)
• BV – recorded book value of the population
• RF – level of incorrect acceptance and the equation to
determine the factor for the risk the auditor is willing to
accept
• TM – auditor’s planned level of materiality for an
account balance or class of transaction
• AM – preliminary estimate of the amount of
misstatement in the population
• EF – used only when the auditor anticipates
misstatements in the sample
Relationship on Sample Size

Component Relationship on
Sample Size
Book Value Direct
Risk of incorrect acceptance Inverse
Tolerable misstatement Inverse
Anticipated misstatement Direct
Expansion factor for anticipated Direct
misstatement
 Substantive Test Risk Matrix

Relevant Account Balance is in fact:

Evidenceindicates Fairly Stated Not Fairly Stated
reliance on relevant
account balance should
be:
Accepted Correct decision Risk of Incorrect
Acceptance
Rejected Risk of Incorrect Correct decision
Rejection
 Evaluating the PPS Sample Results
Upper Misstatement Limit = Projected Missatement + Allowance for Sampling
Risk

Allowance for Sampling Risk Basic Precision + Incremental Allowance

=

Basic Precision = Sampling Interval x Reliability factor for risk of

incorrect acceptance

Logical Sampling units less than sampling interval:

Projected Misstatement for each audited Book Value - Audited Value x Sampling
item = Interval
Book Value

Logical Sampling units greater than or equal to sampling interval:

Projected Misstatement for each audited Book Value - Audited Value
item =
 Sampling Techniques
Classical variables sampling
• Classical variables sampling relies on
normal distribution theory to evaluate
audit samples. These may be appropriate
when the audit objective is to estimate
the true but unknown monetary balance.
 Sampling Techniques
• The three commonly used classical variables sampling techniques are:

1) Ratio estimation – uses the ratio of audited amounts to recorded

amounts in the sample to estimate the total peso amount of the
population (also called point estimate) and an allowance for sampling
risk. Where: SAV = sample audited value; SBV = sample recorded book
value; PBV = population book value; and EPAV = estimated population
audited value, the formula is:

SAV/SBV x PBV = EPAV +(-) sampling risk

The use of ratio estimation is appropriate when the misstatement in an

account is directly proportional to its book value.
 Sampling Techniques
2) Difference estimation – uses the average difference
between audited amounts and individual recorded amounts
in the sample to estimate the total audited amount of the
population and an allowance for sampling risk. Where: SAV
= sample audited value; SBV = sample recorded book
value; SS = sample size; and P = number of items in
population, the formula is:

(SAV – SBV)/SS x P = Projected error

The use of difference estimation is more appropriate

when the misstatement in an account is not affected by
the book value of the item being examined.
 Sampling Techniques
3) Mean-per-unit estimation – projects sample
average (mean) to the total population by
multiplying the sample average by the number
of items in the population. Using the same
legend above, the formula is:

SAV/SS x P = EPAV +(-) sampling risk

The use of mean-per-unit estimation is

appropriate when the individual population
items do not have recorded values.
 Sampling Techniques
Before applying ratio or difference estimation, the
following three conditions must exist:

1. Each population item must have a recorded value

(e.g., perpetual rather than periodic, inventory)
2. Total population book value must be known (e.g.,
a recorded general ledger book value) and must
correspond to the sum of all individual population
items.
3. Expected differences between audited and
recorded book values must not be too rare.
 Sampling Techniques
Comparative advantages and disadvantages of PPS and
classical variables sampling
Sampling Techniques