Topography

Vertebral formula
Dog: C-7, T-13, L-7, S-3, Cy 20-23

Ox: C-7, T-13, L-6, S-5, Cy 18-20

Horse: C-7, T-18, L-6, S-5, Cy 15-20

Sheep: C-7, T-13, L-6/7, S-4, Cy 16-18

Goat: C-7, T-13, L-7, S-4, Cy 12

Joints
1. Shoulder joint: Between scapula and humerus

2. Elbow joint: Between humerus, radius and ulna

3. Knee joint (carpus): Between carpels, distal radius and ulna

• Fore limb: Fetlock joint is between metacarpals and proximal phalanx (pasterns bone)

• Hind limb: Fetlock joint is between 8 metatarsals and proximal phalanx ( pasterns bone)

4. Hip joint: Between head of femur and acetabulum and ox-coxae bone (hook bone)

5. Stifle joint: Between distal femur and tibia and fibula

6. Hook joint: Between distal ends of tibia and fibula and tarsal bones

Organs
Kidney:
• Right kidney: (Horse) Caudal to liver, occupy 3rd I.C.S.

(Cattle) from liver to 3rd lumbar vertebrae

• Left kidney: located between 2nd and 3rd lumbar vertebrae centrally in median plane

Liver: Caudal to diaphragm (right side) and reaches dorsally upto last rib (thoracic cavity)

Rumen: left side of abdominal cavity

Reticulum: 5th-6th I.C.S. on (sternum ventral side)

Abomasum: between xiphoid cartilage and last rib (ventral adnominal wall in umbilical region in cow)

Stomach: at level of 14th-15th I.C.S., lies completely in rib cage

Spleen: lateral surface is in contact with 10th-18th ribs

Omasum: rests on ventral abdominal wall between 6th-11th I.C.S.

Caecum: Horses (entire right flank from I.C.S. to tuberosity of coxae)

Cattle (from costochondral junction of last rib to pelvic inlet)

Descending duodenum: Cattle – lies above caecum, from middle of last rib to pelvic inlet

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 External Anatomy of House

Back: region where withers end and is up to last thoracic vertebrae.

Loin: comprises lumber region (vertebrae) from last thoracic vertebrae to hip joint point.

Barrel: body of horse (in rib-cage)

Forehead: comprises eyes, poll and arch of nose.

Poll: area just behind ears where neck starts

Chestnut: callosity (hard skin due to excessive friction and contact) inside each leg

Ergot: callosity on backside of fetlock

Forelock: Maine hairs that continues from neck and fall between ears on forehead

Face: comprises forehead and lip (upper)

Chin groove: on lower side of head and beside lower lip

Skirt: tail hairs

Dock or root of tail: where tail starts from coccygeal

Croup: area from hip joint to sacral vertebrae where ends

Buttock: on hindquarter, behind thigh muscles on lower side of tail

Gaskin: between stifle joint and hock joint, a heavy muscle present on hind leg

Coronet: soft skin band (tissue) on horny hoof that blends into skin

Hoof and frog: foot of horse – foot of horse has lower contact point (for ground) that is “frogshaped” and
makes contact with ground called frog.

Girth: just behind elbow where (highest or) girth of saddle would go in properly conditioned horse

Forearm: between elbow and knee

Pastern: between coronet and fetlock (made up of proximal and middle phalanx)

Crest: top of neck where mane grows

Withers: on just back of shoulder blade where thoracic vertebrae starts (highest point of horse)

Cannon / Splints: metatarsals or metacarpals __cannons (Vestigial present on back of cannons__splints)

Tail: hairs that grow from root of tail / dock

Throatlatch: on lower side of neck, where windpipe (trachea) meets head on underside of jaw.

Flank: region where rib-cage ends and is up to stifle joint where hind legs start.

Muzzle: mouth, nostrils and lips (upper + lower)

Knee: made up of carpals

Hock: made up of tarsals

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 Injection sites in Cattle, Calf and Sheep
Routes
• Sub-cutaneous (S/C)

• Intra-muscular (IM)

• Intra-venous (IV)

Cattle
IM sites in Cattle:

➢ Neck muscles

➢ Triceps

➢ Quadriceps

➢ Gluteal

➢ Semi-membranous

➢ Semi-tendinosus

• Needle at 90° to skin surface

Sub-cutaneous sites in Cattle:

➢ Neck

➢ Ribs

• Tent skin and inject into base of tent in neck or ribs region

IV sites in Cattle:

➢ Jugular Groove (Vein)

• Confirm that needle is in vein

• Raise vein by pressing in jugular groove via thumb

• Insert needle at 30-45° and wait from drips of blood from needle hub before attaching syringe

Sheep
IM sites in Sheep:
➢ Neck, Quadriceps, Cranial to femur to avoid sciatic nerve

Sub-cutaneous sites in Sheep:

➢ Behind shoulder and over ribs

IV sites in Sheep:

➢ Jugular vein

Horse
IM sites in Horses:

➢ Neck muscles, Gluteals and Pedorak

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S/C sites in Horses:

➢ Neck and Over shoulders

IV sites in Horses:

➢ Jugular groove

Dogs
IV sites in Dogs:

➢ Lateral saphenous vein, Jugular Venipuncture

IM sites in Dogs:

➢ Quadriceps muscles, lumbodorsal muscles, triceps, hamstrings

S/C sites in Dogs:

➢ Dorsal Cervical region, dorsal interscapular area, lateral surfaces of thorax

Cats
IV sites in Cats:

➢ Cephalic vein, Saphenous vein, jugular vein

IM sites in Cats:

➢ Quadriceps (thigh muscles), shoulder muscles (deltoid)

S/C sites in Cats:

➢ Back of neck (scruff) and alongside of body (flank)

Abdominal Muscles in Animals

Abdominal muscles play a crucial role in supporting and protecting the abdominal organs, aiding in
posture and facilitating movements. The abdominal wall contains the four most powerful expiratory
muscles in mammals which are given below:

Rectus Abdominis
This muscle runs along the ventral midline of the abdomen. It is often composed of paired muscles and is
involved in flexing the trunk

External Oblique
This muscle is oriented the diagonally on the both sides of the abdomen. It is often important in flexing the
trunk and for lateral movement

Internal Oblique
Position beneath the external oblique, the internal oblique muscle aids in flexing and rotating the trunk

Transverse Abdominis
Situated within the abdominal wall, this muscle is involved in compressing the abdominal contents.

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 Forces types on Fracture Sites
Bone is subject to many forces, a fraction occurs when sum of these forces exceeds ultimate strength of bone.
Following are the five forces:

• Tensile forces:

Tension/ tensile forces act to lengthen the bone while compressive forces shorten bone

• Shearing forces:

They are parallel or tangential to bone while torsional forces act to twist the bone about its long axis

• Bending forces:

Create convex side of bone and a concave side, typically referred to as moments.

1. Bending

2. Compression

3. Shearing

4. Tension

5. Torsion

• Impact forces:
Resulting from sudden collision or stops (running or landing)

• Twisting forces:
Can lead to rotation of bone segment

Fractures
Tensile forces:
Transverse fracture (where bone breaks across width)

Compressive forces:
Compressive fracture (where bone crushed or collapsed)

Shear force:
Obligue fracture (where bone breaks at an angle to its long axis)

Torsional force:
Spiral fracture (twisting or helical break along bone)

Bending force:
Green stick fracture (bone bends and breaks)

Impact force:
Communicated fracture (bone shattered and get into multiple fragments)

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 Types of Stones in the Urinary Bladder
Urolithiasis
Crystals in the urine combine to form stones also called calculi/uroliths.

Can be found anywhere in the urinary tract

Cause irritation and secondary infection

Most end up in bladder or urethra

Types are

 Renal calculi  Ureteral calculi

 Cystic calculi  Urethral calculi
Most common stones are magnesium, ammonium phosphate, calcium oxalate, urate and silica

Normal pH of urine btw 4.5 and 8 (Common urine pH is 6.0 to 7.5)

Any pH higher than 8 is basic/alkaline and any under 6 is acidic

Acidic Stones
Formed in acidic urine

Uric Acid Stones:

Produced when the body metabolizes protein.

When pH of urine drops below 5.5, urine become saturated with uric acid crystals.

A condition also known as hypercalcemia.

Stones can form if too much uric acid in the urine.

Cysteine Stones:
Forms when an amino acids called cysteine builds up in the urine.

When its concentration becomes too high, it can precipitate and crystallize leading to stone formation.

Acidic urine promotes it.

Basic Stones
An alkaline pH in urine favors the crystallization of calcium and phosphate containing stones.

Calcium Oxalate Stones:

The most common type of kidney stones.

Results when the urine contains low levels of citrate & high levels of calcium & either oxalate/uric acid.

Calcium Phosphate Stones:

Less common than oxalate stones.

Calcium phosphate super saturation increases rapidly as urine pH rises from 6 to 7.

Stones types on basis of pH

• Uric acid __ acidic pH < 7

• Calcium phosphate __ neutral or alkaline pH ≥ 7

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• Calcium Oxalate Monohydrate__ neutral or acidic pH <7

• Cysteine__ pH <7 (acidic)

• Tyrosine__ pH < 7 (acidic)

• Calcium carbonate – alkaline pH >7

• Bilirubin __ pH < 7 (acidic)

• Ammonium biurate __ acidic or neutral pH

Surgical Approaches for Urinary Bladder Stones

Bladder stones (uroliths) are a common occurrence in animals, especially in dogs and cats. The
stones form in the urinary bladder in varying sizes and numbers secondary to the infections, dietary
influences and genetics. These are solid rock-like formations of minerals in the urinary bladder. One
of the more common uroliths is composed of magnesium ammonium phosphate hexahydrate
(strunite bladder stone)

Symptoms
Hematuria (blood in urine)

Painful urination or straining to urinate

Frequent urination discomfort

Complete urinary tract obstruct obstruction in males

Inability to urinate

Treatment
In general, there are three main treatment options for bladder stones

 Surgical removal
 Non-surgical removal (urohydropropulsion)
 Dietary dissolution

Surgical removal of bladder stones:

This is often the quickest way of treating bladder stones. However, it may not be the best option for patients
that have other health conditions or in whom general anesthesia could be risky.

o Cystotomy
With this option the stones are removed. It is a surgical procedure to access and incise (open) the bladder so
that the stones can be removed. This surgery is routinely performed by many veterinarians and animals usually
make rapid post-operative recovery. This is often necessary for larger stones when dietary and medical
management are not effective. An incision is made through the animal's abdominal wall and then into the
bladder wall to remove the stones.

o Cystoscopy
This is a procedure that allows specifically trained veterinarians to look inside the urinary bladder. Cystoscopy
is the endoscopy of the bladder using a thin lighted tube called a cystoscope. The procedure is performed in a
sterile manner under anesthesia. This doesn't require an incision as the camera, scope and instruments are
passed through the penis in males or vulva in females

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 o Lithotripsy
It is a physical breaking of stones found by the body within the urinary tract of cats and dogs. It is usually
performed within the body using a laser fiber via surgery or cystoscopy with a shock wave applied to the
stones. these shock/sound waves break up stones into small fragments allowing them to move to be passed
out easily.

Non-surgical removal (Urohydropropulsion):

If the bladder stones are very small, it may be possible to pass a catheter into the bladder and then flush the
stones out using this technique. It has many advantages compared to cystotomy as stones can be removed in
minutes as the anesthetic period is shorter, hematuria and post procedure dysuria is short.

Dietary dissolution:
In some cases, stones can be dissolved by feeding a special diet that is formulated to dissolve the bladder
stones. This diet will be tailored to the specific type of stone that is present. This avoids surgery.

Medications:
Depending on the type of stones, medications may be prescribed to modify the urine pH or composition,
making it less conductive to stone formation. For example, Allopurinol can be used to dissolve/prevent stone
formation.

Ultrasonic dissolution:
A technique which uses high frequency ultrasound waves to disrupt or break stones into time particles that
can be flushed out of the bladder. No need for surgery.

Dehorning and Disbudding

Both dehorning and disbudding involve removing and preventing the growth of horns in livestock.
The primary reasons for these procedures include reducing injuries to other animals and handlers,
improving human safety and minimizing carcass bruising.

Difference
Dehorning:

Removal of horns after they have developed from the horn bud and attached to skull.

Disbudding:
Removal or destruction of horn- producing corium in young calves before the horns attach to the skull.

Methods
Chemical paste:
Applied to very small horn buds( calves 1 day to 3 weeks). It is caustic and causes local inflammation. Rain can
wash the paste into eye causing injury.

Hot iron Dehorner:

Use heat to cauterize the cells and prevent horn growth. Effective in animals up to 4 months of age or with one
inch long horns.

Tube or scoop dehorners:

Gouge out small horn buds. Not bloodless, so fly control is important.

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Barnes dehorners:
Cut through tissues on both sides of the horns, combined with a twist to cause a vascular spasm.

Use on older calves and larger horns.

Procedure
Restraint:
Calves should be restraint to minimize stress and injury. Chemical restraint may be used.

Local Anesthesia:
Local anesthetics (e.g., lidocaine) are recommended to minimize pain during the procedure.

Method selection:
Choose an appropriate method based on age, horn size and management system.

Disbudding:
Ideally performed within first 24 hours of life.

Dehorning:
Considered more painful and should be done as early as possible (within first 3 months of age)

Post-Operative Care
Bandaging:
Change bandage if slipping, wet or dirty. Continue until a scab forms.

Feeding:
Feed in ground until the sinus is covered over ( to prevent hay entering the sinus)

Fly repellent:
Prevent fly infestation

Suture removal:
Remove suture in 10-14 days.

Pain control:
Administer NSAIDs for at least 24 horns after dehorning.

Materials used:

❖ Scalpel and blade

❖ Gigli wire, wire cutter and handles

❖ Hemostats

❖ Mayo scissors

❖ Rongeurs or Barnes dehorns

❖ Saline or LRS lavage solution

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 Post-Operative Management for Scrotal Ablation in Animals
Post-operative care after scrotal ablation in animals typically involves monitoring for signs of
complications, providing pain management and ensuring proper wound healing. Specific care
includes:

Monitoring Vital Signs

Regularly check the animal's temperature, heart rate and respiration rate to detect any abnormalities

Antibiotic Administration and Pain Management

Administer antibiotics for 3 to 5 days and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) for 3 days

 Procaine penicillin G (subcutaneous) (20000 IU/kg)

 Flunixin meglumine (IV) (0.5 mg/kg)

Anti-tetanus Serum Administration

Depending up on the tetanus vaccination status of the animal, tetanus antitoxin may also be administered

Wound Care
Keep the surgical side clean and dry

Follow any specific wound care instructions provided by the veterinarian

Monitor for signs of infection such as redness, swelling or discharge

Restricted Activity
Limit the animal's activity to prevent excessive movement that can disrupt that surgical site.

This may involve the restriction of exercise and keeping the animal in a quiet, comfortable environment.

Dietary Consideration
Follow any dietary recommendations that are being provided.

In some cases, a special diet may be advised to support healing.

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 Surgery Cases
Case # 01 Scrotal (Ablation)
History:
A case was presented at surgery clinic. It was a buck of 1.5 years and breed was Rajanpuri. There was no
medical history of he was showing scrotal issues from the last one week. The animal was feeding normally.
There was history of private castration of this buck before one month. The animal was in fasting stage from the
last 24 hours.

Diagnosis:
There were lesions on the scrotum and this might be the condition of over- crushing in which there are
lacerations on the skin of scrotal surface.

Treatment:
1) First we give general anesthesia i.e., Xylase to the animal

2) Then lidocaine HCl was used as local anesthesia i.e., lidocaine HCl

3) During the surgery we’ll use Benzyl Alcohol as an antiseptic agent and a hemostate.

4) First we give a circumferential incision and undermine the tissue

5) After this, we’ll ligate the spermatic cord of each testis separately

6) We can also do trans fixation which is more beneficial than ligation.

7) Then we’ll do clamping and cut the spermatic cord as well as remove the scrotum and remove clamp.

8) We’ll cut the necrosed (dead) part and expose the live part then clean the blood

9) At last, we’ll apply the stay sutures with cotton plug for 2-3 days

Post- operative care:

1) We will wash the surgical site with H2O2 and give painkiller i.e., Ketoject for 3 days

2) We will give antibiotics for 05 days

Case # 02 (Urinary Retention)

History:
It was a case of a buck showing the signs of urinary retention. The owner told us that they checked the buck in
a private clinic and they cut the frenulum but the problem persists.

Diagnosis:
The owner was subjected to ultrasound section and in the ultrasound report a stone was seen in the bladder
of buck.

Treatment:
1) First we pass the urinary catheter of 3Fr 1.0mm × 130m size.

2) Then we put N/S through it to exert the pressure, so that if there is any obstruction it could be removed

3) We put the N/S but the obstruction was not removed

4) Then it was subjected to surgery ( i.e, other surgical approaches to remove the urinary bladder stone) for
the next day

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 Case # 03 (Fracture)
History:
It was a kid of 1 month 1 day and had a fracture in the metatarsal are of the right hind limb. The kid was in 5th
grade lameness and was unable to walk stop. The kid was strucked in a wooden hole and the other animal
attack on his hind limb, as a result of it fractured occurred at this site. Animal was in fractured state for the last
6-7 hours and POP bandaging was recommended to him

Diagnosis:
The animal was in 5th grade lameness and was facing fracture in the metatarsal region of the right hind leg.

Treatment:
1) First we apply bandage (a thin layer of it) to prevent slipping

2) Then 3-4 layers of cotton are applied for crushing

3) Then we apply splints (min.2) and applied minor bandage on one splint then complete bandage on both
splints. And we tightly apply bandage so that the fracture will remain immoveable and if two splints are used,
then they should held perpendicular

4) At last POP will be applied. For this we gently wet our hands and slide them over POP. It will take 15 minutes
in summer and 30 minutes in winter to become solid.

Post- operative care:

1) We should prevent the POP from getting wet

2) In case of open fracture we have create a window for it to avoid pus.

3) Animal should be provided with complete rest for at least one week

4) For 3 days we will give painkillers and give calcium therapy to promote the healing

5) It is advised to open the POP after 21-28 days.

Case # 04 (Keratoma)
History:
A 2 year old buck was present at surgery clinic. Upon general and physical examination, we came to know that
there is a tumorous mass in the foot of buck. The animal had this issue from the last two months. The medical
history of that animal shows that the owner has given the injection of panbiotic and Tribactal also.

Diagnosis:
Keratoma (A benign tumor) was seen upon general examination

Treatment:
1) First wash the surface with clean water and gauze after administration of general anesthesia

2) Then cut the tumerous mass with blade

3) Then the cut site was cleaned with water and H2O2 was applied here

4) After this at last, we do bandaging after applying MgSO4 paste

Medication:
1) Xylase inj (1ml) for general anesthesia

2) Benzole inj (22cc) hemostate

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3) Ketoject (painkiller) and Encure (antibiotic) will be given after surgery

4) H2O2 and MgSO4 will be used for antisepsis and for fast healing of the wound

Post- operative care:

1) We give NSAIDs for 3 days and antibiotics for 05 days

2) We regularly change the dressing and clean the site with H2O2 and MgSO4 paste is applied for fast healing

3) All this we do for 3-5 days

Case # 05 (Otitis Externa)

History:
It was a buck of 1y 6M and was showing the signs of ear infection in the right ear, The animal was off-feed
from 02 days (Anorexic) and also showing head tilting and abdominal swelling. In the medical history, the
animal was given by Nawan 5g tomicin+ Dexamethasone but the problem was still there.

Diagnosis:
1) The buck was diagnosed by a swab and otitis externa was suspected and confirm in animal.

Treatment:
1. First we wash the infected ear and clean it with H2O2

2. Then the inj. Of Sanbiotic 1g and DS 5cc was given

3. Along with that Ketoject was given as a painkiller

Post- operative care:

1) First 3 days wash the infected area and clean it with H2O2.

2) Along with that painkiller and DS for 3 days are also advised

3) Sanbiotic will be given for 05 days

Case # 06 (Squamous Cell Carcinoma)

History:
It was a cattle having last stage cancer of squamous cell carcinoma. It reached at that stage because owner
didn’t check it properly and treated the animal in their own way. There was smelly putrefaction at the infected
(cancerous site). Lymph nodes were affected and the cancer penetrated deeply

Diagnosis:
Squamous cell carcinoma (most common type of cancer in cattle)

Treatment:
Surgery was not beneficial in this case so the physicians advised to cull the animal

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