OOPs Using JAVA

UNIT 1
Here are detailed notes on Introduction to OOPs and Java, covering the programming paradigms, features of OOPs, the history and features of Java, and the
components of Java (JDK, JVM, JRE, API):

Overview of Different Paradigms of Programming

1. Imperative Programming:

• Definition: A programming paradigm where commands are given to the computer to perform specific tasks in sequence.

• Example: Procedural programming (e.g., C, Python).

• Key Feature: Focuses on how to perform tasks using commands.

• Advantages: Simple and straightforward for small programs.

• Disadvantages: Less scalable for large and complex systems.

2. Declarative Programming:

• Definition: A style of programming where you describe what you want to achieve without specifying how to achieve it.

• Example: SQL (Structured Query Language), HTML.

• Key Feature: Focuses on the desired outcome rather than the process.

• Advantages: Easier to write and maintain, especially for database queries.

• Disadvantages: Less control over execution.

3. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP):

• Definition: A programming paradigm based on objects, which represent real-world entities and their interactions.

• Example: Java, C++, Python.

• Key Feature: Organizes code into classes and objects, encapsulating data and behavior.

• Advantages: Provides modularity, reusability, and easier maintenance.

• Disadvantages: Can be complex for small programs and requires more resources.

Basics of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

Definition:

OOP is a programming paradigm that organizes software design around objects, which are instances of classes. It uses the concepts of classes, objects,
inheritance, polymorphism, encapsulation, and abstraction.

✅ Core Concepts:

1. Class: A blueprint for creating objects, defining their properties and behaviors.

2. Object: An instance of a class that contains actual data.

 3. Encapsulation: The concept of bundling data and methods that operate on the data within one unit, restricting access to some of the object’s
components.

4. Inheritance: A mechanism where a new class acquires the properties and behaviors of an existing class.

5. Polymorphism: The ability of one object to take many forms, usually by overriding or overloading methods.

6. Abstraction: Hiding the complex implementation details and exposing only the necessary parts of the object.

✅ Features of OOPs:

1. Encapsulation:

o Wrapping up data and methods into a single unit (class) and restricting access to the internals using access modifiers (private,
public, protected).

o Example: private int age; — data is hidden inside a class.

2. Inheritance:

o Allows one class to inherit the properties and behaviors of another, facilitating code reuse.

o Example: A Dog class can inherit from an Animal class.

3. Polymorphism:

o Enables the use of a single interface to represent different underlying forms (methods or objects).

o Example: Overriding the speak() method in both Dog and Cat classes.

4. Abstraction:

o Provides a way to define the essential characteristics of an object while hiding irrelevant details.

o Example: Using abstract classes or interfaces to define behaviors without exposing the details of their implementation.

5. Modularity:

o OOP promotes dividing a program into discrete, self-contained objects, making it easier to maintain, test, and update.

o Example: A Car class can have different methods like startEngine() or stopEngine().

➕ Merits of OOPs:

1. Reusability: Code can be reused across different programs by using inheritance and classes.

2. Maintainability: Easier to maintain due to modular code structure and abstraction.

3. Scalability: New functionality can be added to existing code with minimal changes.

4. Flexibility: Code is flexible and adaptable to changes.

5. Security: Encapsulation ensures that the internal state of an object is protected from external access.

➖ Demerits of OOPs:

1. Complexity: OOP design can be complex and requires more upfront planning, which might not be ideal for small projects.

2. Memory Consumption: OOP can increase memory consumption due to object creation and management.

3. Performance Overhead: The abstraction layers, especially in larger systems, can result in slower performance.

4. Steep Learning Curve: Understanding the principles of OOP like inheritance, polymorphism, and abstraction can take time for beginners.

5. Increased Development Time: Developing a good object-oriented design can take longer due to the need to create multiple classes and objects.
A Brief History of Java

Definition:

• Java is a high-level, class-based, object-oriented programming language designed to have as few implementation dependencies as possible.

• It was created by James Gosling and Mike Sheridan in 1991 at Sun Microsystems (now owned by Oracle).

• Java was initially called Oak, but it was later renamed to Java.

✅ History:

1. 1991: Java (then Oak) was developed as a project for interactive television.

2. 1995: Sun Microsystems released Java as an internet programming language with the slogan "Write Once, Run Anywhere."

3. 2000: Java became one of the most popular programming languages, especially for web applications.

4. 2009: Oracle acquired Sun Microsystems, making Java a part of Oracle's portfolio.

5. Today: Java is widely used for mobile applications, enterprise software, and large systems.

Features of Java

1. Platform Independence:

o Java follows the "Write Once, Run Anywhere" principle, where Java programs (bytecode) can run on any platform that has a JVM.

2. Object-Oriented:

o Java is purely object-oriented, meaning everything is treated as an object (except for primitive data types).

3. Multithreading:

o Java has built-in support for multithreading, allowing concurrent execution of two or more parts of a program.

4. Robust:

o Java offers strong memory management, exception handling, and type checking, making it less prone to errors.

5. Security:

o Java provides a secure environment through features like the Java sandbox and bytecode verification.

Types of Java

1. Core Java:

o Includes basic Java features like object-oriented programming, classes, and exceptions.

2. Enterprise Java:

o Used for building large-scale enterprise applications (e.g., using JEE - Java Enterprise Edition).

3. Java ME (Micro Edition):

o A version of Java designed for developing applications on embedded systems, mobile devices, and IoT.

4. Java FX:

o A set of graphics and media packages used to build modern user interfaces in Java.
 5. Java SE (Standard Edition):

o Provides all the core functionality for building desktop applications and applets.

Java Development Kit (JDK), Java Virtual Machine (JVM), Java Runtime Environment (JRE), and Application Programming Interface (API)

🔹 JDK (Java Development Kit):

• Definition: The JDK is a software development kit used to develop Java applications. It includes tools like the compiler, debugger, and libraries
required to develop Java applications.

• Components:

o javac (Java compiler)

o JVM

o API libraries

o Development tools

🔹 JVM (Java Virtual Machine):

• Definition: JVM is the engine that runs Java bytecode. It converts bytecode into machine code for execution.

• Features:

o Provides platform independence.

o Executes compiled Java programs on any platform that has a JVM.

o Manages memory through automatic garbage collection.

🔹 JRE (Java Runtime Environment):

• Definition: The JRE is the environment in which Java programs run. It includes the JVM and the standard libraries necessary for running Java
applications.

• Components:

o JVM (Java Virtual Machine)

o Java Class Libraries

🔹 Java API (Application Programming Interface):

• Definition: The Java API is a set of built-in classes and methods that developers can use to perform various tasks (e.g., file handling, networking,
data structures).

• Example: The java.util package includes classes for collections, such as ArrayList, HashMap, and LinkedList.

UNIT 2
Here are detailed, exam-focused notes on the Basics of Java, including definitions, examples, features, advantages, and disadvantages for each topic:

1. Java Tokens
Definition:
Java tokens are the smallest individual units in a Java program. They are categorized into various types such as keywords, identifiers, literals, operators,
separators, and comments.

Types of Tokens:

a) Keywords

• Definition: Reserved words that have a predefined meaning in Java.

• Examples: class, public, static, void, if, else.

• Features:

1. Cannot be used as variable names.

2. Control the structure and flow of a program.

3. Case-sensitive in Java.

4. There are 50+ keywords in Java.

5. Integral to syntax rules.

• Advantages:

o Improve readability.

o Help in enforcing standard programming structure.

• Disadvantages:

o Limited naming flexibility (can’t use as variable names).

o Learning curve for beginners.

b) Character Set

• Definition: The set of characters Java recognizes, based on Unicode.

• Example: Alphabets (A–Z, a–z), Digits (0–9), Symbols (!, @, etc.)

• Features:

1. Java uses Unicode (16-bit) character set.

2. Supports internationalization.

3. Includes control characters and whitespace.

4. Allows combination of letters, digits in identifiers.

5. Case-sensitive.

c) Identifiers

• Definition: Names used to identify variables, classes, methods, etc.

• Example: studentName, totalMarks, main.

• Features:
 1. Cannot start with a digit.

2. No spaces or special symbols except _ and $.

3. Case-sensitive.

4. Should follow naming conventions (e.g., camelCase).

5. Unlimited length.

d) Literals

• Definition: Constant values assigned to variables.

• Examples: "Java", 42, 3.14, 'A', true.

• Types: Integer, Floating-point, Character, Boolean, String.

• Features:

1. Fixed values used in code.

2. Automatically typed.

3. Improve readability.

4. Used directly in expressions.

5. Cannot be changed once defined.

e) Separators

• Definition: Symbols used to separate code elements.

• Examples: (), {}, [], ;, ,, ..

• Features:

1. Define code blocks ({}).

2. Terminate statements (;).

3. Organize parameters (()).

4. Used in arrays ([]).

5. Help structure code properly.

f) Comments

• Definition: Non-executable statements used for code documentation.

• Types:

o Single-line: //

o Multi-line: /* */

o Documentation: /** */

• Features:
1. Improve code readability.

2. Ignored during execution.

3. Help in debugging and maintenance.

4. Document purpose and logic.

5. Used for auto-documentation (Javadoc).

2. Java Program Structure

Structure Includes:

• Package declaration

• Import statements

• Class definition

• Main method

• Statements

Example:

public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println("Hello, World!");

Features:

1. Starts with class.

2. main() method is entry point.

3. Case-sensitive.

4. Follows strict syntax.

5. Uses {} to define blocks.

3. Command-Line Arguments

Definition: Inputs passed to a program when it is run from the command line.

Example:

public class TestArgs {

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println("Argument: " + args[0]);

}
Features:

1. Passed via String[] args.

2. Read from the terminal.

3. Useful in dynamic execution.

4. Stored as an array.

5. Must be handled with care (index out of bounds).

4. Compiling and Executing Java Program

Steps:

1. Write code in .java file.

2. Compile using javac Filename.java.

3. Execute using java ClassName.

Features:

1. Compilation generates .class bytecode.

2. JVM interprets the bytecode.

3. Cross-platform execution.

4. Errors caught at compile-time.

5. Debugging tools available.

5. Data Types in Java

Categories:

• Primitive: byte, short, int, long, float, double, char, boolean.

• Non-primitive: Arrays, Strings, Classes.

Features:

1. Static typing.

2. Memory efficient.

3. Defined size.

4. Type safety.

5. Automatic conversions (type promotion).

6. Type Promotion and Type Casting

a) Type Promotion:

• Automatic widening conversion.

• Example: int to long, float to double.

b) Type Casting:

• Explicit narrowing conversion.

• Example: (int) 3.14 results in 3.

Features:

1. Promotes lower to higher type automatically.

2. Cast higher to lower manually.

3. Prevents loss of precision.

4. Can throw runtime errors.

5. Essential for arithmetic expressions.

7. Variables and Their Scope

Types of Variables:

• Local – within method/block.

• Instance – non-static, per object.

• Static – shared across instances.

Scope:

• Block scope

• Method scope

• Class scope

Features:

1. Access modifiers define visibility.

2. Static variables shared among objects.

3. Local variables not accessible outside method.

4. Scope rules prevent accidental modification.

5. GC manages memory of variables.

8. Operators and Expressions

Types:

• Arithmetic: +, -, *, /, %

• Relational: ==, !=, >, <, >=, <=

• Logical: &&, ||, !

• Bitwise: &, |, ^, <<, >>

• Assignment: =, +=, -=
 • Unary: ++, --

Expressions:

• Combinations of operators and operands.

• Example: a + b * c

Features:

1. Evaluate to a result.

2. Type-checked during compile.

3. Support chaining.

4. Logical expressions return boolean.

5. Can be used in control structures.

UNIT 3
Here are detailed exam-oriented notes on the topics: Class, Objects, Methods, Constructors, Java Keywords, and Wrapper Classes with definitions,
examples, features, advantages, and disadvantages (5 points each) for each sub-topic.

1. Concept of Class and Object

Class

• Definition: A class in Java is a blueprint or template for creating objects. It defines properties (variables) and behaviors (methods).

• Example:

• class Student {

• int id;

• String name;

• void display() {

• System.out.println(id + " " + name);

• }

• }

Object

• Definition: An object is an instance of a class containing real values for properties defined in the class.

• Example:

• Student s1 = new Student();

Features:

1. Encapsulates data and behavior.

2. Supports reusability.
 3. Class acts as a template.

4. Multiple objects can be created from one class.

5. Promotes modularity.

Advantages:

• Enhances code reuse and organization.

• Easier to manage large codebases.

• Simplifies debugging.

• Supports data abstraction.

• Enhances security through encapsulation.

Disadvantages:

• Slightly more complex than procedural programming.

• Overhead of object creation.

• Can lead to memory usage if not managed well.

• Initial learning curve.

• Performance can be slower due to abstraction.

2. Access Modifiers

Definition: Keywords used to define the accessibility of classes, methods, and variables.

Types:

Modifier Scope

public Everywhere

private Only within the class

protected Within package + subclass (other pkg)

(default) Within the same package

Features:

1. Provide control over visibility.

2. Secure internal data.

3. Encapsulation is achieved.

4. Used in inheritance.

5. Supports modular programming.

Advantages:

• Controls unauthorized access.

 • Increases code security.

• Enhances modularity.

• Maintains abstraction.

• Prevents accidental modification.

Disadvantages:

• Misuse can hide useful code.

• Too much restriction hinders reusability.

• Confusing to beginners.

• Over-protection might impact testing.

• Leads to tight coupling if overused.

3. Java Methods and Method Overloading

Java Method

• Definition: A block of code that performs a specific task.

• Syntax:

• returnType methodName(parameters) {

• // code

• }

Method Overloading

• Definition: Defining multiple methods with the same name but different parameters.

• Example:

• void add(int a, int b) {}

• void add(double a, double b) {}

Features:

1. Code reusability.

2. Improves program readability.

3. Allows different input types.

4. Compile-time polymorphism.

5. Better method organization.

Advantages:

• Reduces code duplication.

• Promotes flexibility.

• Easy to maintain.
 • Simplifies complex logic.

• Supports polymorphism.

Disadvantages:

• Overuse may cause confusion.

• Increases compile-time checking complexity.

• Not supported in all languages.

• Cannot overload by return type alone.

• May cause ambiguity errors.

4. Java Constructors and Its Types

Constructor

• Definition: A special method used to initialize objects.

• Syntax: Same name as class, no return type.

Types:

1. Default Constructor

2. Parameterized Constructor

3. Copy Constructor (manual in Java)

Example:

class Car {

String model;

Car(String m) {

model = m;

Features:

1. Automatically called during object creation.

2. Can be overloaded.

3. No return type.

4. Can use this keyword.

5. Initializes object state.

Advantages:

• Automates initialization.

• Supports overloading.
 • Enhances readability.

• Reduces redundant code.

• Essential for object setup.

Disadvantages:

• Cannot be inherited.

• Confusing to beginners.

• Cannot return a value.

• Overloading may lead to ambiguity.

• No support for default in some scenarios (if parameterized exists).

5. this, static, final Keywords

this

• Refers to current class object.

• Used to resolve variable shadowing.

• Example: this.name = name;

static

• Belongs to class, not objects.

• Applies to variables, methods, blocks.

• Example: static int count;

final

• Prevents modification.

• Used with variables, methods, classes.

• Example: final int MAX = 100;

Features:

1. this improves clarity in constructors.

2. static saves memory and enables utility functions.

3. final enforces immutability.

4. All are reserved keywords.

5. Impact behavior at compile-time.

Advantages:

• Increases control and flexibility.

• Avoids ambiguity using this.

• Memory efficiency via static.

 • Prevents accidental modification via final.

• Supports design safety.

Disadvantages:

• this can be misused.

• static breaks OOP purity.

• final limits extensibility.

• Confusing for beginners.

• Misuse can cause logical errors.

6. Wrapper Classes

Definition: Java classes that wrap primitive types into objects (autoboxing/unboxing).

Examples:

Primitive Wrapper

int Integer

char Character

boolean Boolean

double Double

Features:

1. Convert primitives to objects.

2. Part of java.lang package.

3. Support collections (which use objects).

4. Provide utility methods.

5. Allow parsing and conversion.

Advantages:

• Required for collection framework.

• Enables null assignments.

• Provides helper methods.

• Useful in serialization.

• Supports type conversion.

Disadvantages:

• Slower than primitives.

• More memory usage.

 • Autoboxing may lead to errors.

• Increases code complexity.

• Requires unboxing for arithmetic.

UNIT 4
Here are detailed, exam-oriented notes on Arrays and Strings in Java, enriched with clear definitions, examples, features, advantages, disadvantages (5
points each), and comparisons — optimized for conceptual clarity and quick revision.

1. Arrays in Java

1-Dimensional Arrays

• Definition: A collection of elements of the same data type stored in a contiguous memory location.

• Declaration & Initialization:

• int[] arr = new int[5];

• arr[0] = 10;

2-Dimensional Arrays

• Definition: An array of arrays; used for matrix-style data.

• Declaration & Initialization:

• int[][] matrix = new int[2][3];

• matrix[0][0] = 1;

Features:

1. Fixed-size data structure.

2. Index-based access (starts from 0).

3. Can store primitive or reference types.

4. Homogeneous data storage.

5. Multidimensional arrays supported.

Advantages:

• Fast access using indices.

• Easy to implement tabular data.

• Memory-efficient for known sizes.

• Simple syntax and structure.

• Arrays of objects are supported.

Disadvantages:

• Fixed size (cannot grow dynamically).

 • Risk of ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException.

• No direct support for insertion/deletion.

• Cannot store mixed data types.

• Requires manual memory management for large arrays.

2. Arrays Class (from java.util)

• Definition: A utility class in Java for working with arrays (sorting, searching, etc.).

• Example:

• import java.util.Arrays;

• Arrays.sort(arr);

Features:

1. Provides sort(), binarySearch(), equals(), fill(), etc.

2. Static methods – no object needed.

3. Supports all primitive and object arrays.

4. Helps with testing and debugging via toString().

5. Used in competitive programming and real-time systems.

Advantages:

• Reduces code for common operations.

• Increases readability and maintainability.

• Improves performance for large arrays.

• Useful for comparing or copying arrays.

• Standard library ensures reliability.

Disadvantages:

• No dynamic resizing like ArrayList.

• Only supports basic operations.

• Requires import and sometimes wrapper classes.

• Not flexible for complex structures.

• Can lead to confusion with multi-dimensional arrays.

3. Dynamic Arrays (Using ArrayList)

• Definition: Arrays that can grow or shrink in size at runtime.

• Implementation: Java uses ArrayList for dynamic arrays.

• import java.util.ArrayList;
 • ArrayList<Integer> list = new ArrayList<>();

• list.add(10);

Features:

1. Resizable at runtime.

2. Part of the java.util package.

3. Stores objects (not primitives directly).

4. Provides many built-in methods.

5. Zero-based index like arrays.

Advantages:

• Flexible size.

• Easy insertion and deletion.

• Provides type safety with generics.

• No need to define size upfront.

• Built-in methods for sorting, searching.

Disadvantages:

• Slightly slower than arrays.

• Overhead due to resizing.

• Requires autoboxing/unboxing.

• Not suitable for high-performance numeric tasks.

• More memory usage.

4. String Class in Java

• Definition: A class representing immutable sequences of characters.

• String str = "Hello";

Features:

1. Immutable – can't be changed after creation.

2. Stored in the String constant pool.

3. Supports + operator for concatenation.

4. Overridden equals(), compareTo(), and toString().

5. Rich set of built-in methods (length, charAt, etc.).

Advantages:

• Thread-safe due to immutability.

• Efficient for fixed string operations.

 • Useful in file and network I/O.

• Constant pool saves memory.

• Easily used in switch-case from Java 7.

Disadvantages:

• Creating many strings may waste memory.

• Performance hit for multiple modifications.

• Requires StringBuffer/StringBuilder for mutability.

• Comparison can be tricky (== vs .equals()).

• Extra memory overhead due to immutability.

5. String Methods

Examples of Useful Methods:

str.length();

str.charAt(0);

str.substring(1, 4);

str.toLowerCase();

str.equals("text");

Features:

1. Wide range of built-in utilities.

2. Case conversion, comparison, splitting, replacing.

3. Useful for parsing and formatting.

4. Supports chaining.

5. String immutability ensures no side effects.

Advantages:

• Easy to manipulate text data.

• Simplifies data validation and parsing.

• Reduces boilerplate code.

• Efficient search with indexOf, contains.

• Reliable for web and GUI applications.

Disadvantages:

• Heavy use may require extra memory.

• Repeated operations create many objects.

• No mutable features (must use other classes).

 • Null checks required to avoid exceptions.

• Can be inefficient in loops.

6. StringBuffer Class

• Definition: A mutable class for manipulating strings (thread-safe).

• StringBuffer sb = new StringBuffer("Hello");

• sb.append(" Java");

Features:

1. Mutable – can modify the same object.

2. Thread-safe (synchronized).

3. Faster than String for multiple modifications.

4. Supports reverse, delete, insert.

5. Part of java.lang.

Advantages:

• Better performance in multithreaded apps.

• Reusable buffer for string editing.

• Reduces memory wastage.

• No need to create new objects.

• Rich set of methods.

Disadvantages:

• Slower than StringBuilder in single-threaded use.

• Synchronization overhead.

• Not as readable for simple string tasks.

• Slightly complex API.

• Limited flexibility compared to String.

7. StringBuilder Class

• Definition: Similar to StringBuffer but non-synchronized (not thread-safe).

• StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder("Hi");

• sb.append(" there!");

Features:

1. Mutable and efficient for single-threaded operations.

2. Faster than StringBuffer.

 3. Same methods as StringBuffer.

4. Useful in loops and recursive logic.

5. Supports method chaining.

Advantages:

• Very fast for string operations.

• Minimal memory usage.

• Simplifies dynamic string building.

• Easy to debug and maintain.

• Suitable for local string construction.

Disadvantages:

• Not thread-safe.

• Not safe for shared data.

• Can lead to bugs if misused in multi-threaded apps.

• May lead to memory leaks if not reset.

• Requires careful synchronization if used in threads.

8. StringTokenizer Class

• Definition: Used to split a string into tokens.

• StringTokenizer st = new StringTokenizer("Java is fun");

• while (st.hasMoreTokens()) {

• System.out.println(st.nextToken());

• }

Features:

1. Legacy class for tokenizing strings.

2. Uses delimiters (default is space).

3. Part of java.util.

4. Useful in parsing input data.

5. Light-weight compared to regex.

Advantages:

• Quick and simple.

• Useful in parsing CSV, logs.

• Memory-efficient.

• Fewer dependencies.
 • Easy to implement.

Disadvantages:

• No support for regular expressions.

• Does not handle empty tokens well.

• Deprecated in favor of String.split().

• No immutable result list.

• Not flexible for modern use cases.

Comparison Table

Feature String StringBuffer StringBuilder StringTokenizer

Mutability No Yes Yes NA

Thread-safe Yes Yes No No

Performance Slow Medium (Sync Overhead) Fast (No Sync) Fast (Simple Parsing)

Use Case Immutable Text Multithreaded Modifications Single-threaded Modifications Tokenizing Text

Recommended Safe String Concurrent editing Fast processing Simple parsing

UNIT 5
Here are well-structured, detailed, and exam-focused notes on Polymorphism and Inheritance in Java, including all key concepts with definitions,
examples, features, advantages, disadvantages (5 points each) and infused with intelligent comparisons and practical relevance.

1. Polymorphism in Java

Definition:

Polymorphism means “many forms”. It allows an object to behave differently based on the context — achieved via method overloading and method
overriding.

1.1 Method Overloading

• Definition: Defining multiple methods in the same class with the same name but different parameters.

class Math {

int add(int a, int b) { return a + b; }

double add(double a, double b) { return a + b; }

Features:

1. Resolved during compile-time (static polymorphism).

 2. Same method name, different signatures.

3. Improves code readability.

4. Helps in achieving polymorphism.

5. Can overload based on type, number, or sequence of parameters.

Advantages:

• Cleaner and intuitive code.

• Easier maintenance.

• Flexible method usage.

• Promotes DRY principle (Don't Repeat Yourself).

• Enhances code readability.

Disadvantages:

• Can cause confusion if not used wisely.

• Slight overhead in method resolution.

• Cannot overload by return type alone.

• May reduce code clarity with too many overloads.

• Difficult to debug in some edge cases.

1.2 Method Overriding

• Definition: Redefining a superclass method in a subclass with the same signature.

class Animal {

void sound() { System.out.println("Animal sound"); }

class Dog extends Animal {

void sound() { System.out.println("Bark"); }

Features:

1. Resolved during runtime (dynamic polymorphism).

2. Enables runtime behavior change.

3. Method signature must match.

4. Requires inheritance.

5. Can use @Override annotation for clarity.

Advantages:

• Supports dynamic behavior.

 • Enables polymorphic object use.

• Promotes flexible and extensible code.

• Useful in runtime binding.

• Enhances reusability.

Disadvantages:

• Can cause unexpected behavior if not carefully managed.

• Difficult debugging in complex hierarchies.

• Slight runtime overhead.

• Risk of accidental overriding without @Override.

• Reduces encapsulation if not structured well.

1.3 Constructor Overloading

• Definition: Multiple constructors in the same class with different parameter lists.

class Student {

Student() {}

Student(String name) {}

Student(String name, int age) {}

Features:

1. Allows object creation with varying info.

2. Enhances class flexibility.

3. Calls can be chained using this().

4. Helps implement default and parameterized constructors.

5. Compiler selects based on argument types.

Advantages:

• Code flexibility.

• Allows object initialization in multiple ways.

• Reduces redundancy.

• Helps in creating partially initialized objects.

• Easier readability and maintenance.

Disadvantages:

• Can confuse new developers.

• Slight performance cost during resolution.

 • Code readability may decline with too many constructors.

• Complex constructor chains are hard to debug.

• No overloading based on return types.

1.4 Operator Overloading

• In Java, operator overloading is not supported explicitly except for + (String concatenation).

String s = "Java" + "GPT"; // Only supported operator overloading.

Features:

1. Java disallows general operator overloading to avoid confusion.

2. Only the + operator is overloaded for Strings.

3. Enhances clarity and reduces ambiguity.

4. Keeps language simple and less error-prone.

5. Ensures uniform behavior across all Java programs.

Advantages:

• Keeps code simple and predictable.

• Avoids unintended side effects.

• Less ambiguity in operations.

• Easier debugging and maintenance.

• Promotes method-based overloading instead.

Disadvantages:

• Less expressive than C++.

• Can't define custom operator behavior.

• More code required for complex math objects (like vectors).

• No syntactic sugar for symbolic operations.

• Less flexibility for developer-defined types.

2. Inheritance in Java

Definition:

Inheritance allows a class (child/subclass) to acquire properties and behavior of another class (parent/superclass).

class Animal {

void eat() { System.out.println("Eating..."); }

class Dog extends Animal {

 void bark() { System.out.println("Barking..."); }

Types of Inheritance

2.1 Single-level Inheritance

• One child inherits from one parent.

class A {}

class B extends A {}

2.2 Multi-level Inheritance

• A subclass inherits from a subclass.

class A {}

class B extends A {}

class C extends B {}

2.3 Hierarchical Inheritance

• Multiple subclasses inherit from one superclass.

class A {}

class B extends A {}

class C extends A {}

2.4 Multiple Inheritance using Interfaces

• Java allows multiple inheritance via interfaces, not classes.

interface A {}

interface B {}

class C implements A, B {}

2.5 Hybrid Inheritance

• Combination of multiple types; achieved using interfaces + classes.

2.6 Subclass and Superclass

• Superclass: The base class that is inherited.

• Subclass: The derived class that inherits.

class Vehicle {} // Superclass

class Car extends Vehicle {} // Subclass

2.7 super Keyword

 • Used to refer to immediate parent class object.

• Common usages:

o Call parent constructor: super()

o Access parent method/field: super.method()

2.8 final Keyword in Inheritance

• Final variable: Cannot be changed.

• Final method: Cannot be overridden.

• Final class: Cannot be extended.

final class A {}

final int MAX = 10;

Features of Inheritance:

1. Promotes code reusability.

2. Supports method overriding.

3. Helps in polymorphism implementation.

4. Makes code hierarchical and logical.

5. Simplifies code maintenance.

Advantages:

• Reusability reduces redundancy.

• Easy to update and enhance code.

• Promotes clear class hierarchy.

• Facilitates better program organization.

• Enables dynamic method resolution.

Disadvantages:

• Tightly coupled classes.

• Increases program complexity.

• Inappropriate inheritance can lead to poor design.

• Inheritance hierarchy hard to manage in large systems.

• Multiple inheritance (via classes) is restricted.

UNIT 6
Here are exam-oriented, detailed, and intelligently curated notes on Encapsulation, Data Hiding, Abstraction, Interface, and Packages in Java. Each
topic includes definitions, examples, features, advantages, disadvantages (5 points each) for crystal-clear understanding and exam success.

✅ 1. Encapsulation and Data Hiding

🔹 Definition:

Encapsulation is the wrapping up of data and methods into a single unit (class), while data hiding restricts direct access to some of an object’s
components, ensuring security.

✅ Example:

class Employee {

private int salary;

public void setSalary(int s) { salary = s; }

public int getSalary() { return salary; }

✅ Features:

1. Combines data and methods into one unit.

2. Implements access control via access modifiers.

3. Encourages data integrity.

4. Uses getters and setters for access.

5. Core principle of OOPs.

✅ Advantages:

1. Increases security by hiding sensitive data.

2. Enhances code modularity.

3. Easier debugging and maintenance.

4. Improves data integrity and validation.

5. Promotes reusable and readable code.

❌ Disadvantages:

1. Increased boilerplate code due to getters/setters.

2. Poorly implemented encapsulation can reduce clarity.

3. May affect performance if overused.

4. Difficult to modify private data directly.

5. Needs discipline in access level selection.

✅ 2. Abstraction (Abstract Class and Methods)

🔹 Definition:

Abstraction means hiding implementation details and showing only the essential features.

An abstract class is a class that cannot be instantiated and may contain abstract methods (without a body).

✅ Example:

abstract class Animal {

abstract void makeSound();

class Dog extends Animal {

void makeSound() { System.out.println("Bark"); }

✅ Features:

1. Focuses on what an object does, not how.

2. Contains both abstract and concrete methods.

3. Supports partial abstraction.

4. Promotes loose coupling.

5. Subclasses must implement abstract methods.

✅ Advantages:

1. Simplifies complex systems.

2. Reduces code duplication.

3. Promotes a scalable design.

4. Enhances code maintainability.

5. Helps define common templates.

❌ Disadvantages:

1. Cannot instantiate directly.

2. Less flexible than interfaces for multiple inheritance.

3. Forces implementation in all subclasses.

4. Can’t achieve full abstraction alone.

5. Increases design complexity if misused.

✅ 3. Interfaces in Java

🔹 Definition:

An interface is a blueprint of a class that contains only abstract methods (until Java 7), default/static methods (Java 8), and private methods (Java 9+).

✅ Example:

interface Vehicle {

void drive();

class Car implements Vehicle {

public void drive() { System.out.println("Driving Car"); }

✅ Features:

1. Supports multiple inheritance.

2. All variables are implicitly public, static, and final.

3. All methods are public and abstract by default.

4. Used to define contract-based programming.

5. Achieves 100% abstraction.

✅ Implementing Single and Multiple Interfaces:

interface A { void methodA(); }

interface B { void methodB(); }

class C implements A, B {

public void methodA() {}

public void methodB() {}

✅ Extending Single and Multiple Interfaces:

interface A {}

interface B extends A {}

interface C extends A, B {} // Multiple Interface Inheritance

✅ Abstract Class vs Interface

Feature Abstract Class Interface

Instantiation Not possible Not possible

Abstraction Level Partial abstraction Full abstraction

Constructors Allowed Not allowed

Multiple Inheritance Not supported Supported

Variable Types Any type public static final only

✅ Advantages:

1. Ideal for multiple inheritance.

2. Ensures contract-based development.

3. Promotes flexibility and scalability.

4. Simplifies test-driven development.

5. Reduces tight coupling.

❌ Disadvantages:

1. Can’t define constructors.

2. More difficult to manage with too many interfaces.

3. No implementation until Java 8 (partial later).

4. Extra code to implement all methods.

5. Not suitable for code reuse like abstract classes.

✅ 4. Packages in Java

🔹 Definition:

A package is a namespace that organizes classes and interfaces in a logical manner, similar to folders in a file system.

✅ Types:

1. Built-in Packages: java.util, java.io, java.lang

2. User-defined Packages: Created by the programmer

package mypack;

public class Demo { }

Importing:

import mypack.Demo;
✅ Creating a Package:

// File: mypack/Demo.java

package mypack;

public class Demo {

public void show() {

System.out.println("In Demo class");

✅ Features:

1. Provides modular structure.

2. Avoids naming conflicts.

3. Supports access control.

4. Simplifies code maintenance.

5. Enhances reusability.

✅ Advantages:

1. Prevents class name collisions.

2. Enables better code management.

3. Easy maintenance with logical separation.

4. Improves collaboration and versioning.

5. Supports access control using access modifiers.

❌ Disadvantages:

1. Complex structure in large projects.

2. Slightly increases compile-time complexity.

3. Navigation may be difficult without IDE.

4. Access control may restrict flexibility.

5. Can over-complicate simple programs.

UNIT 7
Here's a comprehensive, exam-oriented note on Multithreading in Java including definitions, examples, features, advantages, disadvantages (5 points
each), with added clarity, structure, and explanation for better understanding and scoring high.
🧵 Multithreading in Java

✅ Definition:

Multithreading is the capability of a program to execute multiple threads concurrently. A thread is the smallest unit of a process that can run
independently.

1⃣ Multithreading Fundamentals

🔹 Example:

class MyThread extends Thread {

public void run() {

System.out.println("Thread running...");

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {

MyThread t = new MyThread();

t.start();

✅ Features:

1. Enables concurrent execution of two or more parts of a program.

2. Efficient use of CPU resources.

3. Threads share the same memory but have their own execution paths.

4. Uses Thread class or Runnable interface.

5. Each thread has lifecycle stages: New, Runnable, Running, Blocked, Terminated.

✅ Advantages:

1. Increased responsiveness in GUI applications.

2. Allows parallel execution in multi-core systems.

3. Efficient resource sharing reduces memory consumption.

4. Useful for tasks like real-time gaming, animation, and networking.

5. Enhances performance for I/O-bound and CPU-bound tasks.

❌ Disadvantages:

1. Requires careful synchronization to prevent race conditions.

2. Debugging multithreaded code is complex.

3. Increases development and testing complexity.

4. Improper use may lead to deadlocks and memory leaks.

5. Overhead of context switching affects performance if misused.

2⃣ Thread Class in Java

🔹 Definition:

The Thread class in Java belongs to java.lang package and is used to create and manage threads.

✅ Example:

class MyThread extends Thread {

public void run() {

System.out.println("Running via Thread class...");

✅ Features:

1. Used to create a thread by extending Thread.

2. Provides methods like start(), run(), sleep(), join().

3. Thread gets its own call stack.

4. Simpler syntax for quick thread creation.

5. Cannot extend any other class due to single inheritance.

✅ Advantages:

1. Quick thread creation for simple cases.

2. Easy to override the run() method.

3. Built-in lifecycle management.

4. Supports thread priority and isAlive() checks.

5. Clear and intuitive syntax for beginners.

❌ Disadvantages:

1. Java does not support multiple class inheritance.

 2. Not suitable for multiple task sharing.

3. Can't extend another class.

4. Tightly coupled to Thread class.

5. Less flexible than using Runnable.

3⃣ Runnable Interface

🔹 Definition:

Runnable is a functional interface used to implement multithreading by defining the run() method.

✅ Example:

class MyRunnable implements Runnable {

public void run() {

System.out.println("Running via Runnable interface...");

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Thread t = new Thread(new MyRunnable());

t.start();

✅ Features:

1. Runnable is a functional interface with a single method run().

2. Promotes loose coupling.

3. Allows extending other classes.

4. Frequently used with ExecutorService.

5. Suitable for lambda expressions and concurrency APIs.

✅ Advantages:

1. Enables multiple inheritance via interfaces.

2. Promotes better code reuse and flexibility.

3. Used in thread pooling and modern Java concurrency.

4. Easily integrates with functional programming.

5. More scalable for complex applications.

❌ Disadvantages:

1. Requires external Thread object to start.

2. More verbose in older Java versions.

3. run() must be manually managed.

4. Slightly more complex than using Thread directly.

5. Less intuitive for beginners.

4⃣ Thread Lifecycle

🔹 States of a Thread:

1. New – Created but not yet started.

2. Runnable – Ready to run, waiting for CPU.

3. Running – Currently executing.

4. Blocked/Waiting – Waiting for resources.

5. Terminated – Execution completed.

✅ Features:

1. Clearly defined states and transitions.

2. Managed by the Java Thread Scheduler.

3. Lifecycle controlled using methods like start(), sleep(), join(), wait().

4. Threads can be paused and resumed.

5. Monitoring tools (like jconsole) can trace states.

✅ Advantages:

1. Gives control over thread behavior.

2. Helps in resource management.

3. Easy to understand thread flow.

4. Enables better debugging using lifecycle monitoring.

5. Lifecycle APIs work seamlessly with synchronization.

❌ Disadvantages:

1. Managing transitions manually is error-prone.

2. Deadlocks may occur if not handled properly.

3. Requires careful exception handling.

 4. Threads in blocked state may waste system resources.

5. Complex lifecycle increases design complexity.

5⃣ Creating Single and Multiple Threads

✅ Single Thread:

Thread t = new Thread(() -> System.out.println("Single thread running"));

t.start();

✅ Multiple Threads:

for (int i = 1; i <= 3; i++) {

Thread t = new Thread(() -> System.out.println("Thread running: " + Thread.currentThread().getName()));

t.start();

✅ Features:

1. Java supports creating multiple threads in parallel.

2. Threads run independently.

3. Thread names can be customized.

4. Allows use of lambdas and anonymous classes.

5. Handles both CPU-bound and I/O-bound operations.

✅ Advantages:

1. Better utilization of CPU.

2. Parallel processing of independent tasks.

3. Threads can work concurrently on shared data.

4. Useful in responsive UI and real-time applications.

5. Reduces execution time in multi-core systems.

❌ Disadvantages:

1. Race conditions if not synchronized.

2. Difficult to debug.

3. Can crash the application if not managed.

4. Requires overhead for thread management.

5. Potential for memory leaks and deadlocks.

UNIT 8
Here's a detailed, exam-focused note on Java I/O Streams, Readers/Writers, and Exception Handling, including definitions, examples, features,
advantages, and disadvantages (5 points each), explained in a clear and structured way for better understanding and retention.

📥 Java Input/Output Streams and Exception Handling

1⃣ Java InputStream and OutputStream Classes

✅ Definition:

• InputStream and OutputStream are abstract classes in the java.io package used for reading and writing binary data (bytes).

• Commonly used for file I/O, network I/O, etc.

✅ Example:

FileInputStream fis = new FileInputStream("input.txt");

int i;

while((i = fis.read()) != -1) {

System.out.print((char)i);

fis.close();

FileOutputStream fos = new FileOutputStream("output.txt");

fos.write("Hello Java!".getBytes());

fos.close();

✅ Features:

1. Byte-oriented stream classes.

2. InputStream is used for reading bytes, OutputStream for writing bytes.

3. Abstract classes — require subclassing (FileInputStream, BufferedOutputStream, etc.).

4. Provides read(), write(), close() methods.

5. Ideal for handling images, audio, and other binary files.

✅ Advantages:

1. Efficient for handling binary data.

2. Offers low-level data control.

 3. Easily connected to files, memory, or network.

4. Compatible with buffering and chaining.

5. Supports large-scale data processing.

❌ Disadvantages:

1. Complex for beginners due to low-level operations.

2. Not suitable for character/text data (needs Readers/Writers).

3. Manual handling of encoding required.

4. Resource-intensive if not closed properly.

5. Error-prone without exception handling.

2⃣ Java Reader and Writer Classes

✅ Definition:

• Reader and Writer are abstract classes designed for reading and writing character streams.

• They handle Unicode text and are part of java.io.

✅ Example:

FileReader fr = new FileReader("input.txt");

int i;

while((i = fr.read()) != -1) {

System.out.print((char)i);

fr.close();

FileWriter fw = new FileWriter("output.txt");

fw.write("Java Writer Example");

fw.close();

✅ Features:

1. Character-oriented classes.

2. Automatically handle character encoding.

3. Suitable for reading/writing text files.

4. Supports buffering (BufferedReader, BufferedWriter).

5. Provides read(), write(), close() methods.

✅ Advantages:

1. Easy to work with text data.

2. Unicode support ensures compatibility.

3. Simplifies internationalization.

4. Less error-prone than byte streams for text.

5. Supports file and memory I/O.

❌ Disadvantages:

1. Not suitable for binary data (e.g., images, videos).

2. May require explicit encoding conversions.

3. Slightly slower than byte streams.

4. More memory usage in some cases.

5. Needs careful exception handling.

3⃣ File Input/Output in Java

✅ Definition:

File I/O in Java refers to reading from or writing to files using the I/O streams provided by the java.io package.

✅ Example:

File file = new File("example.txt");

FileWriter writer = new FileWriter(file);

writer.write("File I/O Example");

writer.close();

✅ Features:

1. Java supports both text and binary file handling.

2. Uses File, FileReader, FileWriter, BufferedReader, etc.

3. Supports file creation, deletion, and metadata access.

4. Enables both sequential and buffered I/O.

5. Integrates with exception handling (IOExceptions).

✅ Advantages:

1. Cross-platform file handling.

2. Can manipulate files, directories, metadata.

 3. Supports buffered I/O for efficiency.

4. Allows complex file operations (append, overwrite).

5. Powerful enough for real-world applications.

❌ Disadvantages:

1. Verbose syntax for simple tasks.

2. Prone to runtime errors (e.g., FileNotFound).

3. Must manually close resources or use try-with-resources.

4. Error-prone without exception handling.

5. Slower for large files without buffering.

4⃣ Java Exception and Exception Handling

✅ Definition:

An Exception is an unwanted or unexpected event that disrupts the normal flow of a program. Java provides robust Exception Handling mechanisms using
try, catch, finally, throw, and throws.

✅ Types:

• Checked Exceptions: Checked at compile time (e.g., IOException).

• Unchecked Exceptions: Occur at runtime (e.g., NullPointerException).

✅ Features:

1. Based on Throwable class hierarchy.

2. Offers separation of normal and abnormal code flow.

3. Can define custom exceptions.

4. Supports try-catch-finally structure.

5. Promotes safer and maintainable code.

✅ Advantages:

1. Enhances code robustness and fault tolerance.

2. Helps gracefully recover from errors.

3. Reduces abnormal program termination.

4. Easier debugging and error tracing.

5. Ensures consistent error handling practices.

❌ Disadvantages:

1. Can make code verbose and cluttered.

2. Overuse may hide real bugs.

3. Poorly designed exception hierarchy complicates maintenance.

4. Improper use leads to performance overhead.

5. Checked exceptions require explicit handling, increasing complexity.

5⃣ Exception Handling Constructs

✅ Try-Catch Block:

try {

int a = 5 / 0;

} catch (ArithmeticException e) {

System.out.println("Cannot divide by zero!");

✅ Handles specific exceptions and avoids crash.

✅ Try-Finally Block:

try {

System.out.println("Trying...");

} finally {

System.out.println("Finally block always runs.");

✅ Ensures cleanup code always runs (like closing files).

✅ Try-Catch-Finally Block:

try {

int[] arr = new int[3];

System.out.println(arr[4]);

} catch (ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e) {

System.out.println("Invalid index!");

} finally {

System.out.println("Cleanup code here.");

}
✅ Combines error handling and resource release.

✅ throw and throws:

void checkAge(int age) throws ArithmeticException {

if(age < 18) throw new ArithmeticException("Not eligible");

✅ throw – manually throw exception

✅ throws – declare exception in method signature

UNIT 9
Here's a complete, detailed, and exam-ready note on Java Database Connectivity (JDBC), covering definitions, examples, features, advantages,
disadvantages, and usage of SQL queries using JDBC. This version is optimized for conceptual clarity and scoring well in exams.

🗄️ Database Connectivity in Java – JDBC

🔷 1. JDBC (Java Database Connectivity)

✅ Definition:

JDBC is a Java API that enables Java applications to interact with a wide range of databases using standard SQL commands.

✅ Example:

Connection con = DriverManager.getConnection("jdbc:mysql://localhost:3306/db", "user", "pass");

Statement stmt = con.createStatement();

ResultSet rs = stmt.executeQuery("SELECT * FROM users");

while(rs.next()) {

System.out.println(rs.getString("name"));

✅ Features:

1. Provides a uniform interface for all relational databases.

2. Works with SQL-based databases like MySQL, Oracle, PostgreSQL.

3. Supports basic and advanced SQL operations.

4. Allows batch processing and transaction management.

5. Offers improved performance via PreparedStatement.

✅ Advantages:

1. Platform-independent database access.

2. Secure and fast with parameterized queries.

3. Easy to integrate with web and enterprise applications.

4. Supports multiple database drivers.

5. Well-documented and maintained.

❌ Disadvantages:

1. Verbose syntax compared to ORM tools (like Hibernate).

2. Tight coupling with SQL.

3. Limited support for complex object-relational mappings.

4. Manual resource management needed.

5. Driver dependencies increase setup complexity.

🔷 2. JDBC Architecture

✅ Components:

1. Application – Java code calling JDBC APIs.

2. JDBC API – Core classes/interfaces (Connection, Statement, ResultSet).

3. JDBC Driver Manager – Manages different database drivers.

4. JDBC Drivers – Database-specific implementation for connectivity.

5. Database – Actual RDBMS like MySQL, Oracle.

✅ Features:

1. Follows layered architecture.

2. Abstracts low-level database operations.

3. Ensures flexible and plug-and-play driver support.

4. Supports both synchronous and asynchronous data exchange.

5. Facilitates client-server database operations.

🔷 3. JDBC Environment Setup

✅ Steps:

1. Install Java and JDBC-compatible RDBMS (e.g., MySQL).

2. Add JDBC driver JAR (e.g., mysql-connector.jar) to project.

3. Import required classes (java.sql.*).

 4. Establish a database connection.

5. Execute queries using Statement/PreparedStatement.

🔷 4. JDBC Drivers

✅ Types:

1. Type 1: JDBC-ODBC Bridge (deprecated).

2. Type 2: Native-API Driver.

3. Type 3: Network Protocol Driver.

4. Type 4: Thin Driver (Pure Java, widely used).

✅ Example (Type 4):

Class.forName("com.mysql.cj.jdbc.Driver");

✅ Advantages of Type 4:

1. Platform-independent.

2. No native libraries needed.

3. Fast and efficient.

4. Directly connects to database.

5. Ideal for web applications.

🔷 5. JDBC Key Interfaces

Interface Purpose

Connection Connects Java app to the database

Statement Executes SQL queries

PreparedStatement Executes parameterized SQL queries

ResultSet Stores query results

✅ Connection Example:

Connection con = DriverManager.getConnection(url, user, pass);

✅ Statement Example:

Statement stmt = con.createStatement();

ResultSet rs = stmt.executeQuery("SELECT * FROM emp");

✅ PreparedStatement Example:
PreparedStatement pst = con.prepareStatement("INSERT INTO emp VALUES (?,?)");

pst.setInt(1, 101);

pst.setString(2, "John");

pst.executeUpdate();

✅ ResultSet Example:

while(rs.next()) {

System.out.println(rs.getString("name"));

🔷 6. Connectivity Steps Summary

1. Load the JDBC driver.

2. Establish connection using DriverManager.

3. Create Statement or PreparedStatement.

4. Execute SQL query.

5. Process ResultSet.

6. Close the connection.

🔷 7. SQL Query Execution Using JDBC

✅ a. Create Table:

stmt.executeUpdate("CREATE TABLE student(id INT, name VARCHAR(50))");

✅ b. Insert Data:

PreparedStatement pst = con.prepareStatement("INSERT INTO student VALUES (?,?)");

pst.setInt(1, 1);

pst.setString(2, "Alice");

pst.executeUpdate();

✅ c. Update Data:

stmt.executeUpdate("UPDATE student SET name='Bob' WHERE id=1");

✅ d. Delete Data:

stmt.executeUpdate("DELETE FROM student WHERE id=1");

✅ e. Retrieve Data:
ResultSet rs = stmt.executeQuery("SELECT * FROM student");

while(rs.next()) {

System.out.println(rs.getInt("id") + " " + rs.getString("name"));

🟢 Comparison: Statement vs PreparedStatement

Feature Statement PreparedStatement

SQL injection safe ❌ No ✅ Yes

Reusability ❌ No ✅ Yes (with parameters)

Performance 🔻 Slower 🔺 Faster (cached plan)

Syntax String query Parameterized query

Use case Simple queries Repeated queries

UNIT 10
1. Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT)

Introduction:

• AWT (Abstract Window Toolkit) is a set of APIs provided by Java for building graphical user interfaces (GUIs). It provides a collection of classes
for creating windows, buttons, scroll bars, and other components in Java applications.

• AWT is built on top of the platform's native windowing toolkit, meaning that AWT components rely on the operating system's native libraries for
rendering and management.

AWT Controls:

AWT provides several control classes to create GUI components, such as:

1. Button – Creates a button widget.

2. Label – Creates a text label.

3. TextField – Provides a single-line text box.

4. TextArea – Provides a multi-line text box.

5. CheckBox – Used for selecting an option.

6. RadioButton – Used in a group to select a single option.

Features:

1. Platform-dependent: AWT uses the native OS’s GUI libraries.

2. Heavyweight Components: AWT components are dependent on the platform’s windowing system.

3. Limited Control over GUI: Since AWT uses the native GUI system, customization options are more limited.

4. Event-driven: Supports event handling via listeners and listeners' methods.

 5. Simple GUI creation: Provides easy-to-use controls for creating basic UIs.

Advantages:

1. Cross-platform: Once created, the AWT-based application can run on any platform that has Java installed.

2. Lightweight and fast for small apps: Ideal for simple GUI-based applications.

3. Direct support for basic GUI components: AWT gives direct access to buttons, text fields, and panels, among others.

4. Event handling: Integrated with Java’s event handling mechanism (via ActionListener, WindowListener, etc.).

5. Support for menus and windowing: AWT supports basic windowing functions like closing and resizing windows.

Disadvantages:

1. Poor customizability: Limited ability to change the appearance of AWT components.

2. Platform Dependency: AWT is closely tied to the native OS, meaning a program's appearance can vary between platforms.

3. Heavyweight components: AWT components are heavyweight because they are mapped to native components.

4. Less modern: AWT is considered outdated compared to more flexible toolkits like Swing.

5. Slower performance for complex UIs: For rich UIs, AWT tends to be slower than Swing.

2. Java Swing

Introduction:

• Swing is a GUI widget toolkit that is part of Java's standard library. It is built on top of AWT and provides a richer set of GUI components. Unlike
AWT, Swing is written entirely in Java, making it platform-independent and more flexible.

• Swing is part of the Java Foundation Classes (JFC), which also include Java 2D API, JavaBeans, and more.

Components:

Swing provides a broad range of components, including:

1. JLabel – Displays a short string or an image.

2. ImageIcon – Used to load images (often used with JLabel).

3. JButton – A clickable button.

4. JToggleButton – A button that maintains a pressed state (like a checkbox).

5. JCheckBox – Allows the user to make a binary choice.

6. JRadioButton – Used to select one option from a group of choices.

7. JTextField – A single-line text box for input.

8. JTextArea – A multi-line text area for larger inputs.

9. JPasswordField – Similar to JTextField but masks input for passwords.

10. JList – Displays a list of items.

11. JComboBox – A dropdown list that allows the user to select one option.

Containers:

Containers in Swing are used to organize and display components:

 • JFrame – The main window container for your application.

• JPanel – A container used to organize components inside a frame.

• JScrollPane – Used to make components scrollable.

• JTabbedPane – Used for displaying multiple tabs within a window.

Layout Managers:

Swing provides layout managers to arrange components:

• FlowLayout: Components are arranged from left to right.

• BorderLayout: Components are arranged in five regions: north, south, east, west, and center.

• GridLayout: Components are arranged in a grid.

• BoxLayout: Components are arranged in a single row or column.

• GridBagLayout: Provides flexible and customizable layouts.

Swing vs AWT:

1. AWT uses platform-specific components (native GUI), while Swing is platform-independent and implemented in Java.

2. Swing components are lightweight (pure Java), while AWT uses heavyweight components (depends on native libraries).

3. Swing provides more advanced and customizable components (e.g., tables, trees, and text editors), while AWT offers only basic controls.

4. Swing allows better customization and theming with pluggable look and feel.

5. Swing supports double buffering, reducing flickering, unlike AWT.

3. Event Handling

Introduction:

Event handling is a mechanism for detecting and responding to events such as button clicks, mouse movements, or keyboard presses in Java applications. In
Swing, event handling is a key feature that makes the program interactive.

Event Delegation Model:

• In this model, events are passed from the source (e.g., a button) to a listener that handles the event. The source does not directly handle the
event itself.

• Event Source: The object that generates the event (e.g., button).

• Event Listener: The object that listens for the event (e.g., ActionListener).

• Event Object: Carries the information about the event (e.g., button click).

Event Sources and Listeners:

• Event Source: Any object that generates events. Examples include buttons, text fields, or windows.

• Event Listeners: Objects that "listen" for events. Examples include ActionListener, MouseListener, KeyListener.

o ActionListener: Responds to actions (e.g., button click).

o MouseListener: Responds to mouse events (e.g., mouse clicks, movement).

o KeyListener: Responds to key events (e.g., key presses).

Event Classes and Interfaces:

• ActionEvent: Represents an action like a button click.

• MouseEvent: Represents mouse actions like clicks and movements.

• KeyEvent: Represents keyboard actions like key presses and releases.

• WindowEvent: Represents window actions like opening, closing, or resizing.

• FocusEvent: Represents when a component gains or loses focus.

Example: Button ActionListener

JButton button = new JButton("Click Me");

button.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {

public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {

System.out.println("Button was clicked!");

});

Features:

1. Decoupling of event handling logic: Allows better organization by separating the event source and handler.

2. Platform-independent: Works consistently across all platforms, as Swing is platform-independent.

3. Customizable event handling: Users can define custom behaviors for events.

4. Multi-listener support: A single source can have multiple listeners for different types of events.

5. Flexible with multiple UI components: Allows handling events across various components in a single application.

Advantages:

1. Loose coupling between components and event handlers.

2. Unified mechanism for handling all types of events.

3. Increased flexibility: Custom events can be created easily.

4. Cross-platform: Event handling works uniformly across different platforms.

5. Rich interactivity: Supports complex and interactive user interfaces.

Disadvantages:

1. Can become complex: With a large number of events, event handling code can become complicated.

2. Requires careful management: Incorrect handling of events can lead to performance issues or unresponsiveness.

3. Listener clutter: Too many listeners can clutter the codebase and become difficult to maintain.

4. Event propagation: Incorrect handling of events might lead to unintended side effects.

5. Debugging complexity: It can be challenging to trace where and why an event wasn't handled as expected.

Conclusion

• AWT is used for simple, platform-dependent GUIs, while Swing offers a more flexible, feature-rich, and platform-independent GUI toolkit.
• Event handling is central to creating interactive applications in Swing, and Java’s event delegation model makes it easier to manage complex
event-driven programs.