IV. Control Volume Energy Analysis Most devices of interest to engineers involve mass flows.

Although is possible to analyze such devices using closed system models, it is generally much simpler to analyze them by defining an open system or a control volume. Closed systems involved a fixed quantity of mass that is always included within the system boundaries, so mass was automatically conserved. Since mass can cross the boundary of a control volume, we must develop an equation (the continuity equation) that accounts for the mass flows and ensures that mass is conserved. A. Conservation of Mass for a Control Volume Consider a fixed quantity of matter with mass m (the shaded region) that occupies different regions of space at time t and at time t+t. We define our control volume by the dashed line. Region i is the space occupied by m at time t that is external to the control volume, and region e is the space occupied by m at t+t that is external to the control volume.

Region i

Control Volume

Region e

At time t, During the time interval t, all the mass in region i enters the control volume and some of the mass in the control volume exits to region e. At time t+t,

Since m is constant,

Taking the limit as t 0 gives

! ! where mi is the mass flow rate into the control volume and me is the mass flow rate out of the control volume. It is often convenient to express the mass flow rates in terms of properties such as the density and local velocity of the mass.

Vnt Vt

dA

From the figure, it is seen that the amount of mass crossing the differential area during the time interval t is given by

An important special case occurs when the mass flow is normal to the boundary of the control volume, and all the properties of the system are uniform. In this case, we can integrate over surface of the control volume, and the following expression is obtained for the mass flow.

In general, there may be several places on the boundary were mass enters and exits. When there are multiple openings in the system boundary, the change in the mass of the control volume is

B. Conservation of Energy for a Control Volume Consider again our fixed mass system, m, that occupies different regions at times t and t+t.
Control Volume Region e

Region i

At time t, the total energy under consideration is given by

During the time interval t, all the mass in region i crosses into the control volume, and some of the mass in the control volume crosses into region e. At time t+t, the total energy under consideration is given by

Heat and work interaction may occur during this process, so the total energy of the fixed mass system may change. Although the fixed mass under consideration occupies different regions of space at different times, it is still a fixed mass or closed system. Therefore, the 1st Law for closed systems is applicable.

In the limit as t 0 , this last expression becomes

This is the 1st law of thermodynamics for a control volume or an open system. Notice that there is an additional mode of energy transfer due to mass flow when the system is an open system. Flow Work It is more convenient to modify the 1st law for control volumes slightly before applying it to engineering systems. The modification involves the work term. There is always work done on an open system when mass is pushed into the control volume or by the system when mass is pushed out of the control volume. Therefore, it is convenient then to divide the work term into two separate contributions. One contribution is associated with the work required to move the mass in and out of the control volume and is referred to as ! flow work. The other contribution, denoted by Wcv , includes all other work interactions. The 1st law is then written as

where the subscripts are added to the heating rate to emphasis that the heat is being transferred to the control volume. The work necessary to push a differential quantity of matter across the system boundary, W flow , is given by

PdA x

The total flow work is found by integrating over the area of the inlets and exits of the control volume.

The rate at which flow work is done is given by

For one dimensional flow (the velocity is uniform and normal to the system boundary),

Substituting this last expression into the 1st law gives

In practice, engineering devices often have more than one inlet or exit. Summations are used to account for the multiple locations at which mass crosses the system boundary.

This is the most useful form of the 1st law for open systems.

C. Steady Flow Engineering Devices In practice, many engineering devices operate nonstop under virtually identical conditions for months at a time. Under these conditions, the properties of the fluid within the control volume and the properties of the fluid at the inlets and the exits remain essentially constant. Devices that operate in this manner are known as steady flow devices, with the implication that the properties of the control volume do not change with time.

The following examples will illustrate the application of these equations to some important steady flow devices. 1. Nozzles and Diffusers Nozzles and diffusers are commonly used in jet engines, rockets, spacecraft, garden hoses and shower heads. Nozzles and diffusers are flow passages in which the cross sectional area varies. In a nozzle, the variation is designed to increase the velocity of the fluid. For subsonic flows, the fluid is accelerated by decreasing the cross sectional area in the direction of the flow. In a supersonic nozzle, the area of the nozzle initially decreases, and then increases in the direction of the flow. In a diffuser, the variation in the area is designed to decrease the velocity of the flow. For subsonic flows, the cross sectional area of a diffuser increases in the direction of the flow. Analysis: Heat transfer is usually negligible in nozzles and diffusers. This is primarily due to the fact that the fluid moves through the device fairly rapidly, so there is little time for heat transfer to occur. Since these devices do not involve any rotating shafts or moving boundaries, there is generally no work done by the control volume. Changes in potential energy are generally negligible. Nozzles and diffusers generally have a single inlet and exit. Therefore, these devices are modeled using the following equations:

Example: Steam enters a nozzle operating at steady state with Pi = 4 MPa, Ti = 400 C and a velocity of 10 m/s. The mass flow rate through the nozzle is 2 kg/s. At the exit, the pressure is 1.5 MPa and the velocity is 665 m/s. Determine the exit area of the nozzle. Example: Air at 10 C and 80 kPa enters the diffuser of a jet engine. The diffuser is operating at steady state. The inlet velocity is 200 m/s, and the inlet area is 0.4 m2. Assuming the velocity at the diffuser exit is negligible, calculate the mass flow rate through the diffuser and the temperature at the exit.

1. Turbines A turbine is a device which produces work by forcing a gas or a liquid through a set of blades that are attached to a shaft that is free to rotate. In a power plant, the rotating shaft is used to generate electricity. Analysis: Attempts are usually made to minimize the amount of heat transfer, so the heat rate is generally negligible in comparison to work and changes in internal energy. Changes in kinetic and potential energies are also usually neglected. Therefore, an adiabatic turbine operating at steady state is modeled using the following equations.

Example: Steam enters a turbine that is operating at steady state with a mass flow rate of 4600 kg/hour. The turbine generates power at a rate of 1 MW. At the inlet, the pressure is 6 MPa, the temperature is 427 C and the velocity is 10 m/s. At the exit, the pressure is 10 kPa, the quality of the steam is 0.9 and the velocity is 50 m/s. Calculate the rate of heat transfer between the turbine and the surroundings.

3. Compressors and Pumps These devices are used to increase the pressure of a fluid. Operation of these devices requires work be input to the control volume. Compressors are devices used to increase the pressure of a gas, and pumps are used to increase the pressure of a liquid. Analysis: Heat transfer is generally small relative to the amount of work input to the system. However, compressors may involve some intercooling between different stages. Changes in potential and kinetic energy are generally negligible in these devices. Since work is required to operate these devices, the sign convention is usually that both heat to the control volume and work done on the control volume are positive. When operating at steady state these devices are characterized by the following equations.

Example: An adiabatic compressor operating at steady state takes in methane gas at a rate of 45 kg/min. The methane enters at atmospheric temperature and pressure (27 C and 101 kPa) and leaves at 200 kPa and 77 C. The velocity at the inlet is 15 m/s, and the velocity at the exit is 90 m/s. (a) Determine the power input to the compressor using methane tables. (b) Determine the power input if it is assumed that the methane is an ideal gas.

4. Heat Exchangers Direct heat exchangers involve the mixing of the hot and cold streams, and they are sometimes referred to as mixing chambers. Sometimes the chamber does not seem to be distinct. T-elbows and Y-elbows in which hot and cold streams are mixed before flowing into a shower head are examples of mixing chambers. In other types of heat exchangers, the fluid streams are brought into thermal contact, but they do not actually mix. Analysis: These devices are usually designed to insure that the heat passes from one fluid to another. Since all the fluid streams are contained within the control volume, the amount of heat transfer from the control volume is negligible. There is no work done by the control volume, and changes in kinetic and potential energy are negligible. Therefore, the steady state operation of these devices is characterized by

Example: An open feed water heater in a vapor power plant operates at steady state with liquid H20 entering through inlet 1 at 40 C and 700 kPa. H20 vapor enters at through inlet 2 at 200 C and 700 kPa. Calculate the ratio ! m1 necessary to ensure that the H20 exits the ! m2

mixing chamber in a saturated liquid state at 700 kPa.

5. Throttling Devices Throttling devices are any kind of flow restrictions that result in a significant pressure drop in the fluid. Examples include capillary tubes, porous plugs and adjustable valves. In addition to large pressure drops, the temperature of the fluid usually decreases significantly. Therefore, throttling devices are common in refrigeration and air conditioning systems. Analysis: Since throttling devices are small and the fluid usually passes through quickly, there is generally not sufficient time and surface area for heat transfer to become significant. When operating steadily, these devices do not involve any moving boundaries or shafts, so the work term is zero. Changes in kinetic and potential energy are also usually negligible. Therefore, the steady state operation of throttling devices is usually modeled as follows.

Example: Refrigerant 22 enters the capillary tube of a refrigerator as a saturated liquid at 800 kPa. The refrigerant is throttled to a pressure of 125 kPa. Determine the quality and the temperature of the refrigerant after the throttling process.

D. Cycles Until this point, we have considered steady flow engineering devices in isolation. In practice, these devices are operated in conjunction. The performance of a combined system consisting of several steady flow devices can be determined by analyzing each device in sequence. Example: A simple vapor power plant operating is operating at steady state. The working fluid is H2O, and the properties at key points in the cycle are given in the Table. The mass flow rate is 130 kg/s. ! Qin
4 Pump Boiler

1 Turbine

! Wout

Condenser

! Qout Point 1 2 3 4 T (C) 500 80 P (kPa) 10000 10 10 10000

h (kJ/kg)

x 0.90 0.0

Phase

(a) Illustrate the cycle using a P-v diagram (b) Determine the rate at which heat is transferred to the steam in the boiler. (c) Determine the net power for the cycle assuming that the turbine and the pump are adiabatic. (d) Determine the mass flow rate of the cooling water passing through the condenser if the cooling water is heated from 20 C to 35 C. The cooling water enters the condenser at a pressure of 100 kPa and the pressure drop in the cooling coil is negligible. (e) What is the thermal efficiency for this power plant?

E. Transient Analysis In a steady flow process, we were able to neglect the changes within the control volume with respect to time. This simplification resulted in an algebraic equation rather than a differential equation, so the analysis was greatly simplified. However, in many processes the time derivatives are not negligible. Such processes are referred to as unsteady or transient processes. While transient processes are, in general, difficult to analyze, we can reasonably approximate many unsteady processes using a uniform flow model. In a uniform flow model, we make the following approximations: 1. At any time, the state of the matter in the control volume is spatially uniform. That is the properties are the same at all points within the control volume. 2. The properties of the fluid at all the inlets and exits are uniform. This means that the properties at these points do not vary across the cross sectional area of the opening. Example: A 0.005 m3 pressure cooker operates at 200 kPa. At 11 am, 20% of the volume is filled with water and the remainder is filled by steam. Heat is transferred to the cooker at a constant rate of 400 W. The water level in the cooker should be replenished when the volume of water decreases to 10% of the volume of the cooker. At what time should the water in the cooker be replenished?

Example: A well insulated chamber with a volume of 1 m3 is shown in the figure below. Initially, the chamber contains air at 100 kPa and 50 C. Air is supplied to the chamber from a large reservoir at a pressure of 200 kPa and 100 C. A discharge pipe is also connected to the chamber. Both the supply line and the discharge pipe are equipped with valves that regulate the mass flow rates in and out of the chamber. The valves are opened simultaneously, allowing a mass flow rate of 0.5 kg/s to pass through both valves. The air within the chamber is well mixed, so pressure and temperature are uniform throughout the chamber. Determine the pressure and temperature of the air in the chamber as functions of time. Neglect potential and kinetic energy effects.

Air Supplied at 200 kPa and100 C

Valve

Po=100 kPa To=50C

Valve

Air Discharge

F. Comparison of an Open System Analysis with a Closed System Analysis Many systems can be analyzed using either a control volume approach or a control mass approach. To illustrate this, we will analyze the following problem using both a control volume and a control mass approach. Example: Air is drawn from a large line through a valve to fill a balloon. The air in the line is at 298 K and 200 kPa. The pressure in the balloon varies as it is inflated according to the following relationship, P = P0 + 100d 2 where d is in meters and the pressure is in kPa. The balloon will stop filling when the pressure in the balloon is equal to that of the line. Determine: (a) the final temperature of the air in the balloon, (b) the mass of the air in the balloon at the final state, (c) the work done to inflate the balloon.