Calculus For Engineers

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arV19559
The calculus
for engineers
and physicist
3 1924 031 253 903

olin,anx
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GRAPHIC TABLES
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WORKS BY
LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN &
CO., LIMITED,
EXETER STREET, STRAND.
THE CALCULUS
ENGINEERS AND PHYSICISTS:
INTEGRATION AND DIFFEEENTIATION,
WITH APPLICATIONS TO TECHNICAL PEOBLEMS
CLASSIFIED KEFERENCE TABLES

OF INTEGRALS AND METHODS OF INTEGRATION.
BY
ROBERT
H.
SMITH,
MEM. OBDEK MEIJl,
^SSOO. M.LO.E., M.I.MEOH.E., M.I.EL..,~WH. SOH.,
EM. PKOFESSOE OF ENOINEERINS.
SECOND EDITION. REVISED AND ENLARGED.
WITB DIAGRAMS.
LONDON:
CHARLES GRIFFIN AND COMPANY,

1908.
[All rights reserved.]
LTD.
-T
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.
The
following remarks appeared in the Preface to the First Edition
at the presentation of two leading and application of the higher mathematics. In the first place, the development of the rationale of the subject is based on essentially concrete conceptions, and no appeal is made to what may be termed rational imagination extending beyond the Thus limits of man's actual physical and physiological experience. no use is anywhere made of series of infinite numbers of things The author believes that the or of infinitely small quantities. logical development is both sound and complete without reference
of this
book
"This work aims
features in the study
to these ideas.
"In
manner
the second place, a set of Eleven Classified Tables of
and Methods of Integration has been arranged in such seemed best adapted to facilitate rapid reference, and thus relieve the mind engaged in practical mathematical work of the burden of memorising a great mass of formulas.
Integrals
as
" Critics
faith
who
are schoolmen of the pure orthodox mathematical
become
hard to reconcile the ideas that have with them some of the methods, and possibly some of "We only ask them to remember the phraseology, here adopted.
find it
may
innate, with
that there
is
arising a rapidly increasing
army
of
men
eagerly
engaged in the development of physical research and in the industrial applications of scientific results, with the occasional
help of mathematical weapons, whose mental faculties have been
wholly trained by continuous contact with the hard facts of

sentient experience,
and who
find great difficulty in giving faith
VI
to

any doctrine which lays
its hasis
outside the limits of their
experiential knowledge."
Experience in the use of the book since
its first
publication has
confirmed the author in his belief that the basis upon which its treatment of the Calculus is built is 'sound, rational, logical, and
that its form affords an easy and rapid
to apply, correctly
method of acquiring power and safely, the higher mathematics to technical problems. The method is good for technicians and physicists because it is easy and rapid. Ease and rapidity would Tae fundamentally damning faults if it were illogical, or if it did not grow from the roots of the realities of the subject-matter. If it were illogical, it would be destructive of the intellectual training of the student. No illogicality has been discovered inthe course of a
narrow criticism undertaken during the revision for this second edition. If it be throughout correctly logical, the swifter the
habit of logical thinking to which the student
for his intellectual growth.
is
trained, the better
But the special virtue of the method is that this intellectual growth in mathematical power is from beginning to end fed by contemplation of the mechanical and physical facts the reality and truth of which are already parts of his familiar mental consciousness ; his primary knowledge of which is, indeed, often vague and uncritical, and which he now learns to
analyse into strictly definite ideas.
If this habit of correlating
mathematical thinking with external observation become a confirmed one, then his mental activity, both in logical analysis and
in observation of external facts,
must automatically develop con-
tinuously and permanently after his formal study of mathematics

It is only by virtue of this habit that mathematical knowledge becomes of use in physics and technical engineering. The author has no fault to find with the older methods of study of transcendental mathematics, provided always that they be followed only by the select few who by temperament and choice are destined to make pure mathematics their one and only field of lifelong activity. This special kind of activity may be useful to the progress of humanity, and, although the methods are old, they develop year by year in the schools in new directions and arrive But it is only a very few specially constituted at new results. minds which are adapted to pursue these studies successfully.
has ceased.
Vll
What
many
tance
needs to be recognised
not so constituted, and
is
that
that
what
mathematicians of this
bad training for the most urgent imporstamp are unsuited to be, and
it is
is
of the
indeed incapable of being, teachers of technical mathematics. In the revision for this new edition the work has been very
carefully searched for errors.
chiefly in the cross-references
rectified.
It is
Those that have been discovered, between Parts I. and II., have been hoped that the volume is now practically free
of error.
Considerable additions have been made, mostly in the form of
Appendices.
These deal for the most part with new applications,
the original work of the author, to specially important technical

problems, and particularly to the problems of economy in construction.
They
include,
also,
additions
to
Part
II.
in
the
Eeference Tables of Integrals.
In the course of new applications to technical work, general forms of integration which are either new or whose frequent practical utility is novel, demand a place Both in the development of Electrical in such Reference Tables. Engineering and in the stricter application of scientific method to Mechanical Design, this process of development is almost continuous and inevitable. ROBERT H. SMITH.
1908.
TABLE OF CONTEIfTS.
PAET
CHAPTER
1.
I.
I. INTRODUCTORY.
Clumsiness of Common Modes of Engineering Analysis, Graphic Method,
.
Integration more useful than

Differentiation, . Method of the Schools,
.
6.
1
1 1
7. 8.
9.
2.
.
,
3.
4.
5.
Rational Method, . Active Interest in the Study, Object of present Treatise, .
Illustrations, Classified List of Integrals,
10.
Scope of Part
I.,
11.
CHAPTER II.GENERAL IDEAS AND PRINCIPLES, ALGEBRAIC AND GRAPHIC SYMBOLISM. X dependent on x,
.
,11
.
Nature of Derived Functions,

Variation of a Function,
. . .
11 12
Scales for Graphic Symbolism, Ratios in Graphic Delineations,

. . .
.12
.12
. .
Differential Coefficient, a;-6radient, or X', Scale of X', . Sign of X'

. . .
Snbtangent and Subnormal,

Scale of Diagram Areas, Table of Scales,
Increments,
dient Integration,
....18
.
14 14 15 16 17 17
Increment on Infinite Gra18

.
.
.
.19
.
Increment Symbols, Integration Symbols
19
Limits
19
of Integration, . . Linear Graphic Diagrams of Integration,

. .
.21
.
The Increment deduced from

the Average Gradient,
22
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
PAGE
48.
II.continued.
PAGE
54, 55.
Area Graphic Diagram of In

tegration,
Meaning
Constant,
of
Integration
. .
50. 51. 52. S3.
Oiminisbing Error, Integration through

finite
22 22
.25 .27
of
.
56.
Extension of Meaning of Integration,

. .
"In
23 24 24 24
58.
" Gradient,
Change of Form of Integral, Definite and Indefinite IntC'

gration,
.
57. Integration the Inverse . Differentiation,
27
Usual Method of finding New

Integrals,
.
.
.27
Integration Constant,
CHAPTER III.EASY AND FAMILIAR EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION.

59. Circular Sector, . 60. Constant Gradient,
74,
61. Area of Expanding Circle, 62. Rectangular Area,

63. Triangular Area, 64.
Angle-Gradients of Sine and Cosine and Integration of Sine and Cosine,
First and Second Variable,
Powers of
65. Integral Momentum, . 66. Integral Kinetic Energy,
Integrated from Velocity and Time, . from Acceleration 68. Motion

67.
Motion
and Time, Bending Moments,

70. 71. 72.
Integration through 90, 76. Spherical Surface, 77. Spherical Surface Integrated otherwise, 78. Angle-Gradients of Tangent and Cotangent and Integration of Squares of Sine and Cosine, 79, Gradient of Curve of Recipro75.
cals,
....
37 38
39
40
41
Volume of Sphere, Volume of Expanding Sphere, Volume of Expanding Pyramid,
80,
a;-Gradient of Xx Integration.
....
of
and inverse Formula of

43
In,
"Reduction,"
81. x-Gradient
73. Stress
Bending Moment on Beam,
....
X/x and
verse Integration,
44
36
CHAPTER IV. IMPORTANT GENERAL LAWS.

82. 83.
84.
Commutative Law, Distributive Law,

Function of a Function, Powers of the Variable Powers of Sine and Cosine,
92.
Ratio of Product of any number of Functions to
Product of any number

of other Functions,
85.
86.
Reciprocal of a Function,
87.
88. 89.
Product
tions,
of
Product of any number of
.... ....
Two
of
93.
94. 95.
Theory of Resultant Error,
Func-
Functions, Reciprocal of Product of Two Functions, of Product 90. Reciprocal of
Exponential Function, Power-ljrradient of Exponential Function, 96. Natural, Decimal and other Logarithms, 97. Number-Gradient of Loga. .
52 52 S3
54
any
tions
91.
number
Func-
Ratio of two Functions,
rithm, 98. Relation between different Log-" systems," . 99. Base of Natural Logs, 100. LogarithmicDiffereutiation, 101. Change of the Independent Variable,
....
55
55
56 57 57
58
CONTENTS.
XI
CHAPTER v. PAKTICULAE LAWS.

PAKE
102.
103. 104.
PAGE
110. Indicator Diagrams, . 111. Graphic Constructions for Indicator Diagrams, 112, Sin-'a; and [i^ - x^)~i, 113, (1 -as")* Integrated, or Area of Circular Zone, . . 114. a!(r^ - Q?)'^ Integrated, 115. (^^)~1 Integrated, 116. x-\r^-x')-'' Integrated, 117. Log X Integrated,
118.
.
Any Power Any Power
of the Variable, of the Variable
69
62
64
by Logarithms, Diagram showing Integral

of x-^ to be no real exception,
59
105. 106.
107. 108.
Any
Power
....
of
60
61 61
61
Linear
67
67
109.
Function, Reciprocal of any Power of Linear Function, . Ratio of two Linear Functions, Linear Ratio of two Functions, General case, Quotient of Linear by Quadratio Function,
68
Moment and
Centre of Area
69 69
61
. of Circular Zone, 119. (fi+x^)-^ Integrated, 120. (r=-a?)-' Integrated,
70
62
121. Hyperbolic Functions their Integrals,
and
70
CHAPTER VI.TRANSFORMATIONS AND REDUCTIONS.

122.
Derivative of Variable, 123. Substitution to clear of
Change
71
71
129. General Reduction for X"", 130. General Reduction of a'X'', 131. Conditions of Utility of
.
74 74
74
Roots Quadratic Substitution, 125, Algebraico - Trigonometric

124,
same
132. Reduction of a?"(a-Fia?')'-, 133. Reduction of r^^ power of series of any powers of x, 134. Special Case, 135. 136. Trigonometrical Reduc.
i
72
72 73 73
I
75
76 76 77
Substitution, 126. Interchange of

tions,
127.
Interchange of any number of Functions, 128. General Reduction in terms Differential second of
Coefficient,
. .
....
two Func-
tions,
....
-
137. Trigonometrico
Algebraic
Substitution,
138, Composite
78 78
73
Trigonometrical Reduction,
CHAPTER VII. SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION AND MULTIPLE INTEGRATION.

139. 140. 141. 142.
The Second
rc-Gradient,
Increment of Gradient, Second Increment, Integration of Second lucre ment, 143. Graphic Delineation, Integration of Second 144.
.
80
81
Product and Quotient of two or more a;- Functions, 151. Third and Lower x-Gradients and Increments, 152. Rational Integral a-Func150.
tions,
87 87
153.
Gradient, 145. Curvature,.

146.
82 82
84 84 86 86
Lower K-Gradient of Sine and Exponential Func-
....
147. 148. Double Integration of Sine
Harmonic Function of Sines and Cosines, . Deflection of a Beam,

and Cosine Function,
149. Exponential Function,
tions 154, 155. General Multiple Integration, 156. Reduction Formulae, . 157. Graphic Diagram of Double Integration, . 158. Graphic Diagram of Treble Integration, .
....
89 90
91
91
xu
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VIII. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES.

FAOE
159. Geometrical Illustration
two
ables,
Independent
. .
.'
of Vari.
160. Equation between Indepen-
170. Equation between Differ100 ences of Integrals, . 100 171. Indefinite Integral, . 172, 173. Independent Functional
dent Increments, between Independent Gradients, 162. Constraining Relation between three Variables, . 163, Equation of Contours, 164. General x, y, F(a^) Nomen.
Integration Constants,
174. Complete Dififerentials, 175. Second x, y-Gradient, 176. Double Integration by and dy, 177. Graphic Representation
161. Equation
100 101 102 103
clature,
Functions of two Independent Variables, 166. Applications to p, v, t and <p Thermal Functions,
165.
.
Two
....
167. OS-Gradient of {xy), 168. 169. Definite Integral
Double Integration by dx 103 and dy, 178. Connection between Problems concerning One Independent Variable and those concerning Two Independent Vari104
.... ....
dx
of
of
Function of Independent
Variables,
99
CHAPTER IX.MAXIMA AND MINIMA.

104 179. General Criterions, 105 180. Symmetry, of Maxima in 181. Importance Practical Work, 105
182. Connecting-rod 186.
187.
Most
Economical
Propor-
tions for a
Minimum Sum
Warren Girder, 110 of Annual

.
Bending
106
188.
189.
Moments,
183. Position of Supports giving Minimum Value to the
Charge on Prime Cost and of Working Cost, Ill Most Economical Size for
Water-Pipes,
. .
Maximum Bending Mo184. Position of Rolling

for
107 ment on a Beam, Load for Maximum Moment and

.
Maximum
Shear,
for
.
108 109
185. Most Economical Shape
I Girder
Section,
. Ill Problems in Electric Transmission of Energy, 113 . 190. Maxima of Function of two Independent Variables, 114 191. Most Economic Location of Junction of three Branch Railways, . . .115
Maximum Economy
CHAPTER
192.
X.
-INTEGRATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

195. X'=/(X),
.
Explicit and Implicit Relations between Gradients 117 and Variables, . 193. Degree and Order of an
.
Equation.
ture
194.
Nomencla118 118
X'=f[x)
CONTENTS.
Xlll
CHAPTER
202. 203,
X.-
PAGE
PAOE
212. Quadratic
X=a!X'+^X'),
204:.
. .
123 124
Equation of Ist
. .
Homogeneous Rational
. .
.
Order,
.129
.
Functions, 206. X=!c/(X'),

206.
218. Equation of
2nd Order with

129
.125
214. 215. 216. 217. 218. 219. 220. 221. 222.
one Variable absent,

.
X'=(Aa! + BX + C)-T-(Ba! + 6X
207. 208. 209. 210. 211.
+ e) 126 Particular Case, B= -o, 126 X' + Xi' = H, 126 . . X' + XiE'=XB, .127 . X=zF{X')+f(X.'), 127 General Equation of 1st Order of any Degree, . 128
.
.
2nd Order Linear Equation, 130 131 X" + aX' + iX=0, 132 X" + aX' + bX=<f>{x), .
. .
XW=/i;a),
.132
.
X()=/<;X):XW=&X,.
X"=yi;X)
X('')=/i;X(''-i)),
.
.
133 133
. .
XW=/i;XI"-2)),
Xx" = (?Xy",
.134 .134 .134
THE CALCULUS FOR ENGINEERS.

CHAPTEE
INTKODaCTOET.
useful than Differentiation. In phythe Integral Calculus lends more frequent aid than does the Differential Calculus, and the problems involving the Integral are more often of a practically important type than those requiring the Differential Calculus alone But the ordinary student of mathematics never in their solution. reaches even an elementary knowledge of Integration until he has mastered all but the most recondite portions of the science of
1.
I.
Integration
more
sical
and engineering
investigations
Differentiation.
It
seems a priori
irrational,
and contrary
to a hberal conception
of educational policy, to teach the higher mathematics in a manner Adherence to this the so contrary to almost self-evident utility.
orthodox method of teaching in the Schools and Universities is, no doubt, responsible for the persistent unpopularity of this branch of knowledge and intellectual training among the classes devoted to practical work. It must be admitted that no great 2. Method of the Schools. progress can be made in Integration without help from the results
Therefore, so long as the two are obtained by Differentiation. taught as distinct subjects, by the aid of separate text-books, it is a distinct convenience to the teachers to finish off one before entering upon the other. If they be thus separated into two successive periods of study, it becomes a practical necessity to give Differentiation the priority in point of time. Still, it by no means follows that the 3. Rational Method. whole of the science of Differentiation must be known before any of that of Integration can be explained, thoroughly mastered, and
I
utilised.
THE CALCULUS FOR ENGINEERS. The ordinary system

of teaching the subject forces the
spend on Differentiation an amount of time altogetherneedless for his professional objects before ha enters upon Integration. Much of the former he will never use. The latter, from the very beginning, will supply him with abundant problems of immediate interest and importance in his own special work, and wUl, moreover, furnish him with a powerful engine that will enormously lighten the difficulties of his own professional subjects and
practical student to
his progress in these tenfold more rapid. Let it be noted, also, that very frequently the reasoning used to find an integral is essentially the same as that used to find the It is thus pure waste of time to go thiough inverse difierential.
make
Once understood, it leads to the simultaneous recognition of the two inverse results, both of them, it may be, eminently useful. Therefore, as far as practicable, the study of Differentiation and Integration ought to be pursued 'pari passu. 4. Active Interest in the Study. In modern education, in which such large demands are made upon the intellectual energies of the pupil, the necessity of the stimulus of a real active interest, opening out easily recognised prospects of broadening and deepening knowledge and of utilitarian advantage, ought to be conceded in Moreover, it is right to lead the freest and most liberal fashion. the pupU along the easiest road, provided it be a legitimate one. The thoroughness of the training he receives in habits of sound, trustworthy scientific thought depends more upon the length of time he is guided within the limits of correct method, and less upon whether he travels a short distance on a rugged and difficult path or a long distance upon a plainer and smoother route. The object of the present 5. Object of Present Treatise. treatise is to introduce the student at once to the fundamental and important uses of the Integral Calculus, and incidentally to those of much of the Differential Calculus. This we desire to do in such a way as to stimulate a growing desire to progress always further in a branch of science which soon shows itself capable of supplying the key to so many practical investigations. 6. Clumsiness of Conunon Modes of Engineering Analysis. At the present time our technical text-books are loaded with tedious and clumsy demonstrations of results that can be obtained " in the twinkling of an eye " by one who has grasped even only These demonstrations are supposed the elements of the Calculus. They are not really so ; each of them really to be " elementary." contains, hidden with more or less skUl, identically the same reasoning as that employed in establishing the Calculus formulas applicable to the case in hand. They are, in fact, simply laboured
this reasoning twice over.
INTRODUCTORY.
methods of cheating the student into using the Calculus without his knowing that he is so doing. There is no good reason for this.
The elements
of the Calculus may be made as easy as those of Algebra or of Trigonometry. More good, useful scientific result can be obtained with less labour by the study of the Calculus than by that of any other branch of mathematics. 7. Graphic Method. Much of the Calculus can be rigorously proved by the graphic method ; that is, by diagram. This method is here used wherever it offers the simplest and plainest proof ; but where other methods seem easier and shorter they are preferred.
present book is strictly confined to its own subject ; and, it is necessniy, the results proved in books on Geometry, Algebra, Trigonometry, etc., are freely made use of; employing always, however, the most elementary and most generally known of these results as may be sufficient for the purpose. 8. Illustrations. Everywhere the meaning and the utility of the results obtained are illustrated by applications to mechanics, thermodynamics, electrodynamics, problems in engineering design,
The
wherever
etc., etc.
<
List of Integrals.XThe part of the book which is looked upon by its authors as the roost important and the most novel is the last, namely, the Classified Reference List of Integrals. This is really a development of a Classified List of Integrals which one of the authors made twenty years ago to assist him in his theoretical investigations, and which he has found to be continuously of very great service. He has never believed in the policy of a practical man's burdening his memory with a load of theoretical formulas. Let him make sure of the correctness of these results, and of the methods by which they were reached. Let him very thoroughly understand their general meaning, and especially the limits of their range of applicabiHty ; let him recognise clearly the sort of problem towards the solution of which they are suited to help ; let him practise their application to this sort of problem to an extent sufficient to make him feel sure of himself in using them in the future in the proper way. Then let him keep notes of these results in such a manner as will enable him to find them when wanted without loss of time; and let him particularly avoid wasting his brain-power by preserving them in his memory. The more brain-power is spent yiêmorising, the less is there left for active service in vigorous and wary application in new fields to Formulas have a lamentable characteristic in attain new results. A formula fixed the facihty they offer for wrong application. perfectly in the memory, and the exact meaning and correct mode and limits of whose application are imperfectly understood, is a
9. Classified
THE CALCULUS FOR ENGINEEES.
pure source of misfortune to him who remembers it. It is infinitely more important to cultivate the faculty of cautious and yet ready use of formulas than to have the whole range of mathematical formulas at one's finger ends ; and this is also of immensely greater importance to the practical man than to keep in mind the proofs of the formulas. To obviate the necessity of such memorisation the "Classified Eef erence List of Integrals " has been constructed in the manner thought most likely to facilitate the rapid finding of whatever may be sought for. The results are not tabulated in " rational " order,
is, in the order in which one may be logically deduced from preceding ones. They are classified, firstly, according to subject, e.g., Algebraical, Trigonometrical, etc., etc., and under each subject they are arranged in the order of simplicity and of most frequent utility. somewhat detailed classification has been found desirable in order to facilitate cross-references, the free use of which greatly diminishes the bulk of the whole list. The shorter such a list is made, the easier is it to make use of., 10. Scope of Prefatory Treatise. This treatise does not prove all the results tabulated in the " Keference List." The latter has been made as complete as was consistent with moderate bulk, and includes all that is needed for what may be described as ordinary work, that is, excluding such higher difficult work as is never attempted by engineers or by undergraduate students of physics. The treatise aims at giving a very thorough imderstanding of the principles and methods employed in finding the results stated concisely in the " Eeference List " ; proofs of all the fundamentally important results ; and, above all, familiarity with the practical uses of these results, so as to give the student confidence in his own independent powers of putting them to practical use. The last chapter on the Integration of Differential Equations ought to aid greatly in pointing out the methods of dealing with various classes of problems. The niath chapter, on Maxima and Minima, is perhaps more illustrative than any other of the great variety of very important practical problems that can be solved correctly only by the aid of the Calculus.
that
GENERAL IDEAS AND PRINCIPLES.
CHAPTEE
SYMBOLISM.
II.
GENBBAL IDEAS AND PEINCIPLBS ALGEBRAIC AND GRAPHIC
11. Meaning of a " runction." Suppose that a section be made through a hilly bit of country for some engineering puipose, such as the making of a highway, or a railway, or a canal. The levels of the different points along the section are obtained by the use of the Engineer's Level, and the horizontal distances by one or
other of the ordinary surveying methods.
Let
fig.
be the
plot-
!*
Fig.
1.
ting on paper of the section. According to ordinary practice, the heights would be plotted to a much opener scale than the horizontal distances ; but in order to avoid complication in a first illustration, we will assume that in fig. 1 heights and distances are plotted to the same scale. Each point P on this section is defined strictly by its level h and its horizontal position I. The former is measured from some conveniently chosen datum level. The latter is measured from any
convenient starting-point. These two are called by mathematicians the co-ordinates of the point P on the curve ABC, etc. Eor each ordinate I there is one defined value of the co-ordinate h ; except throughout the stretch MN, where a break in the curve occurs. Putting aside this exception, the height h is, when
this strictly definite relation exists, called in
mathematical language
a " function
"oil;
or
Height = Function of Horizontal Distance,

or,
more simply written in mathematical shorthand, A = F(Z).
THE CALCULUS FOE ENGINEERS.
12. Ambiguous Cases. As seen from the dotted line drawn horizontally through P, there are three points on the section at the same level. Thus the statement that
Distance
or
= Function
of
Height
l=f{h)
must be understood in a somewhat different sense from the first equation namely, in the sense that, although for each height there correspond particular and exactly defined distances, still two or more such distances correspond to one and the same height, so that, if nothing but the height of a point were given, it would remain doubtful which of two or three horizontal positions it occupied. This ambiguity can only be cleared away by supplying special information concerning the point beyond that contained in the
:
equation. 13. Inverse Functions.
The two formulas

h='E{l)
and
i=m
forms into which the relation between h are simply two and I, or the equation to the curve, can be thrown. The first form may be called the solution of the equation for h; the second the solution of the equation for I. The functions F( ) and /( ) are said each to be the " inverse " of
different
the other.
An
inverse function
is
frequently indicated
by the
symbol - 1 put in the place of an index. For example, if s be sin a, then the angle a may be written sin 'h. Or if I be the logarithm of a number N, or Zi=log N; then N = log"'/, which expression means that " N is the number whose log is I." 14. Indefiniteness of a Function in Special Cases. The stretch of ground from E to S is level. Here the value of h corresponds to a continuously varying range of values of l. For this particular value of h, therefore, we have between certain limits in-
definiteness in the solution for
I.
If there were under the point

cliff,
a stretch of perfectly vertical
then for the one value of / to this cliff the solution for h would be similarly indefinite between the limits of level at the foot and at
the top of the
15.
cliff.
Discontinuity. From to N there is a break in the curve. In such a case mathematicians say that h is a discontinuous function of I ; the discontinuity ranging from to N.
GENERAL IDEAS AND

16.
PKINOIPLES.
;
to
of h.
Maxima and Minima. From A to C the ground rises from it falls. At C we have a summit, or a maximum value This maximum necessarily comes at the end of a rising and
Evidently the the beginning of a falling part of the section. converse is also true, viz., that after a rising and before the following falling part there is necessarily a maximum, provided there he no discontinuity between these two parts. There is another
maximum
or
summit
falls
at
K.
continuously from C to E, and then rises again from E onwards. There is no discontinuity here, and E gives, therefore, a lowest or This necessarily value of h. comes after a falling and before a rising part of the section and between such parts there necessarily occurs a minimum, if there be no discontinuity. have here assumed the forward direction along the section to be from towards the right hand. But it is indifferent whether we call this or the reverse the forward direction as regards the
The ground
mimmum
We
distinction
between
maximum and minimum
or Differential CoeflBcient. Each small length of the section has a definite slope or gradient. Engineers always take as the measure of the gradient the ratio of the rise of the ground between two points near each other to the horizontal distance between the same points. This must be carefully distinguished from the ratio of the rise to distance measured along the sloping surface. This latter is the sine of the angle of inclinar tion of the surface to the horizontal ; whereas the gradient is the tangent of the same angle of inclination. This gradient is the rate at which h increases with I. It is, in the present case, what is called a space rate, or length rate, or linear rate, because the increase of h is compared with the increase of a length I (not because h is a length, but because Z is a length). If at the point Q the dotted line Qg be drawn touching the section curve at Q, then the gradient at Q is the tangent of the angle Q2O. The touching line at point P on the downward slope cuts 00' at p, and the tangent of PpO' is negative. It equals the tangent of PpO with sign reversed. In the language of the Calculus this gradient is called the Differential CoefBcient of h with respect to I. Taking the forward towards the right hand, the gradient is upward direction as from to the summit C ; downward or negative from or positive from C to the minimum point E; positive again from E to K, and to E it is positive, and along ES to M. From negative from
17. Gradient
points.
A A
it is zero.
18.
Gradients at
Maxima and Minima.
At
each
maximum
and minimum point
mum point
positive.
(C,
K)
At a minimum At
K) the gradient is zero. At each maxi passes through zero from positive to negative. point (E) it passes through zero from negative to
(C, E,
it
Here, howThis value of h. point comes between two rising parts of the section: there is a positive gradient both before and after it. Although, therefore, we find zero gradient at every maximum and at every minimum point, it is not true that we necessarily find either a maximum or a minimum wherever there is zero gradient. 19. Change of Gradient. On the rising part of the ground it becomes gradually steeper from to B ; that is, the upward gradient increases. Otherwise expressed, there is a positive increase of gradient. From B to C, however, the steepness decreases; there is a decrease of gradient, or the variation of gradient is negative (the gradient itself being stiU positive). Thus the variation of gradient being positive from to B and negative f rdm B to C, passes through' the value zero at B, the point jêre the gradient itself is a maximum. From C to the gradient is negative, and becomes gradually steeper ; that is, its negative value increases, or, otherwise expressed, its variation is negative. From to E the gradient is negative, but its negative value is decreasing, that is, its variation is positive. the variation, or rate of change of gradient, changes Thus at from negative to positive by passing through zero, and at this point we have the steepest negative gradient on this whole slope CE. The steepest negative gradient, of course, means its loivest value. Thus at we have a minimum value of the gradient. 20. Zero Gradients. The distinction between the three parts C, E, and H, at all of which the gradient is zero, becomes now clear. At C the variation of the gradient is negative, and this gives a maximiun height. At E this variation is positive, and here there is a minimum height. At this rate of variation of the gradient is zero, and here, although the gradient be zero, there is neither
there
is
also level ground, or zero gradient.
ever, there is neither
maximum
nor
minimum
maximum
nor
minimum
height.
is a sharp corner in the outhne of the section, as at I, J, E, S, T, U, there is a sudden change or break of gradient. This means that at each of these points there is discontinuity of gradient ; and the above laws will not apply to such points. Wherever there are points of discontinuity, either in the curve itself or in its gradient, special methods must be adopted in any investigations that may be undertaken in regard to the character-
21. Discontinuity or
Break of Gradient. Wherever there

istics of
the law connecting the ordinates. The methods applicable to the continuous parts of the curve may, and usually do, give erroneous results if applied to discontinuous points. 22. Infinite Gradient. Under J the face being vertical, the gradient is commonly said to be " infinite." At each of the sharp points I, J, K, S, T, U, the variation of gradient being sudden, the rate of variation of gradient becomes "infinite." More correctly expressed, there exists no gradient at J ; and at I, J, R, etc., there are no rates of variation of gradient. 23. Meaning of a " Function." The symbolic statement
/i
= F(Z)
not intended to assert that the relation between I and h is by any already investigated mathematical formula, whether simple or complicated. For example, in fig. 1 the said relation would be extremely difficult to express by any algebraic or trigonometric formula. Equally complicated would be the law expressing the continuous variation of, for example, the horsepower of a steam-engine on, say, a week's intermittent running ; or that connecting the electric out-put of a dynamo when connected on to a circuit of variable and, perhaps, intermittent conductivity. Yet separate short ranges of these laws may in many cases be
is
expressible
approximated to by known mathematical methods ; and even when

very interesting, important, and pracgeneral law may be investigated by mathematical means, without any exact knowledge of the full and complete law. Thus without making any reference to, or any use of, the exact form of the function F( ) in the equation appKcable to fig. 1, we have already been able to point out many important features of the law it represents. 24. Horse-power as a Function of Pressure. Again, although the actual running of, say, a steam-engine from minute to minute varies with many changes of condition, still, if we choose to investigate the separate effect of one only of these changes, for instance, change of initial pressure, it may be found fairly simple. Thus we may write
this is not possible,
tically useful special features of the
many
Horse-power = Function of
or
Initial Pressure,
where p
This means that any change of pressure is the pressure. changes the horse-power ; and to investigate the separate effect of change of pressure on horse-power, we consider all the other con-
10

(if
ditions to remain
possible) constant, while the pressure changes.
Some
may themselves necessarily depend on the and these, of course, cannot be assumed to remain constant. For example, the cut-oif may be supposed to remain constant. But the amount of initial steam condensation in the cylinder depends partly on the initial pressure, and it cannot, therefore, be assumed a constant in the equation HP = ^( p). Similarly, the HP
other conditions
pressure,
considered as a function of the speed, it alone being varied while aU other things are kept constant. may be taken Or the as a function of the cut-off, the initial pressure, the speed, and everything else being kept constant, wMle the cut-off is varied. 25. runction Symbols. When different laws connecting certain varying quantities have to be considered at the same time, different symbols, such as
may be
HP
^(O. /(O.
<^(^). /'(O.
are used to indicate the different functions of I referred to. In fig. 1 we have used I to 26. Choice of Letter-Symbols. represent a distance, because it is the first letter in the word " Zera^Â,," and similarly A to represent " heiffht." It is very desir-
when letter-symbols have to be used, to use such as readily mind the nature of the thing symbolised. Especially in practical applications of mathematics, and more particularly when
able
call to
there is any degree of oompUcation in the expressions involved, is By keepthe adherence to this rule to be strongly recommended. ing the mind alive to the nature of the things being dealt with, error is safeguarded against, and the true physical meaning of the mathematical operations and of their results are more easily grasped. Without a complete understanding of the physical meaning of the result, not only is the result useless to the practical man, but its correctness cannot be judged of. If, on the other hand, the physical meaning be fully grasped, any possible error that may have crept in in the mathematical process of finding the result, is likely to be detected and its source discovered without great difficulty. 27. Particular and General Symbols. But many mathemati-
cal rules
and processes have such wide application
to so
many
clearly
entirely different physical conditions, that, in order the
more
to demonstrate the generality of their application, mathematicians
prefer to use letter-symbols chosen purposely so as to suggest only with difficulty anything endowed with special characteristics ; such
z, symbols which do not suggest to the mind any idea whatever except that of absolute blankness. It is doubtful whether this is a desirable habit in mathematical It seems probable that a course of reasoning might be training.
as X, y,
GENEKAL IDEAS AND PRINCIPLES.

more firmly
11
established in the mind of the student if he were first led through it in its concrete and particular aspect the mind being kept riveted on one special set of concrete meanings to be attached to his symbols and then afterwards, if need be, he may go through
it
again once, twice, or, if necessary, a dozen times, in order to discover (if or when this be true) that the general form of the result will remain the same whatever particular concrete meanings be attached to his symbols. 28. X, y, and z. There is one feature in the use ordinarily made of x, y, z in mathematical books which the writer thinks is a real evil. In his earlier chapters the orthodox mathematician establishes a habit of using y to indicate a function of x he constantly writes y =f{x) that is, he takes y to represent a thing dependent on x, and which necessarily changes in quantitative value when x changes. But in his later chapters he uses y and X as two independent variables, that is, as two quantities having no sort of mutual dependence on each other, the variation of either one of which has no effect whatever upon the other. This is apt to, and does, produce confusion of mind ; especially as regards the true meaning of different sets of formulas very similar in appearance, one referring to y and x as mutually dependent quantities, the other referring to y and x as independent variables. 29. Functions of x. When x is used to indicate a variable quantity, any other quantity whose value varies in a definite way with the varying values of x, may be symbolically represented in any of the following ways
{x), fix), 4>{x), fix), xix),
and X, ^ or
H.
forms, X, etc., are for shortness and compactness as convenient as y, and are more expressive. They will be used chiefly in connection with x in the following pages. 30. dependent on x. may mean a function which is capable of being also changed by changing the values of one or more other quantities besides x ; but in so far as it is considered as a function of x, consideration of these other possible changes is eliminated by supposing them not to occur. This is legitimate because these other do not necessarily elements which go to the building up of change with x. All elements involved in X, which necessarily change with x, are to be expressed in terms of x, and their variation is thus taken account of in calculating the variation of X. 31. Nature of Derived Functions. In dealing with functions of this kind, mathematicians call x the "independent variable," a somewhat unhappy nomenclature. and x are in physical reality mutually dependent one on the other. In the mathematical
last
The
12
formula, however, being expressed in terms of x, it is considered as being derived from, or dependent upon, x ; the various values of being calculated from those of x, and the changes in being calculated. from the changes in x. Thus it should be Ijorne in mind that the dependence of the one on the other suggested in the commonly used phrase " independent variable " is purely a matter of method of calculation, and not one of physical reality. 32. Variation of a Function. Similarly may be used to indicate a derived or " dependent " function virhose value depends only upon constants and upon the variable y. Or L may be made to denote a derived function depending only on constants and on the variable /. 33. Scales for Graphic Symbolism. Those readers of this treatise who are engineers must, from practice of the art of Graphic Calculation, be famihar with the device of representing quantities of all kinds by the lengths of lines drawn upon paper, these lengths being plotted and measured to a suitable Scale. So long as the quantity of a function is its only charapteristic with which we are concerned, each quantity can always be represented by the length of a line drawn in any position and in any direction on a sheet of paper, the scale being such that 1 inch or 1 millimetre of length represents a convenient number of units of the kind to be represented. In "Graphic Calculation " we very commonly represent on the paper also the two other characteristics of position and direction of the things dealt with; but in the Differential and Integral Calculus, so far as it is dealt with in this treatise, we are concerned only with quaniity. It is convenient to draw all lines representing the various values of the same kind of thing in one direction on the paper. Thus we may plot off all the a;'s horizontally and the corresponding X's vertically. If, when the magnitude of x is varied continuously {i.e., vrithout break or gap), the change of be also gradual and continuous, there is obtained by this process a continuous curve which is a complete graphic representation of the law connecting and X. The student ought at the outset to understand fuUy the nature of this kind of representation. It is clear that it is in its essence as wholly conventional and symbolic as is the lettersymbolism of ordinary algebra. Spoken words, written words, and written numbers are in the same way conventional ; they also constitute systems of arbitrary symbolism. Graphic diagram representation is neither more nor less symbolic and arbitrary than ordinary language. 34. Ratios in Graphic Delineation. The curve in flg. 2 is such
a graphic delineation of a law of mutual dependence between
13
and X. If X te of a diiferent kind from x, it is impossible to form any numerical ratio between th.e two scales to which X and x are plotted. For instance, if the X's are ft.-lbs. and the k's feet, then the vertical scale may be, perhaps, 1" = 10,000 ft.-lbs., and the
horizontal scale 1"
10
ft.
but the number
or 1000, is
not a pure ratio between the two scales. But in physics we have relations between things of different kinds, which are called physical
ratios.
It is only
by use
of such physical ratios that derived
T:,
dx
"Z.
_dx
*__!/
Fig. 2.
quantities are obtained. Thus the physical ratio between a number of ft.-lbs. and a number of feet, or ft.-lbs./ft., is a number The ratio is of an altogether different kind, in this case of lbs. lbs., from either that of the dividend or that of the divisor. Now the ratio between a height and a horizontal distance on the paper is a gradient measured from the horizontal. In this example, then, a gradient would mean a number of lbs.,
14
THE CALCULUS FOE ENGINEEES.
and each gradient would represent lbs. to a certain scale. Continuing the above example, a tangent or gradient measuring unity on the paper, i.e., the tangent of 45, would mean
^Q'Q?;;-^'"^ 1000
10
It.
lbs.
This
is
the scale to which gradients from axis of

;
are to be
measured
or
Unit height on paper ^ ^^^^ Unit gradient = Unit horizontal length on paper
j^^,
Gradients measured from the axis of have a reciprocal interpretation and are to be measured to a reciprocal scale. Thus a;/X means ft./ft.-lbs., or 1/lbs., that is, the reciprocal of a number
of lbs.
35. Differential CoeflBcient, a;-Gradient or X'. The gradient of x of the curve at any point x, X, is called the " DiflFerential Coefficient of with respect to x," and is symbolised by
from axis
either
^^
ax
or X'.
The phrase " Differential

a cumbrous one.
Coefficient of
with respect to x "
is
A shorter phrase is
the avgradient of
and
as this phrase is
very easily understood and definitely descriptreatise.
tive, it is
used in this
gradient of the curve from the axis of the above. It is called
The
is
the reciprocal of
the DiflFerential Coefficient of x with respect to X, or the X-gradient of x
and
is
shortly written
36. Scale of X'.
The scales of X and x are in general different

The
be
aX
and that
of
X' must always be different from either of these.
numerical relation between these scales and that of

thus expressed
-^ may uX
Let
the scale of the a^s be l" = s units of the x kind or quality
)i ))
-^ s
,,
=o
,,
,,
,,
,,

then
the scale of the
15
X"s
is
Unit gradient = tan 45 =
S
s
units of the
X kind
X
and
the scale of the -=
aX
is
Unit gradient = tan 45

37. Sign of
=
o
units of the
kind. X
curve
is
such as to
X'. The sign make both
of
X' is + when the slope of the and x increase positively at the
q ^,
c.
Fig.
3.
same time
decreases.
it is
- when
dX.
it
makes one increase while the other

as X'.
Evidently -^ must always have the same sign
The
possible variation's of
X' and
-^
are very fully illustrated in
fig. 3.
16
upwards ; In fig. 3, + a; is measured towards the right and + negative k's are measured towards the left and negative X's downwards. The student should follow out the variations from + through
to
of
hothX'and
dX
throughout the lengths of
all
the four
curves A, B, C, and
38.
D in each of the four quadrants.
Subtangent and Subnormal.. In fig. 2 there are drawn three hnes from a point xX of the curve, viz., a vertical, a tangent, These intercept on the axis of x the lengths and a normal. marked T^, and N^, on the diagram. T^ is called the subtangent and Nj the subnormal. Since (by definition) the tangent has the same gradient as the
curve at
its
touching point, evidently X'
= |.orT.4
and
Here
of the
T,, measured to the same kind as the x's,
a!-scale,
is
and interpreted as being a true graphic representation of
X/X'.
But 2
is
of the
same kind
as x/X, and, therefore,
would be
not of the same kind as X/N^., if N^ were measured to the a>-scale, and interpreted as of the same kind as x. Thus in order that N^, may be used as a true graphic representation of X'X, which is of the same kind as X^/x, care must be taken not to measure it to the x^cale, and not to interpret it as the same kind of thing
as X. If the diagram were replotted, leaving the a!-scale unaltered, and making the X-scale more open, the paper-height of X would be increased, and the paper-gradient X' would be increased in the same proportion. It can easily be shown that the paper-length of Ta, would remain unaltered, while that of N^, would be increased in a ratio which is the square of that in which X is increased. Simi-
maintained unchanged, the x-scale then the paper-gradient of the curve would be decreased in the same proportion as a; is increased ; Tj, would be increased in the same proportion as a; ; N^ would be decreased in the same proportion. Thus Nj; in order to be a true graphic representation of X'X, a
larly
if,
while the X-scale
is
were altered so as
to increase the paper-length of x,
&ENERAL IDEAS AND
PRINCIPLES.
17
quantity whose dimensions are those of XV;, must be measured to the scale
l"
= i units
of the
(f)
kind.
In fig. 2, Ta, and N^, are taken upon the ic-axis, and may be termed the P5-subtangent and a;-subnormal. If ,the curve-touching line and the normal be prolonged to cut the X-axis, they and the horizontal through the touching-point will give intercepts on the X-axis, which may be termed the X-subtangent and X-subnormal, and may be written T^ and 'R^. They are shown on fig. 2, and their proper scales are given below. 39. Scale of Diagram Areas. An area enclosed by any set of lines upon such a diagram may be taken as the graphic representation of a quantity of the same kind as the product X.x, and must be measured to the scale, 1 sq. inch = (Ss) units of the (Xa;) kind. 40. Table of Scales. The following is a table of interpretations of the diagram. This diagram wiU be constantly used hereafter for both illustrations and proofs, which latter cannot be accepted as legitimate unless the whole nature of this manner of symbolic expression be intimately understood.
Table of Intbrpeetations and Scales of DiAaHAMUATio ok Graphic
18
41. Increments. In going forward from a point on the curve a little way, a rise occurs if the gradient be iipwards. The short distance measured along the sloping curve may be resolved into two parts, one parallel to axis of x, the other parallel to axis of X. These two parts are the projections of the sloping length upon the two axes. They constitute the differences of the pairs of x and co-ordinates at the boguining and the end of the short sloping length. These differences are designated by the Greek 8; thus,
see
fig. 4,
8x projection on
aj-axis,
ana
oX
,,
,,
Since the gradient X' is the ratio of rise to horizontal distance throughout a short length, it is evident that
SX = X'8x.
If I and L be the co-ordinates, and then this would be written
if
the gradient be called L',
8L = L'SZ.
If
p and
were the co-ordinates, the gradient being called
Y',
then
SY = Y'Sy.
42. Increment in Infinite Gradient. These are the direct selfevident results of the definition of gradient, or differential coefficient. They do not, of course, apply to points where there is no gradient, that is, to sharp corners in a diagram, where the direction of the diagram line changes abruptly. If the diagram line run exactly vertical at any part, then for that part X' becomes infinite, and the equation appears in the form
SX =
an indeterminate form.
00
19
This last case corresponds to the piece of vertical cliff under point J in the section fig. 1. 43. Integration. The general case corresponds to the gradual stepping along the other parts of this section. The length of each step is projected horizontally {81 or Sx) and vertically (8^ or 8X). The latter is the rise in level, and it equals the gradient multiphed hy the horizontal projection of the length of step. In stepping continuously from one particular point on the section to another, for instance, from to C on fig. 1, the total horizontal distance between the two is the sum of the horizontal projections (the Si's or &'s) of all the separate steps ; and the total difference of level is the sum of the vertical projections (the Sh's, or 8L's, or 8X's) of all the separate steps. In climbing the hill, the cKmber rises the whole difference of level from to C, step by step the total ascent is the sum of all the small ascents made in all the long series of steps. If the distance be considerable, the number of steps cannot be counted, except by some counting instrument, such as a pedometer ; but the total ascent remains the same, whether it be accomplished in an enormous number of extremely short steps or in an only moderately large number of long strides. The mathematical process of calculating these sums is called Integration. This mathematical process is indicated by the symbol the Greek capital S, when the individual steps are of definitely measurable But when the method of summation employed is such small size. that it assumes the steps to be minutely and immeasurably small, the number of them being proportionately immeasurably large, and when, therefore, of necessity the method takes no account of, and is wholly independent of, the particular minute size given to the
steps,
then the symbol employed

as a specialised
is
which may be looked
upon
form
of the
word " sum."
The
of the English capital S, the first letter result of the summation is called the
Integral.
44.
sum
Increment Symbols. The separate small portions, whose equals the Integral, are called the Increments or the Differ-
entials.
When the increments are of definitely measurable small size, they are indicated by the symbols 8a;, 8X, Sh, 8L, 8Y, etc., etc. When they are immeasurably minute, and their number correspondingly immeasurably large, they are indicated by the symbols dx, dX, dh, dL, dY, etc., etc. Limits of Integration. The inte 45. Integration Symbols. gration is carried out between particular limits, such as B and C in
20
THE CALCXJLUS FOE ENGINEERS.
fig. 1. These limits are sometimes written in connection with the symbols of integration, thus
:
C
,
/"C
,
ro
2 8h B
"2 SI OT dh B J B
dl.
J B
If IJic be the co-ordinates of the point C, fig. 1, and Zb?% be those of the point B, then these integrals mean the same thing as
{ho
h^) or {Ic - Ib)
symbol by the names only The points themselves are, however, frequently indicated only by the values of their co-ordinates, and
limits are above indicated in the
The
of the points referred to.
then H is customary to indicate the limits of integration oy writing at top and bottom of the sign of integration the limit-values of the variable whose increment appears in the intregral. Thus, since
shAi at
we have the integral of Sh between following forms
B and C
expressible in the
two
If particular points be indicated by numbers, the symbolism becomes somewhat neater. Thus the integral of SX between the points 1 and 2 of the x, X curve at which points the ordinates may be called x^ x^, and the co-ordinates Xj X2, is
X,
=
'x,
r^2
X'a
Or, again, if it were convenient to call the two Umiting values of X by the letter-names a and b, then the same would appear as
'b
X'dx. a
Or, if the limiting values of x were, say, 15 and 85 feet, be written
"85
it
would
X85-Xi5=
X'dx.
GENERAL IDEAS AND PEINCIPLES.
21
It must be noted that the limits which are written in always refer to values of the variable whose increment or differential
appears in the integration. Thus the a and b or the 85 and 15 above mean invariably values of x, not values of X nor of X'. 46. Linear Graphic Diagrams of Integration. In figs. 5 and 6 are given two methods of graphically representing this process of
integration.
The
first
corre-
sponds with the illustrations we have already employed. Here the curve xX is supposed to be built up step by step by drawing in each small stretch of horizontal length Sx at a
gradient equal to the known gradient X' for that length. The gradient X' is supposed known for each value of X, and its mean value throughout each very small Fig. 5. length Sx is therefore known. "With regard to this statement it should be noted that a curve does not really possess a gradient at a point, but only throughout a short length. When we speak of the slope of a curve at a point, what we really mean is the slope of a minute portion
mean
Fig.
6.
of its length lying partly in front and partly beyond the point that is, there is actually no difference of meaning between the phrases "the slope of the curve at the point" and "the mean Since each gradient throughout a short length at this point." increment of X, or 8X, equals X' times the corresponding increment of X or Sx, we have in fig. 5 all these increments of
Missing Page
Missing Page
24
There
the

is,
however, nothing meaningless or impossible in
dX
at
Sh's,
same place. In fig. 1 up the vertical face under J, the 8X's, or have the same concrete, finite meaning as they have else-
where.
Thus
it is
clearly improper to write

;
dX = X'dx
I
for this
part of the integration the formula, which is true in general, fails under these special conditions. 61. Change of Form of Integral. If L be a function of the variable I, and if its Z-gradient be called L', then SL = L'8Z ; and if
A,
be any other function of
I,
then
Xdl
dL.
,
When A and L'
are both capable of simple expression in terms of L, the latter form of the integral may be more easUy dealt with than the former.
Such a transformation of an integral is called a change of the independent variable or " substitution." * 52. Definite and Indefinite Integrals. Sometimes the limits
of
the integration are
not expressed
/
in
the written symbol,

written,
it is
which then stands simply
X'dx.
When thus
under-
stood that in the integration the variable x increases continuously up to an undefined limiting value, which is to be written x in the
expanded form of the

the upper limit being
integral.
In fact by
X'dx is meant | X'dx,
The lower
Thus
I
limit
any may be
final value of the gradually increasing x.
written without defining the upper limit.

).
aX'dx means (X - X^
If various
upper limiting values of
X be successively taken, the part of the a remains unchanged. Such an integral may be written
integral function involving
(x'dx = X + G,
as the sum of two terms, one of which, C, remains unchanged the upper limit is varied, while the other, X, remains the same although the lower limit be changed. This is called the indefinite integral, and C is called the constant of integration.
that
is,
when
When
both upper and lower limits are particularised, as in

is
aX'dx, the quantity
called a definite integral.
53. Integration Constant.
To show the
exact meaning of the
* See Classified List, II. G.
GENERAL IDEAS AND
PEINCIPLES.
25
integration constant C, compare tlie above two forms of writing the indefinite integral. being the same in both The values of cases, it is clear that C equals ( - X^). The integration constant, therefore, depends on the imphed lower limit of w ( = a). If C be given, the implied lower limit a is thereby fixed and conversely,
value determines that also of C. The indefiniteness of the indefinite integral may, therefore, be considered as due to free choice being left as to either or both limits. The part depends on the choice of the upper Hmit, and remains indefinite so long as that is not fixed. The part C depends on the lower limit, and is indefinite until this limit is fixed. 54. Meanii^ of Integration Constant. Figs. 7 and 8 may help to elucidate further this question of limits and of integration constant. In fig. 7 the same curve is drawn thrice in different positions in the diagram. P'Q'E' is simply raised at every point
if
a be given,
its
PQE
/-!
26
tare equivalent to equal downward and left-hand horizontal shif and x are measured. ings of the axes from which the co-ordinates Thus the two shiftings are combined in fig. 8. Here, in order to
<
GENERAL IDEAS AND
PErNCIPLES.
27
have a value independent of the arbitrary datum level from which X is measured (so that m will not appear) but, on the other hand, terms involving n will appear, i.e., the value of X will depend on the position of the axis from which the x'b are measured. 56. Extension of Meaning of Integration. In the expression X + C, taking X to represent the whole integral quantity, it is
:
often easy to select the axes of reference so as to give a specially convenient value to C. For example, if the integral be the deflection of a symmetrically designed girder, symmetrically loaded and supported at its two ends, the symmetry of the problem makes it a priori evident that equal deflections occur at equal distances on either side of the centre of the girder length ; and, if this centre be chosen as the origin from which to measure the a;'s, equal deflections will be
found for equal
and - values
of x,
and
this condition,
if
applied, will be sufficient to determine one integration constant. 57. Integration the Inverse of Differentiation. It is important
function X' can lead to only one definite result, or rather to a series of results which differ from each other only in the value of the constant C. If through any point of P'Q'R' in fig. 7 there were drawn any curve deviating at any part from P'Q'R', it is evident that, at some parts at least of this other curve, it would have a gradient difi'erent from that of the part of PQR lying immediately below or above it. Thus all curves having the same X' for each x are related to each other as are PQR and P'Q'R'. Now these two curves taken between the same limits give the same difference of height ; and, if the integral be taken in the "indefinite " form, as meaning the
to recognise that the operation of integrating a
known
total height at any x from the horizontal axis, the heights of the two curves differ everywhere by the same amount m, that is, the two indefinite integrals differ only in the value of the constant C. 58. Usual Method of finding New Integrals. Since, then, a definite function of x when integrated with .respect to x gives one and one only function of x (definite in all but the particular value of the additive constant), therefore, if we happen to know of a curve which gives at each point an a;-gradient equal to the function of X which we wish to integrate, we conclude with certaiuty that
The level of the height of that curve is the integral sought for. the axis from which the height is to be measured is fixed by the special, or "limiting," conditions of the problem. This is the usual method of finding integrals namely, we make The finding of use of our previous knowledge of differentials. differential coefficients, or gradients, is an easier process in general than the reverse or inverse process of finding integrals. This differ:
28
ence
is analogous to that we observe in ordinary geometry, in which simpler to find the tangent of a known curve than it is to find the curve by building it up from a knowledge of the direction of
it is
its
tangent at each point.

cases,
In some simple next chapter, it is
examples of which wUl be given in the
as easy to find the integral directly as it is to
Very often the study of the character of a curve or law leads to the simultaneous recognition of the differential and the inverse integral.*
find the difierential.
CHAPTEE
III.
EASY AND FAMILIAR EXAMPLES OP INTEGRATION AND DIFPEBBNTIATION.

59. Circular Sector. An easy example of integration is the finding the area of a circle, or of any sectorial part of a circle. In fig. 9 there is drawn an isosceles triangle of very small vertical angle placed at 0, the centre of a circle, and whose correspond-
ingly
smaU
^,'
base
is
a very short tangent to the arc of the
circle.
The height
--^^
'\ *"
,'
r, the radius of the circle. Its base is, in a minute degree, longer than the arc, but equals the arc in length
of this triangle is
with
an approximation which
is
closer as the vertical angle at
be-
comes smaller. Taking hp, the peripheral arc length, as an approximation to the base, the area is |r.8p. The whole angle AOB may be split up into a very large number
I"
.
of
may
similar to the above. The greater than that of one of
their bases is
minute angles, in each of which be formed a small triangle
of the areas of these triangles is in the same ratio that the sum of greater than the base of one of them, because the
sum
them
same value in all. The series of bases form a connected chain of very short tangents lying outside the arc AB. As the individual links of this chain become shorter, and the total
factor \r has the
number
of
them correspondingly
to the arc length
greater, the
sum
becomes equal
AB with
closer
and
of their lengths closer approxi-
mation, and, at the same time, the

* See
sum
of the triangular areas
Appendix A.
EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION.
29
equals that of tte circular sector ABO with closer and closer approximation. Thus, taking the arcs minutely short, and calling the arc length AB by the letter p, we find
Circular sectorial area
:=
^r.p
For the complete

circular area is
ttt^.
circular area the length of arc

circle or îrr.
complete circumference of the
p becomes the Thus the complete
to note is, that the approximation of the sum of the triangular areas to equality with the circular area proceeds pari passu with that of the sum of the tangent lengths to the circular arc length. 60. Constant Gradient. In this integration the factor !? is a constant. The variable is p, the arc length measured from some given point on the circular circumference. The increment of p is 8p that is, Sp may be looked upon as the increase of the arc length p, as the sectorial area is swept out by a radius revolving round the centre 0. The integral is the gradually increasing area so swept out. The increment, or differential of this area, is ^r.Sp. Thus \r is the differential coefficient of the area with respect to p; or Jr is the ^-gradient of the area. Calhng the constant \r by the letter k, we may write this
Here the important point
-r (hp)
= k;
dp
ov otherwise
kdp kp.*
61. Area of Expanding Circle. second simple example of integration is that of the area swept through by the circumference of Let the radius from which the expana gradually expanding circle. the area inside this initial circumference sion begins be called r^ At any stage of the expansion when the radius has become is ttt-^.
:
the area swept through has been {irr^ - ttt-^). This is the ; the constant of integration being here - ttt^. As r increases by h" from {r - JSr) to (r + \hr), the area swept out by the circumference is a narrow annular strip whose mean peripheral length is iirr, and whose radial width is hr, as shown on The area of this annular strip, therefore, equals Hirr.h; fig. 10. and this is the increment, or differential, of the integral area swept out. The "differential coefficient with respect to r," or the That is, the r-gradient "r-gradient," of the area is, therefore, 2irt'. Otherwise written, of (wr^ + C), where C is any constant, is 27rr.
any
size r,
indefinite integral
4('"-2H-G) dr
* See Classified List,
I.
= 2,rr.
4,
and
III. A. 1.
30
THE CALCULUS FOE EN6INEEHS.

if
Here tt is a constant multiplier, and, k were used, the result would be
any other constant
miiltiplier
dr
Fio. 10.
Written in the inverse manner, the same result appears as
h
Kectangular Area. A third simple example is shown in Here a vertical line of length k is moved horizontally to fig. 11. the right from an initial position a.j. Its lower end moves along the axis of x. Its upper end moves along a horizontal straight
62.
Fig. 11.
k above this axis. The vertical sweeps out a rectangular area equal to k multiplied by the length of horizontal movement. At any stage x of the movement the area swept out
line at the height
* See Classified List, III. A. 2.

is
31
Sx.
is
k(x-Xi).
While the
vertical
Here the variable is x. Call its increment moves horizontally Sx, the area swept out
strip equal to kSx.
narrow rectangular
the integral area. the constant - fccj the two forms
This is the increment of Thus the a:-gradient of the area is k Calling by the letter C, this result may be written in
|(fa + C).J,
and
Mx = kx+C .*
This result is identical in form with that of 60, fig. 9, except that in the latter the integration constant is zero and does not appear, and the variable is named p, while x is the name adopted in fig. 11. The choosing of one or other name to indicate the
variable
is,
;
of course, of
no
but taken as two illustrations of purely geometric integration,
consequence
the
two
re-
sults
are
of
different
kinds,
although taken as formulas simply they are identical. 63. Triangular Area. In fig. 12 we have an area swept
out by a vertical moves from left to
line
as
it
right,
and
increases in height at a uni-
form rate during the motion. Its lower end lies always in Fig. 12. the axis of x. Its upper end hes in a straight line whose inchnation to the
called m.
a:-axis
is
During the movement Sx, from {x - JSa;) to (x + ^Sx), the mean height of the small strip of area swept out is (k + mx), and its area,
therefore, is
Qt
+ mx)Sx
area swept out during the motion from the lower limit x may be divided into two parts ; one rectangular with the base (x - x^) and the height (k + mx^ the other triangular with the same base and the height m(x-Xi).
limit Xi to
The whole
any upper
See Classified List, III. A.
1.
32

This whole area
is,
therefore,
{x - Xi){{k + mxi)
+ |m(a; -Xi)} = k(x - x^ + ^m{x^ - x^)
This
may
be written in the form

\jcx
+ ^moi? J
of
x standing inside the square x, x and x-^ (the former " indefinite " or not particularised, the latter special), and the latter value of the function subtracted from the former.* Again, it may be written in the other form which form means that the function
bracket
is
to
be calculated for the two values of
kx + \ma? + C
where
is
a " constant of integration."
This result
equations
:
may be
expressed by either of the two following
and
kx + imx^ +
>
^k + mx
\^
I
(k
+ mx)dx = Aa; + ^mv? + C
64. First
may
be
split into
and Second Powers of Variable. two parts. The first is
The
last integral
\Mx /"
which
is
= kx + C.^
obtained in
iig.
identical with
what
I
is
11.
The second
is
mxdx /"
which
is
= \ma? + Cg
the sweeping out of the triangular area. Momentum. The following are other easy examples of the first of these two formulas. in the interval The extra momentum acquired by a mass during which its velocity is accelerbetween time t^ and time ated at the constant rate g, if its velocity be j at time t^, is
65. Integral
t.^^,
m(2
*
''i) =
ingdt
I
= mg{t^ - 1^
See Classified List, " Notation."

Here mg
the
_
33
is
the acceleration of
momentum,
or the time-gradient of increase of
momentum.
66. Integral Kinetic Kinetic Energy is
Energy. The simultaneous
- %')
f [gKh - hf + Uh - h>x}
Acquired
= Extra
momentum x Average
Velocity during interval.

67. Motion integrated for Velocity and Time. Again the distance travelled by a train between the times t.^ and t^, when
running at a constant velocity

to
v, is
h
Here the velocity v is the time-gradient of the distance travelled. 68. Motion from Acceleration and Time. Easy examples of the second formula are the following If the velocity of a mass be accelerated at the uniform rate g ; then, since the velocity at any time t is {'('- î) + i}, and since in a small interval of time ht, the distance travelled is vM, where V is the average velocity during 8t, we find the distance travelled
in interval {t^
- 1^
to
be
{gt
- gt^ + v^}dt = -!-(/ - V) - î(<2 - h) + \{h - h)
/:
={h-h){î+Mh-h)}be multiplied by mg, we get again the increase of kinetic energy as shown above in 66; so that the increase of kinetic energy equals the uniform acceleration of momentum (mg) multiIf this
plied
69.
by the distance travelled.* Bending Moments. As another example, take a horizontal
beam loaded uniformly with a load w per foot length. If we name by the letter I lengths along the beam from any section where we wish to find the bending moment due to this load then on any short length SI there is a load w.Sl, and the moment of this load upon the given section is wl.Sl, where I means the length to the
;
See
Appendix B.
34
middle of
section
"

The integral, or total, moment exerted upon 81. by the part of the load lying between Zj and l^ is
/n
this
= whole
load on il^ l^ multiplied by the distance of the middle of the same length from the given section.
It must be noted that this is the moment exerted by the load alone independently of that exerted by the forces supporting the beam. 70. Volume of Sphere. Passing now to volumetric integrals, we may consider a very small sectorial part of the volume of a sphere as an equal-sided cone of very smaU. vertical angle placed at the centre of the sphere, and with a very small spherical base nearly coinciding with the flat surface of small area touching the sphere. The volume of the small cone with the flat base is known The height here to be \ the product of its base area by its height. This is true whatever be the shape is r, the radius of the sphere. of the cross section of the cone. Now the whole volume of the sphere is made up of a very large number of such small-angled cones with spherical bases, these cones fitting close together so as They would not fit close together if their to fill up the whole space. cross sections were, say, circular; but the argument does not depend on the shape of the cross section, and this is to be taken such as will make the cones fit close together. In all these small conic volumes, the common factor \r appears as a constant each Thus the is Jj'.SA, if 8A represent the area of the small base. sum of the volumes is greater than any one of them in the same ratio as the sum of the areas of the bases is greater than the base-
area of that one.
Thus
if
A be the sum of
the bases, or
dA. = A,
we have
the sum of the volumes equal to \rA. For any sectorial portion of the volume of the sphere, the sum of the areas of the flat tangent bases approximates to the area of the corresponding portion of the spherical surface pari passu with the approximation of the sum of the flat-based conical volumes to the sum of the round-based conical volumes, which latter is the true spherical volume. Thus, if be the area of the spherical surface, the volume subtended by it at the centre is JrA. If be taken as the complete spherical surface, then JrA is the total spherical volume. This integration is in form identical with that of fig. 9. It differs from that in Mud, inasmuch as the differential SA is an
EXAMPLES OF INTEGEATION AND DIFFERENTIATION.

area, while in
35
fig. 9 the diiferential 8p is a line. The mathematical process is the same in both cases ; but the legitimacy of the application of this process depends in the one case upon the physical relations between certain curved and straight lines, while in the other case it depends on the physical relations between certain
curved and
flat surfaces.
that the ratio of the surface-area of a sphere iir, the above integration proves the complete spherical volume to be (see 76 below). 71. Volume of Expanding Sphere. Consider now the spherical volume as swept through by the surface of a gradually expanding sphere. If the radius be rj at one stage of the expansion, and ? at another, the volume swept through between these two stages is |^7r(r^ - r^^). During any small increase of size Sr from the radius (r - J8r) to (r-f J8r), the volume swept out is the normal distance Sr between the smaller and larger spherical surfaces multiplied by the mean area of the spherical surface during the motion, viz., 4irr^. That is, the increment of volume is
it is
When
known
to the square of its radius is
^^
The
definite integral of this
is,
as above stated,
and the indefinite
integral for an indefinite size r

i-rr'
is
+ G.
.
Thus 4nT^ is the r-gradient of (-f irr' + C) If X were used to represent the radius, and X the volume, and X' the K-gradient of X and the constant factor Att be written Jc we would here have
X=
lkx'dx = ^x^ +
G*
is
Expressed in words, the radius-gradient of the spherical volume

the spherical surface. Consider a 72. Volume of Expanding Pyramid. based pyramid of height x, and the two sides of whose and nx. The area of the base is mnx^, and, therefore, Now, suppose the size of this idal volume is ^mni^.
rectangularbase are mx
be gradually increased, keeping
its
the pyrampyramid to shape unaltered, by extending
* See Classified List, III. A. 2.
36
its sides
in the same planes, and moving the base away from the vertex while keeping the base always parallel to its original position. As the height x increases, the sides of the rectangular base both increase in the same ratio so as to remain always ')nx and nx and, therefore, the increasing volume is always equal to \mnx^. As the base moves a distance 8a; away from the vertex from the height {x-\^x) to {x + \hx), the increase of volume thus added to the pyramid is the mean area of the base during this motion, viz., mva?, multiplied by the normal distance hx between the old and the new bases. The increment of volume is thus mnx^.Sx. The definite integral volume taken between the limit x^ and X2 is
\mrKC^
If the constant factor
mn be written k, this result would be thus expressed, taking the indefinite form of the integral
:
ikxHx = \ka? + G
which is formally or symbolically identical with the last result obtained. The difference between the two in kind is perhaps best recognised by comparing the word-expression of the last result with the following similar statement of our present one
:
The
height-gradient of the volume of a pyramid of given shape is the area of the base of the pyramid.
In this last statement of the result no reference is made to the special shape of the cross section of the pyramid, and it is readily
perceived that the reasoning employed above did not depend in any degree upon the rectangularity of the base. 73. Stress Bending Moment on Beam. Take as another example of this formula leading from the second power in the gradient to the third power in the integral, the calculation of the stressbending moment of a rectangular beam section exposed to pure bending of such degree as produces only stresses within the elastic limit. Under this condition the normal stress on the section increases uniformly with the distance from the neutral axis, which in this case is at the middle of the depth. Thus, if the whole depth of the section be called H, and the intensity of stress at the
top edge (at distance

intensity of stress at
from neutral z
axis) be called
Tc ;
then the
any distance h from the axis
is
JH
=^ =
ft.
EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATION AND DIFPEKENTIATION.

If the
it,
37
of depth 8h,
width of the section be B, the area of a small cross strip of is B87i. If h mean the height to the middle of Sh,
this strip is
then the whole normal stress on
-h^
.
hSh,
and the
is
moment
of this round the neutral axis is
2/rE
Sh,
because h
the leverage.
limits
The sum
of these
is
section lying above the axis
moments over the half of the the integral of this between the
h=
and h = JH, or
2JfB
r2Z;B
H
~3H 'T
= ^BH^
An
equal
sum
of
moments
of
on the lower half of the
section,
hke sign is exerted by the and thus the
stresses
Total Stress Bending Moment = -^/<;BH2.* Angle Gradients of Sine and Cosine and Integration of In fig. 13 the angle u is supposed measured Sine and Cosine. in radians, that is, in circular measure, the unit of which is the angle whose arc equals the radius.
74.
Eadians, sines, cosines, tangents, etc., are |^ pure numbers, or ratios between certain lengths and the radius of a circle; but if the radius be taken as unity, as in fig. 13, then these ratios are properly re\ presented by lengths of lines, this graphic representation being to an artificial scale just as, to other artificial scales, velocities, moments, weights, etc., can be graphically represented by line-lengths. In fig. 13 the angle a is measured to such a scale by the length of the arc Na, Fig. 13. while to the same scale sin a is measured by as and cos a. by ac. Take a very the two angles (a - |Sa) and small angle Sa, and mark off from The horizontal and vertical projections of 8a (parallel (a + J8a). to as and ac) are evidently the increments of the sine and cosine
See Appendix G.
38
THE CALCULUS FOK ENGINEERS.
The horizontal projection is a posithe cosine decreases as a increases, so that the vertical projection is the decrement or negative increment of the cosine. If 8a be taken small enough to justify the short arc being taken as a straight line, 8a and its two projections form a small have, therefore, right-angled triangle of the same shape as Oas. Increment of sina = 8(sina) = Horizontal projection of 8a
for the angle increment 8a.
tive
increment of the sine
We
= x.Sa = cosa 8a
aO
and Decrement
of cosa
= - 8(cosa) = Vertical
as
protection of Sa
Si
= -.Su = sina oa
aO
Integrating these increments between any limits Oj and
results aie
oj,
the
""2
cosa
da
fa-2
and
I
sina da^l cZa = I
n"2
- cosa
I
oosa^
cosaj
The student should
carefully follow out this integration

circle,
on the
paying
diagram through all four quadrants of the complete attention to the changes of sign. Written as indefinite integrals these results are
/
and
j
cosa da = sina
+C
.
smada=G- cosa
is,
Expressed in words, this

angle
is its
the angle-gradient of the sine of an
and that of its cosine is its sine taken negatively. 75. Integration through 90. Since sin 0 = and cos 0 = 1, while sin 90 = 1 and cos 90 = 0, we find, integrating between the limits 0 and 90,
cosine,
90
coso
0
da=l
da =
2.
r90
and
also
sina
J0
See Classified List, VI. 1 and
39
76. Spherical Surface. Let this result be applied to the calculation of the area of the earth's surface, assuming it to be spherical. The -whole surface may be divided up into narrow rings of uniform
width lying between parallels of latitude. of latitude be taken to be ^, the uniform
Thus,
if
the difference
width of each ring will
be about 17 J mUes. The meridian arc througliout this length may be considered straight without appreciable error. The ring at the equator forms practically a cylindrical ring of radius equal to that of the earth, E. A riag taken at latitude \ has a mean radius E cos \ ; and the circumferential length of its centre line is therefore 2irR cos \. Naming the difference of latitude for one ring SA., the width of the ring is E.SX, and its area therefore 2irR cos A..E.8X = 27rE^ cos A..8X. The factor QttE^ being the same for all the rings,
we may
first
multiply this
sum up all the products cos X.SX, and afterwards sum by the common factor 2irR^. If we perform this
integration from the equator to the north pole, that is, between the limits X = 0 and X = 90, we obtain the surface of the hemisphere. The integral of cos X.8X from 0 to 90 is 1 ; and therefore the hemispherical surface is 2TrR^, and the whole spherical
surface iirW. used this result in 70, p. 35. 77. Spherical Surface integrated otherwise.
is
We
The above
total
2jrE X 2E. Here 2irR is the circumference of a cylinder touching the sphere, and 2E is the diameter of the sphere; so that the whole spherical surface equals that of a touching cylindrical surface whose length equals the diameter (or length) of the sphere. /R---N> In fig. 14 this circumscribing cylinder is represented by its axial section nn, ss. For each strip
of
spherical surface
of
radius r
bounded by
parallels of latitude
XX, XX, there corresponds a strip of cylindric surface U, II of radius E, which latter is, in fact, the radial projection on the cylindric
surface of the spherical strip. It Fig. 14. is easy to prove that the arc XX is greater is greater than its projection II in the same ratio that than r. Hence the areas of the two differential strips are equal and, therefore, the integral areas from end to end are also equal. This proof is more elementary than that given in the previous
paragraph.
40
THE CALCULUS FOR ENGINEEKS.
78. Angle-Grradients of Tangent and Co-tangent and Integration of Squares of Sine and Cosine. In fig. 15, a small angleincrement 8a is marked off equally below and above the angle o, through the extremities of 8a and radii are drawn from centre out to meet the two tangents to the quadrant of the circle at and E. The tangent of o, or tan a, is measured along the tangent
tan,(cf4Sa)
'
>i*
-itan
from
to the radius at a,
tangent at
to the
cot a, due to 8a, increase of tan o for a positive increase of the angle, while 8 cot a The lines U and ce are drawn parallel to is a decrease of cot a.
and its co-tangent, or cot a, along the same radius. The increments of tan a, and of 8 tan u, is a positive are marked on the figure.
the short arc 8a.
tt is
therefore inclined to 8 tan a at the angle
a,
and
cc to 8 cot
o at the angle (90
a).
Therefore
tt
= cos a.8 tan o

is
and
ce= - sin a.8 cot a

(8 cot
Here the - sign

negative).
used in order to make co positive
a being
Now
circle,
tt is
greater than 8a in the ratio of
Ot
to the radius of the

-=-^.
or =-^.
Similarly ee
is
greater than 8a in the ratio
That
is,
8a
Therefore,
= ^^.cos a = cc.cos (90
-a.)
= ee sin a
80 = cos â.8 tan a = - sin ô.S cot a
EXAMPLES OF INTEGKATION AND DIFFERENTIATION.

Taking
all
41
the increments minutely small, these results are written

(2
a tan - =the angle-gradient of the tangent

->-
]_
cos%
and
Or otherwise
= the
angle-gradient of the co-tangent

1
sm-'a
-7
jT-da
J cos 'a
= tan a + G
and
I
sm IT â
(ia
= C - cot a .*
79. Gradient of
Curve of Keciprocals.
In
figure 16 there
is
'T
zwjimLm \wjMrw^^ ^
K-
X^
>
x
y/'
Ôf-X^j-
-M
M
Fie. 16.
drawn a curve
of reciprocals
is
the horizontal ordinate being
x,
the
vertical ordinate
X
See Classified List, VI. 11 and 12.
42
The
at

area of the rectangle formed
is
by the axes and the ordinates

all
any point
xy.
= X
area
constant for
Xj^
points of the curve.

other,
These two rectangles at the two points

having the
and x overlap each
common
ajj
X
)
as part of each.
Subtract this
common
part and there
is left
xJ
or
\os^
Xj
= (- ^)
^
" X
J_
X-^
J_
This
is
the ratio of the decrease of
to the increase of X
small,
x.
When
the increments are
made minutely
XjX
becomes practically
In the
figure a small increment of x, viz., hx, is set off equally
below and above x. The above equality of areas means the equality of the two narrow strips of area rafined over in the figure.
The
equality
is,
therefore,
{.-i8.}.8(l)={
1-^8(1)
}8..
Adding
iSa;.8(
fl\
\x
to each side
and writing
..4
dx
instead of
<)
changing also the
sign,
because
decreases while x increases, we X
X dx X
Expressed in words this is The a^-gradient of the reciprocal of is minus the reciprocal of the square of x. Writing this result inversely, we have
:
dx
f^
X^
X
IIL A.
2.
* Seo Classified List,
EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATION AND DIFFEKENTIATION.
43
where C is the integration constant to be determined by special limiting conditions. Fonnnla of 80. a^Gradient of Xx and Inverse Integration.
Reduction.
is
In
fig.
17 there
/'
/
'
drawn a curve whose ordinates are called x and X. X represents any function
of
the ; and, since the arc-length corresponding to 8a; is of minute length and may therefore be considered as straight, the point xX on the curve bisects this arclength and also bisects SX.
a^.
a;
is
taken to
middle of Bx
\
"'^
Also the horizontal and vertical lines through the point a;X on the curve divide the rectangular area ab into four equal parts, each ;|8a;.8X. The increase of the rectangular area Xx due to the increase Sx
,
of
is,
therefore,
(X
by
-I-
^SX){x + ^Sx) - (X - |8X)(a; first
JSa;)
= XSa; + xSX
of each product
actual multiplication, the cancelling out.
and fourth terms
The first of these two terms of this increment is the strip of area between the two dotted verticals of height ; the second is the strip between the two dotted horizontals of length x. These two strips overlap each other by the \{ab) small rectangle, and this has to be taken twice to obtain their sum. This compensates for the two strips not covering the outer small ^(ah) rectangle. Dividing by 8a;, and taking minutely small increments, that of being called X', (Xa;) being called d{Xx), and the ^-gradient of
there results
^) = X dx
The
X'a;.
According to 38 and 40, pp. 16 and 17, the X-subtangent measures X'a; ; therefore the present ai-gradient equals the sum of the function X and its X-subtangent. This X-subtangent is shown in fig. 17, where it is also graphically added to X.
result written in the inverse integration-symbolism is
l(X + X'x)dx = Xsc + C.
44

in
83,
As explained below
the
integral
j(K + X'x)dx==
jXdx+
written
jx'xdx.
Therefore the result of this article
may
be
jxdx = Xx- jx'xdx + C.

* This is an important " Eeduction Formula." 81. a^Gradient of X/x and Inverse Integration. In fig. 18 a curve is drawn whose ordinates are called x and X, any function of x. From two points x,X and {x + 8ic), (X + 8X)
M4)
IMPORTANT GENERAL LAWS.
45
\x/
Therefore, dividing
x\
&b,
x + Sx
by
dx
3?
where, since extremely minute increments are taken,
is
substi-
tutedfor^Ltp.* X + 6X
CHAPTEE
82.
IV.
IMPORTANT QENBEAL LAWS.

If A-X'Sa; is to be integrated, where same constant multiplier k is to he applied, it is evidently allowable to sum up first the series of products X'Ssc, and then to multiply this sum by k. Symbolically written this is
Commutative Law.
to each X'Sa; the
jkX'dx^kjX'dx
taken between the same limits in either case.f Keverting to the graphic representation of integration in fig. 5, the proposition means that if there he two curves drawn, of which one has at each x its height k times the other, then the first has at each X its gradient also k times as steep as that of the other. If there be two curves such as in fig. 6, 83. Distributive Law. the height of one being called X' and that of the other H', then a The third curve may be drawn, of which the height is (X' + H').
area under the

I'a'dx; that
first
curve
is
j'K'dx;
I
that under
the second
is
under the third
is
(X'
+ S')<i.
For each Sx
at the
x, the area of the narrow strip (X' + S')8a; for the third curve equals the sum of the two strips X'Sx and WSx for the first two
same
* See
Appendix D.
t See Classified List,
I. 4.
46
curves.

Since this
or,
is
true of each strip,
it
is
true of the whole
areas
jX'dx + j'a'dx = [(X' + nyx *
The two the limits of x being taken the same in all three curves. curves may represent entirely different functions of x, subject only to the one condition that they must be of the same kind, it being In both impossible to add together quantities of different kinds. integration and differentiation this proposition is more frequently used by way of sphtting up a whole integral into parts easier to deal with taken separately than by the converse process of comIt may be extended to the more bining parts into one whole.
general formula
f (X'
+ H' + J' +
etc.)dx =
jx'dx + ju'dic + JM'dx + etc.
tion
If the separate integrals on the right-hand side of the last equabe called X, H, ip, etc. ; then the dififerential view of the same
is
proposition
that the
a;-gradient of
{X+'a + M + etc.}
I
|- 1
X H J
-t-
-(-
-K etc.
= X'
-1-
-t-
H'
if'
-I-
etc.
= a;-grad.X + w-grad.H
Evidently the proposition of
in
x-grad.M
+ etc.
82
is
only a special case of this
which X' = E' = M', etc., etc. 84. Punction of a Function. In fig. 19 there is drawn a curve, the horizontal and vertical ordinates of which are called I and L. Thus L is a function of I, the nature of the function being graphiA second curve is drawn, the vercally described by this curve. tical ordinates to which are the same L's as for the first curve (plotted and measured to the same scale), and whose horizontal
ordinates are called \. A. is a function of L, the curve graphically characterising the form of the function. A. is a quantity which may possibly be of the same kind as I, and, if so, it might be
plotted to the same scale.
A.
But the general case is that in which not of the same kind as I, and cannot possibly, therefore, be plotted to the same scale, although in the diagram it is measured in the same direction. Since for each given value of L the second curve gives a definite
is
I.
5.
47
corresponding value of \, and the first curve gives a definite value oil; it follows that for each value of I there is a definite value of X. In general there may he more than one value of \ for each I but all the values of X corresponding to one given value of I are
definite.
Thus A
is
a definite function of
I.
In the figure the Z-gradient of L is represented graphically by a height obtained by drawing a tangent at the point /L, and plotting horizontally from this point a distance representing to the proper
scale unity.
This gradient
A. is
is
called L' in the figure.
The
I^-gradient of
similarly represented, the unit
employed
being measured vertically, and not being the same as that used in
M-X'-
M
Fig.
Ifl.
finding L', because the scales involved are different. It is marked X'. The two gradients shown in the figure are for the same value of L ; that is, the tangents are drawn at points at the same level in the two curves. If 8L and hi are the two projections of any very short length of the first curve lying partly on each side of the point where the
ST
tangent
is
drawn, L'
= -^
ot
If
8L and SX
are the projections of
any very
short length of the second curve lying partly on each
side of the point
where the tangent
is
drawn, then X'=
8X
oL
If the two short arcs on the two curves be taken so as to give the same vertical projection, that is, the same 8L, as is shown in fig. 19 by the dotted lines ; then in the product L'X' the 8L cancels out.
^v
48
Thus,
= -^ when
dl
the increments are

Z-gradient of
of L.
I,
taken minutely small.
In words this
is
The
of
equals the L-gradient of A. multiplied If we use the notation x, X, and
by the Z-gradient F(X) instead of
L, and X
and
if
by F(X) we understand the X-gradient

is
F(X)
or-^^^
the same
written
dx
^'-^''^ "
ax
dx-
85. Powers of the Variable; Powers of Sin and Cos. This general proposition is one of the most fruitful of all laws in producing useful results when applied to particular functions, as will be seen in the next chapter. Simple illustrations of its meaning are the following
:
Let
L = Z2andA. = LS
From
..\ = 10.
64 and 7 1 we
know
that

Written inversely,
49
Again,
let
=?3 and
A.
=L8
~ ,g
..k = l^
dX.
'
dp
dl
dl
Written inversely,
isdl
= ~*
.-.
I'
Again,
let
L = ?'andX = L^
From
the last example
X = Z'.
^=
9^^,
and
also L'
= 21.
Therefore
orX'=^=4|Z' = 4im
CCLj
Similarly, of course,
if
X = a^,
= -^
then
Written inversely
Again,
let
/ st^doc
L = cos I
Then
.
and \ = L' = cos^Z

X'
L'
cL
= - sin I and
cos
= 2L = 2
cos
=
ft
-2cosZsin?= -sin2Z.
dl
Take two more examples namely,

:
L = sinZ
Then
X'
and
L = cosZ,
while \ = ^.
= - =r^
in both cases,
and
L' = cos
in 1" case
Z
sin
in 2"^ case.
2.
* See Classified List, III. A.
50
THE CALCULUS FOR ENGmEEES.

Therefore, since 1/sin
I
= cosec
dl
I,
and
1/cos
I
= sec
I,
d cosec I
cos
sinH
sin
Z
and
d sec I
dl
cosH
The second and the last of 86. Reciprocal of a Function. these illustrations are special cases of the semi-special semi-general case a very important one
Here we obtain - = X'L' = -=r^.

dl
Dividing by
,
X, that
.
is,
more symmetrical form _- \ dl

,
J.
multiplying by L, L' dX.
we
obtain this in the
- ^
Product of two Functions. Eetaining the notation of the two articles, one particular function, to which we may apply Thus the rule of 84, is the product XL.
87.
last
^L)^^L)
dl
rfL
' '
~ dL
dl
But by
80,
Multiplying by
there results
dl
,
and observing that by
84, -=djLt
-37 dl
= jt,
ui
d()dA^}dL^ L
dl dl
dl
'
If X, H and X be used for the three mutually dependent variables, be the a^gradients instead of the letters X, L and I; and if X' and
of
X and B
then the above
is
written
dx
This extremely useful result
may be
easily
proved directly by the

method of fig. 17, drawing a curve with ordinates considering the increment of the rectangular area XS. ment is evidently
51
and S, and
This incre-
X.8B + E.SX
and dividing this by 8a; the above result is obtained. Written as an integration this result is
jxn'dx+j:X"Hdx = X'B
or
XS'â;=XH- j:X'Udx* fx'H'dx =
xn-
This latter form is the most fundamental and useful of the "formulas of transformation," and is usually referred to as " Integration by Parts." By its help most of the "formulas of reduction" are
obtained.
88.
at
Product of any Ntunber of Functions. This result may once be extended to the product of any number of different functions H, J^, etc. etc. of x. The a;-gradient of this product is the sum of a number of terms, each of which is the product of all but one of the factors multiplied by the a:-gradient of that one factor omitted. The result may be written in more symmetrical form if each term be divided by the product of all the factors. Thus, call the whole product X, or let
X = H-Jetc.,
then
etc.
J^l'
where
l + etc+etc.
The a;-gradient
H
X,
etc.
X', B', X', etc., are the i-gradients of X, S, 89. Eeciprocal of Product of Two Functions.
and Jf of a; is of the reciprocal of the product of two functions and its a^gradient found with equal ease. Call this reciprocal
X'.
Then
X-1
and by
last
paragraph,
88 and
86
X
I.
8.
52

Product of any Number of Functions.
90. Reciprocal of
The
extension of this law to the reciprocal of the product of any number of functions is made by simply repeating the process of the last paragraph. 91. Ratio of Two Functions. To find the a:-gradient of the quotient of two functions of x, we combine the laws of 87 and Thus, if 86.
^-i~^-i
then
X
It will
^\ JV B Jresult
be a useful exercise for the student to deduce this
directly
to
by the method of iig. 18 and 81, making the co-ordinates the curve H and instead of X and x, and without using the law
92. Ratio of Product of any Number of Functions to Product of any Number of other Functions. It is now apparent that all the results of 86-91, inclusive, may be combined into the following single more general formula if
X = L M N, etc., etc. P Q E, etc., etc.

where L, M, N, P, Q, R, etc., are functions etc., be the a;-gradients ; then
X'
L'
of x,
and
if
X', L', P',
M'
N'
P'
Q'
E'
X
93.
all
=L+M -^F^
''^'
''"--V
-Q
'"''
'''
tiplied
Theory of Resultant Error. If the last formula be mulby Sir, and if we call X'Sx 8X, L'Sa; SL, 'Sx SP, etc.; direct reference to x disappears and the formula becomes
SX
Now,
if
X^L + M-'n
L,
SLSUm ^ '''
M,
etc.,
SP
'*"-
SQ
SE
-
''-''"'-
that have been
made
represent measurements of physical quantities in order to calculate from them the quotient
if, by any means, it be known or estimated that the measurement of L has been subject to a small error SL, and that the measurement of has been subject to a small error SM, etc., etc.
X; and
bhen -^
is
the ratio of error in the measurement of L, and
is

the ratio of error in the measurement of the other factors
;
53
similarly with
M, and
whUe
is
the resulting ratio of error in the
calculated quotient X.
The above
words
:
proposition
may then
be expressed in the following
The ratio of the product of a number of measured quantities to the product of another set of measured quantities is subject to a ratio of error, equal to the sum of the ratios of error in the individual multipliers reduced by the sum of the ratios of error in the individual divisors. Attention must here be paid to the signs of the errors. Thus,
if
8L
is
a negative error, then -y

if
is
really a negative fraction.
Similarly,
fraction.
8P
is
a negative error, then
is
really a positive
Now, although there is often reason for supposing the suspected error to lie more probably in one direction than in the opposite, stiU errors being things which are avoided as far as possible (or
it is
convenient, or profitable), and, therefore, not consciously incurred, never known for certain whether any individual error be + Thus, although divisors give by the formula ratios of error or of opposite sign to those given by multiphers, it may happen that
.
all
the terms in -= are really of the same sign, and have, therefore,
Jo..
all to
if
be arithmetically added to get the whole ratio of error. Thus, we are considering what may be the maximum possible error in X,
but add
attention to the difference between multipliers and all the ratios of error in all the factors (both multipliers and divisors) together independehtly of sign. It need hardly be pointed out that this maximum possible error
we must pay no
divisors,
is
greater than the probable error.
In fig. 20 is drawn a curve with 94. Exponential Function. I varies horizontal ordinates called I, and vertical ordinates bi. Here I is essentially a number ; not, of course, continuously. 6 is a necessarily a whole number, since its variation is continuous. If b constant, and receives the name of the " base " of this curve. were any physical quantity, then its different powers would have
various physical " dimensions," and would mean physical quantiIn fig. 20 we assume the various vertical ties of different kinds. ordinates as all of the same kind, and therefore b cannot be a On this assumpphysical quantity, but must be a pure number.
54
tion
find that 6' is also a pure number. In this problem, thereboth horizontal and vertical ordinates can be nothing but pure numbers.* At the same time it must be noted that if A; be a physical constant quantity, either a unit or any other quantity, then IcV represents a varying physical quantity of the same kind. 95. Power Gradient of Exponential Function. Îf n be any fixed number, 6" is also a fixed constant number. We may write
fore,
6'
we
= 6''.6"-"'.
Here &' is the vertical height of the curve, fig. 20, at any horizontal distance I; while 6''""' is the height of a point on the curve at the constant horizontal distance n to the left of I.
Considering various Vs and various pairs of points with ordinates (Z - n), we perceive that the nature of this curve gives a constant proportion, 6", between the heights of all pairs of points at the constant horizontal distance n apart. succession of points at the equal horizontal spacing n have their heights advancing in geometrical series, the common ratio of which is 6". Taking the Z-gradient, or slope, of the curve at I, and remembering that 6" is a constant factor, we find
I
and
dW
dl
^ 6"
cZft"-"'
.
dl
This means that there is also the same constant proportion, 6", between the gradients as between the heights at all pairs of points horizontally n apart.
Dividing the height by the slope

see 38.
we
obtain the
subtangent
Subtangent at
= say T = 6
T.,
/
I
dl
Subtangent at These two
(Z
- m) = say
= fe"-"'/^^"""'
common
factor
last expressions are equal,
because the
&" cancels out in their ratio.
Thus the two subtangents
are equal
in length ; see fig. 20. Now the length of the subtangent at Z does not depend in any way upon the length n. For any one point Z, we may take various lengths n, thus getting various points (Z - n), at all of which the subtangent equals that at the one point Z. This means that at aU
points along the curve the subtangent has the same length.
* In Sir William Hamilton's Quatemions, ( - 1) raised to a. continuously increasing power is used to indicate rotation or gradual change of direction.

Inverting the last equation,
55
=.b' = Constant x
6',
the constant being the reciprocal of the constant length of subtangent. The subtangent being a pure number, its reciprocal is also a pure number. 96. Natural, Decimal, and other Logarithms. When T = l (unity), and the above constant is therefore also unity, the base h is designated by mathematicians by the letter e. It, e, is the base of the "natural" or "hyperbolic" or "Neperian" logarithms. Each system of logarithms has a "base," which is a number and to which all other numbers are referred. Every number, whether whole or fractional, is represented as this " base," raised to a certain power. The power to which the base must be raised in order to produce each number is the logarithm of that number. Thus, it i' be a number, and if b be taken as the base of the system of logarithms, then I is the log of the number 6' to the base h. In the "Common," or " Brigg's," or " Decimal " logarithms, the base is 10 every number being represented as 10 raised to one or other power. The result of 95 may be expressed thus In any system of logarithms the logarithm-gradient of the number bears a constant proportion to the number itself. The reciprocal of this constant proportion, or the subtangent in the graphic representation of fig. 20, is called the " modulus " of the system of logarithms. The "natural" system of logs may be defined as that which gives the rate of increase of the number compared with its logarithm equal to the number itself ; or which makes the logarithmgradient of the number equal to the number itself; or, symbolically,
d^_
the constant for this base
to
be 2'71828
97.
The base e is calculated e being unity. The modulus of this system is 1. Number Gradient of Logarithm. If we call the number N,
.
fig. 20 the vertical height of the curve is and the The curve is sometimes horizontal ordinate is its logarithm. termed a logarithmic curve ; sometimes an exponential curve. It takes difi'erent forms according to the logarithmic base h used in
then in
drawing
it
out.
five curves
In fig. 21 these variations of form are shown, the having the bases
h = %e, 8, 10, and 12,
56
= 1 at ? = 0. At Z = 1 All these curves come to the same height the height of each is the base 6. To the left of the vertical axis where I is negative, the height is always less than unity, and decreases asymptotically to the horizontal axis towards zero height. Fig. 22 shows the extension of these same curves to high numbers with positive logarithms. The logarithm to the base e of the is number The logarithm to the base 6 of is written log,, N. written logj N. Thus the decimal log of may be unambiguously written log,o N. The results of 95 and 96 written in this notation, and taking the reciprocal or conjugate gradient from the vertical axis, instead of the Z-gradient, are
dloglS
dl
the constant
being the modulus of the system of logarithms;
and
dlogTS _
d'S
if
dl
"iN~N
is e
natural logs are used in which the base

98. Kelation
and the modulus
unity.
between
DiflFerent
e
Log
" Systems."
Any base
may be
we
looked on as the base

-=^.
raised to a certain power, which
will call
Thus
6
= 6*
TS
and
= V^.
Therefore,
if
= U = Ji;
e.
also
logs
N = = T loge N = log, N. log,

Z
Thus there of numbers

system.
is
a constant ratio
T = log5e
between the logarithms
to the base b to their logarithms in the "natural"

last logs
Taking the N-gradients of these
and remembering
that
is
a constant,
dlog^S _
dlog^S
dE
which shows that the
dN
fig.
"N
means the same
20. as the
of this paragraph
of the last, 97, or the subtangent of

Written as an integration
result, this is
57
N
.
logje
It
is
useful to notice that
each side,
we
find
log;,
log^
a '"^fi* = a^^6 ", because taking a = logj a logs x.

.
logs
on
^^''''
It follows that (a^''ô'dx= 1 ;
+ logj a
.f
Base of Natural Logs. Although the calculation of e, or modulus T of any logarithmic system, is very laborious, there is no other difficulty about it beyond its tediousness. Thus to find the modulus of, say, the decimal system, an extremely small root of 10 has to be extracted. Thus the square root may be extracted, say, 100 times over. This will give (^)^th power of Now the 10, which is a number a very minute fraction over 1. decimal logarithm of this number is (ly", which is easy to calculate, and the logarithm of 1 is zero. The former is, therefore, the increment of the logarithm corresponding to the number increment from 1 to the (|^)th power of 10. If the ratio of this logarithm increment to the number increment be multiplied by the number, which is here 1, the product is the decimal log-modulus. The laborious part of the operation is finding the ( J)^''th power
99. of the
.
of
larger,
if
Extracting only a higher root, the increments will be Thus, will not give so great accuracy. the extraction of the square root be repeated only 10 times, the
10.
and the calculation
result of the calculation gives
Tio = 0'434 294 116 J
whereas by more minute calculation its true value to 9 decimal places has been found to be
0-434 294 482.
The
error is only O'OOO 000 366. 100. Logarithmic Differentiation.
Taking
again the function
of 92,
and taking
log
logs,
we have
X = log L + log M + etc. - log P - etc.

7.
* See Classified List, III. A. 3. + See Classified List, IV. t Calculated by Mr K. F. Muirhead from the value
-10
-o-lO
_lo
log 10?
-log 10 10^-"- 10-'""
10^
2(l0=--l)
58
and

differentiating witli respect to x,
we have by
P'
,X' t;
^jL'
M'
M
)
84 and 98
which
is the same result again as was found in 92. This method of differentiating products of functions is called " logarithmic differentiation." 101. Change of the Independent Variable. The rule deduced in 80 was written
[xcZa; = Xa;- j X'xdx.
Now
X'&c
is
the same as
I
8X
so that the integral
on the
right
hand may be written
xdX.
The equation becomes then
I
If
I
Xdx = Xx- jxdX.

than
I
xdX
is
easier to find
Xdx,
this
forms a method
of
facihtating the latter integration.
Such a transformation is called a " change of the independent variable " or " substitution." Taking the Fig. 23 is the graphic representation of this law.
Tig. 23,
integration
between the points

is
and 2
of the curve
xX, the
transformation
written
fx,
rx,
''^^^'
Xdx=(X^2-'^vh)-
PARTICULAK LAWS.
59
In fig. 23 tlie sum of th.e two areas rafined over thus ///// and mil is evidently (K^x^-X-^Xj). The first of these areas, namely, that between the curve, the vertical axis, and the two
horizontallines at levels
Xj and Xg, is
axis,
xdX. The second, included and the two

verticals at
between the curve, the horizontal

distances
x-^
and
x^, is
Xdx
Hence the above
equation.
In fig. 23 the point 3 has a negative ordinate x, while its Xordinate is positive. useful exercise for the student is to follow the variations of the proposition, taking the pair of points in each possible pair of quadrants of the full diagram.
CHAPTEE
102.
V.
PARTICULAR LAWS.
Any Power
of the Variable. This

is
In
99 the integral of
- was found to be
log^ x.
the single exception to a general
X law giving the integral of any power of a variable, special examples of which have already been demonstrated in 59, 61, 71, 79, and 85, namely, the integrals of the 0*^, P', 2"^ ( - 2)-'^ 5'", 8* and SJ"" powers. ( - 4)'", All these examples conform to the general law
/
where
x'^dx^^+G* w 1
+
daf+^
is
the integration constant

(
dx
103.
result
l)a;''.
Any Power of the Variable by Logarithms. This can be proved to be always true by logarithmic differentiar
* See Classified List, III. A.
2.
60
THE CALCXTLUS FOK ENGINEERS.

100
;
bion as explained in
thus,
n being any power, positive
or
negative, integer or fractional,
.".
X= log X =
1.'
a;"
re
log
'X ~x
..X'
= ??
= = na!"-'
X
a;"'
104.
Diagram showing Integral of
ception.
This formula
to be no Real Ex-
is
true for aU powers of the variable, with

a;"',
the one exception of the integral of - or
which
is log,
a;.
why there should be one solitary exception to so general a law. Fig. 24 has been drawn to demonstrate graphically that it is only formally an To compare exception j that it is in reality no exception at all. this one apparent exception with other cases of the general law, It may the integrations must be taken between the same limits. be convenient to take the lower limit of x equal to 1 because
It is often a puzzling question to students
this
log 1
I
and
-
log
x\ = log
n
x.
Taking the same lower

1"=-- 1
limit for
-x"
II
we have
fig.
nL
IrT'a!" 1 =k"
Ji
because
whatever n be.
a;"- 1
71
In
for
for
re
24 there are drawn to the

1, 1,
scales
shown, the curves
= 2,
lies
yV) ~ tVi
re
~h
lie
~^> ^^^ ~
to the
TO
same
scales the curve log^ x.
There is also plotted It will be seen that the curves

^-
very close together, and that the curve its whole length. This shows that the logarithmic curve is simply one of the general set of curves illustrating the general law, and that it is no real exception to the general law. Its position between the curves for = ^^ shows that loge x is simply the special name given to the value of a;" the function when to is an excessively miuute fraction, or rather
loge
= j'jj and
= - Jj^
between them throughout
when
Considering the variation of the curve in fig. 24 positive values of re to negative values of to, it is clear that the curve must have some definite position as n passes through zero, a position lying between that for small positive values of n and small negative values of to. This position is that
TO
is zero.
downwards from
PAETICULAR LAWS.
of the curve loe, x.
61
For n 0, the function

,
takes
the
indeterminate form
^ = ^1- = -
and
its
value has to be found
0'
by a
It special method, the result appearing in a special form. at should be noted that aU the curves pass through the height the horizontal distance x=l, and that they have here one common tangent or gradient = 1. 105. Any Power of Linear Function. If a, b, and n are
constants,
and
X = ia + bxY,
we have by
84 and
last article.
Written inversely for integration,

f{a /<'
this is
+ bxTdx =
j^^
(a
+ &)+> + C *
the constant
being introduced by the integration.
106. Reciprocal of any Power of Linear Function. - 1. integration rule fails when In this case we find by 51 and 98,
This
last
/(a + 6a;)-i(&!=^ log, (a + te)

107. Ratio of
+C=
~
2"3
logio(a
+ 6a;) + C.t
"""
,
Two Linear
it
Functions.
The function
last case,
+ cx
can
be reduced so as to make
,
depend on the
because
b
ax
+ cx
=a
e
ah
<
b + cx
Therefore,
by
102 and 106,
h + cx dx
'b
ax
= ax
e
ah-, c^
\ Aog,{b + cx) + ri C
,
,
,,
108. Ratio the function
of
Two
Linear Functions; general case.
Since
A + Ba;_ A
a
*
Bx
a + bx'
5.
+ bx
a
4.
+ bx
t See Classified List, III. A.
62

is
the integration of this function

results of
performed by combining the
106 and 107.* of Linear by 109. ftuotient

'
Quadratic
Function.
If
X = a + 6a;2:
then X'
= 26a; and
a + bx^
^r- = KT~^-
IX'
26
Nowj^dx =
therefore
[x = ^8e X by 98
dx='^log,(a + hx^) + C
2b
/ a+bx^
where
the integration constant. Similarly if X. = a + bx + cx^ ; then X' any function of the form
is
= 6 + 2cx,
and, therefore,
A + Eg
a + bx + cx^
can be readily integrated by splitting it into two terms as in 107.t 110. Indicator Diagrams. An important case of the use of the law of J.02 and 105 is the integration of the work measured by an indicator diagram. If at any stage of the expansion p be the pressure and v be the volume of the working substance, then as the volume increases by dv, the work done is pdv. Taking the expansion law in the more general form of 105, or
p = {a + bv)''';
then the work done during expansion from p^,
v^
to Pg, v^
is
Expansion work done
W=
pdv=
(a+hv)~''dv
Here the index

than
1,
is
always negative.
If
it is
arithmetically greater
negative.
the expansion curve makes
p(a + bv)
But
at
the same time the divisor (1 w) is negative, so that the formula makes the work done positive. It is then better to reverse the limits and to use the positive divisor ( 1).
6.
t See Classified
List,
IIL A.
17.
PARTICULAR LAWS.
63
If a = 0, or /) = &", as in most approximate formulas for expansion curves, the result simplifies, by cancelling out b from numerator
and
divisor, to*
W =^W1 np,
'
V-
--P2î:
n-\
V2'J
lb
These formulas, which are all practically useful, give the work done during expansion in terms of the ratios between the initial and final volumes, and of the initial and final pressures also in The terms of the initial product pv and of the final product pv. latter formula is most useful in the case of air and gas compression pumps where the initial and known volume and pressure are v^p^. The " admission " part of the indicator diagram has an areaîi, and this has to be added to the above, giving the total work done
;
These calculations do not take account of the back pressure deduction from the area of the card.
* The constant 6 used here equals the previous formula.
-n"" power of the h used in the
64

of this total area is the last value of
The " mean pressure "

divided by
v^,
or
3
Pi
\v,'
w-
From this the back pressure must be subtracted to obtain the " eflfective " mean pressure. In the case of isothermal gas expansion, n. = 1 oi pv= b, and the integration for work done during expansion is
W = 6[log.^ =2-3pii
logio
^ = 2-3i>ifi
logm
Pi
Pi
and including the work during admission
W,=m]l + 2-3 1ogio^j}The

ratio of
mean
to initial pressure
is
therefore
2^ = î{l + 2-31og,^4111. Graphic Construction for Indicator Diagrams. Tn fig. 25 the upper curve is a common hyperbola or curve of reciprocals,
/DOC
p = 6t)-i''i.
The lower is drawn to the formula the gas isothermal. The product pt) is the same at all points of the upper Therefore for the curve, and, therefore, at all points equals ^jWj.
and
is
PARTICULAR LAWS.
65
point 2 on the lower curve, the horizontal strip of area rafined over equals (pjWj P'f^) > ^^^ ^î^ divided by m - 1 = '2, i.e., multiplied by 5, equals the work done under the lower curve during the expansion from 1 to 2.
The mean pressure, including the admission period, therefore, equals 5 times the height of the strip rafined over plus the height to the upper edge of the same strip. The gradient of the curve p = bv''^ is negative, and equals
p'
= -nhv'^'^=
T
n-.
V
Therefore m = 'x
omitting the mmiis

P
is
sign which only indicates that the forward slope
downwards.
But
if
be the subtangent, then p' =
V ra==-, and -. Thus in investigating actual indicator i n 1 w cards taken from engines or compressing pumps, at each point of the expansion curve at which a fair tangent can be accurately drawn, the value of the index n can be found by measuring the ratio of v to T. Also in finding the mean pressure by adding to the height of the upper edge of the rafined strip of fig. 25 the depth of this strip divided by {n - 1), this division can be performed very easily by an evident graphic construction, since
1
IT -=
^.
Therefore
we
find
^ T
n-\
v-T
Conversely, in constructing theoretical indicator diagrams, when a few points of the curve have been calculated, it much assists in the fair drawing in of the curve to draw the tangents at these points,
which can
If
easily be
line
done by setting
oif for
each point
T=
be drawn at a tangent of inclination n to the vertical axis (it is 'drawn dotted in fig. 25)j then at each v the height of this line will give the corresponding T. In fact, by this construction the whole curve may be accurately drawn out from point to point by drawing a connected chain of short tangents whose direction is at each point obtained in this way ; the accuracy of the construction being very considerable if care be taken that each short tangent length shall stretch equally behind and in front By of the point at which its direction is found by plotting T. this construction the labour of logarithmic calculation of the heights of a series of points is rendered unnecessary.* 112. Sin-â; and {r^ - x^)-^.ln 74 it was found that the anglegradient of a sine is the cosine, and that of the cosine minus the
an oblique
* See
Appendix
for further information concerning this class of curve,
66
sine.
THE CALCULUS FOR ENGINEBKS.

Tliat
is, if
a be the angle and s
its
sine, oi sin
a=s
then
since cosô
=1
s^,
we have
|? = (l-.2)i. da
When the angle is measiwed by its sine it is symbolically expressed as sin" ^s=" the angle whose sine is s." Using this notation, and taking the reciprocal of the above ; i.e., taking the cogradient or the " sine-gradient of the angle," we have
d From we deduce d
I
sin'^s
.ds
this
(l-2).
the more general result
sin
J I ds
(r^
- s*)*
instead of
where a and r are constants.
The corresponding
integrations are,
when x
"'
_,
s is
used
to indicate the variable,
a dx
/;
â sin
--HG
- .*
=CThe two
spectively are
a cos
angles having the same fraction for sine and cosine recomplementary ; so that these two forms of the
integral only differ in the integration constants
(C -G = -~-\
and
in the sign of the variable parts.
The sine of an angle cannot be greater than -I- 1 nor less than - 1. These integration formulse would have, therefore, no meaning in cases in which x>r or x< -r. These limits correspond with those within which (r^ - x^)^ remains real, because the square root of a negative quantity is " impossible " or " imaginary." If (r^ - a;^)* arises from any actual physical problem, such a problem can never throughout the whole actual range of x make
x>r.
113. (1
it
- a!^)! integrated or Area of
Circular Zone.
In
59
was shown that the area
of a sector of a circle equals Irâ.
The
* See Classified List, III. B. 6
and
5.
PARTICULAR LAWS.
angle
67
sine as in last article.
may be
expressed in terms of
its
If s be the sine,
we have
Sectorial area
= |r^ sin
;
'h.
In fig. measures
^r's^l area
3 this
is
the area
N aO
in
rs
of the present article,

article.
which figure the length as and ae = r cos a = r^l - s^ of

is
the present
s^.
The
triangular area aOc, therefore, equals
Add
this to the
above sectorial area ; the sum
the
ONac. This area may be taken as made up of a large number of narrow strips parallel to ON, the height of each of which would be r cos a = r^l -s^, while the horizontal width would be r.ds. The area OJSTac is, therefore, the integral of this narrow strip of area from a = o to a = a, which hmits correspond to from s = to = s. Thus
jrjl^ '^rds = r^ Ul-sHs = ^h^jY^ + ^r^ sin

or
-i
Twice this is the area of a circular zone lying between a diameter and a parallel at the height s from the diameter, the radius being assumed 1 in the last equation.
Here, again, s cannot range outside the limits 1. 114. x{r^-x')'i integrated. The function x{r^-x^)-i may be looked on as the sine divided by the cosine, i.e., the tangent of an angle, see fig. 13, while dx is the increment of the sine. The increment of the sine multiplied by the tangent evidently equals the decrement of the cosine, and accordingly the integral is minus the cosine, or - (r^ - x^)i.i 115. (a;2 + ,.2)-i integrated. The function {x^r^)-i is more diflScult to deal with. Let represent any function of x, and multiply and divide its reciprocal by ( + X) ; thus
/ 1 x + X^ X^ [ dx f Jx=ir^Tx'^*'=j^Tx'^^
= C + loge(a; + X)ifX' = |-.

The condition X' = = ==dx X
+ See
gives
xdx = XdX
* See Classified List, III. B. 9.

Classified List, III. B. 7.
!'')~J
Note
also that, since

84, to
a;
-^(r^-sfi) dx
therefore !e{r' of -(,r'-x^)i.
can be recognised directly, by
be the a-gradient
68
or integrating
a!2
+ = X2orX = (a;2 + A;)l

A;
where the integration constant k may be either 4= +r*, we have
or
Writing
/P^j = C +
than
log,{a:
+ (:'>r')n*
Here, if k is negative, the differential is " imaginary " and cannot occur in any physical problem except for values of x greater
J -k.
int^rated.The
integral of
a;-'(-2
116. x-\r'^-x^)-^
a!2)-J is
found most
easily
by substituting -^
for x.
Thus
Therefore
dx
^1 C
dx
dK
= C'-hog,{x+(x^-i,y}by115
=c-hog/-(r!z^*.t
r
rx
integral of the
117.
variable
in
Log a;
integrated.
number 80 and by
The
logarithm of a
is
found by help of the formula of reduction
98, thus
:
j"
J
logje
b, is
log,
NdN = N logj N - log6 e
I dN + C
whose base
is
= N{log,N-log,e} + C.
the
"modulus"
of the system of logarithms

is
and
for the decimal
system
0'4343 nearly.
Therefore,
.
log.
NrfN = N{log, N - -4343} + C
+ See Classified
* See Classified List, III. B. 6, 3, and 4. List, III. B. 13 and 10. t See Classified List, IV. 4.
PAKTICULAK LAWS.
69
118. Moment and Centre of Area of Circular Zone. ^With the notation already used, we saw in 113 that a narrow strip of the area of a semicircle is 2r'{l -s^^ds. The distance of this strip' from the diameter from which the angle and its sine are measured
is rs,
of the strip-area
and the product of the area by this distance is the moment round this diameter. This is 2A(1 - s'')ids, in
r is a constant while s varies.
which
Since
s= -
4--^
the
as
integral
moment
we
find
of all the strips for a zone
and
a parallel rs
away from
it is
between the diameter Calling (1 - s^) by easy to find.
letter S,
Integral
moment = 2r3
|s(l -s^)ids
(SWS
= -irm = |r3{l-(l-s2)}
when taken from lower limit s = or S = 1. From this is deduced by dividing by the area
of the zone
Distance of centre of area of zone from diameter
^%(l-2)i + sin-is'
For the whole half
while
circle,
sin"'s
becomes a right angle or
2
;
s=l and
semicircle is
Therefore the centre of area of a distant from the centre of the circle by
(l-s^)
= 0.
1
%r. =-= r='4244-.

IT
OTT
"2
The moment
is |/-^-
of the
whole semicircular area round the diameter
The integration performed here is a geometrical illustration or proof of the general integral of x{l -x^)^.* 119. (r^ + x^y- integrated. In 78 it was found that the angle-gradient of the tangent equals the square of the reciprocal of Eemembering that the cosine.
COSâ
= ^j
1
-1-
tanô
=-
* See Classified List, III. B. 9.
70

find
,
we
d tan a
1
+ tanâ
a = i3,n'H;
Call
tano=<, and therefore
we then
obtain the
integration
h'h'
Here
t is
\da = a^\,9.n'H
+C *
I'
essentially a number or pure ratio, and it may vary from If in order to make the formula of more general + 00 apphcation, we introduce a constant r^ as follows, then t may be any + or - physical quantity, but t and r must be of the same
00 to
.
kind.
Then, since
<D.
dt
dt
1
.
r
'
h
f
,.2
+ f2
= _tan _it hC.t

.
,.
,.
120. {r^-x^y^ integrated. Since {r^

find easily
1 r^
- x^) =
1
{r
+ x)
(r
x),
we
^1/1
2r\r + x
- x^
r-xj
and therefore this function can be integrated by help of 106. J 121. Hyperbolic Functions and their Integrals. The functions \(e' + er'') and \{^ -e'') enter largely into the geometry of the hyperbola and of the catenary, as weU as into the investigation of From the origin several important stress and kinetic problems. of their utilisation by mathematicians they are called hyperbolic functions, and from certain useful analogies between the geometry of the hyperbola and that of the circle, the names sinh x and In 96 we have already found the cosh X are appKed to them. Using it, we obtain ^-gradient of e*.
^^- = ^{Ke' + "')l=i(e'-e-^) = cosha;

and
d cosh X
^~ î{e' +
. ,
e-')
= smh x
,
* See Classified List, IIL A. t See Classified List, IIL A.
8.
9.
+ See
Classified List, III. A. 10.
See Classified List, V.
TRANSFORMATIONS AND REDUCTIONS.

Written as for integration these results are
I
71
cosh xdx = sinh x
and
I
sinh xdx = cosh x
The
find,
integrals of other hyperbolic functions are equally easy to
and are tabulated in Section V. of the Classified Reference List at the end of this iook.
CHAPTEE
VI.

122. Change of Derivative Variable, From the fundamental idea of X', the x-gradient of the function X, as explained in 35, we have in equations between increments or between integrals
dX. = X'dx
or
dX ^ dx=^.
Now,
it
may be
easier to find
=-,^X
than to find
Xdx, and
it
amounts to the same thing. The former integration may be easier if X' be capable of convenient expression in terms of X. This transformation has been frequently employed already, as, for
instance, in 119, 118, 116, etc., etc. More generally, if /(X) be any function of
X when X itself
is
function of x,
it
may
facihtate the integration to substitute
j'^^^dXtOTJf{X)dx,
provided either that X' cancels out of the expression "h^ or else
that X'
is
expressible in terms of X.
123. Substitution to clear of Koots. A selection of such transformations is given in Section II. G of the Classified List, under the title of Substitutions, page 169.
72
Thus

in II. G. 4
we
get rid of roots
by taking
K = ^(X'' - a)"
X=
and
(ct
+ 6a;)^
. .
a;
5^
Therefore
j(a +
fo;)!'/*~&+i j
= ^J(X--arX-'-'rfX;
a form which is dealt with later on in 125 ; but which can be be an integer by expanding (X* - a)" by integrated directly if the binomial theorem. 124. Quadratic Substitution. Again, in II. G. 5, the function / (flKC^ + 6a! + c) is transformed so as to get rid of the second term The proper substitution involving the first power of the variable. may be arrived at thus put
X= +f
a!
X'=l
x = X-i.
Then
ax''
+ bx + c = aX^-2a^X + a^ + bX-bi + c.
first
The two terms in the
power
of
cancel
if
f be taken
JiCt
and then the remaining three terms not involving
X become
af2_6^ + c =
--- + c=
ia
2a
ia
ak where k =
,
,
= say
iao-b^
We have
then the transformation

jfiax^ + bx + c)dx = a (/{X^
+ k)dX
*^
(Tith
4.1.
* V = + jr- and k = ~ -j-s X

,
^C''^
a;
This transformation is used largely in dealing with quadratic surds.* 125. Algebraico-Trigonometric Substitution. If in this last
* See Classified List, III. B. 13, 14, 16,
and
Ig.

expression k be positive so that
i.e., if
73
its
square root can be extracted,
tion
4ac>6 with a and c both positive; then the above integraof, say, (a;2 + k) may be thrown into a trigonometrical form by
X X = tan"iyj*
help of the substitution

or
a;
= fci tan
1 X and X
:5^
cos^X
yfci
-5^
In these terms
a;2
+ A; = A;tan2X + fc =
cos^X
and therefore
//(.^ + .)<.=/.*/33l^/(^).X.*
Other similar conversions of algebraic into trigonometrical integrations are detailed in the II. G. Section of the Classified List. 126. Interchange of Two Fimctions. In 87 was established the transformation
I
andB =
a;,
XSdx = XH -
TUdx = XH - J H(X
=
1
a special simple case of which, already stated in 80, is S'
or
ixdx^XxThis general formula

integrated, viz. (XS'),
is
[x'xdx = Xx- jxdK.
may be useful when the function to be not as a whole directly integrable, but is, however, capable of being split into two factors, one of which (S') has its integral (H) directly recognisable. 127. Interchange of any number of Functions. The operation may be extended to the integration of the product of any number of functions of x according to the result of 88 ; but with the multiplication of the number of functions to be dealt with, there is an increase in the complexity of the conditions under which the formula may be useful, and, therefore, a decrease of the probability or frequency of such usefulness. Transformations, according to this rule, are called Integration by Parts. 128. General Keduction in terms of Second Differential Coefficient. If /(X) be any function of X, and /'(X) its X-gradient ; then, X' being the sc-gradient of X,
^J)
= X'/'(X)by84.
II.
G.
7.
74
Also
"^ ~
Here
ax
diflferential coeflBcient
is
'
(X')2
tâ;
the a;-gradient
of
X',
and
is
called
the
" second
of with respect to x," or, more simply, It is concisely written X". the "second a:-gradient of X." Using this notation (X") and applying 126 we have
jf{^)dxJ-^^j^^^,X'dx
Here the given function
directly integrable
is /'(X), and the supposition is that it is with respect to X, but not so with respect to x. supposition the transformation will be of use if it is found is
On
this
that-î^.X"
to X.
directly, or
more
easily, integrable
with respect
129. General Reduction for
X'. If
/'(X)
= X% then /(X) =
r+1
80 that in this case the above formula
would be
In some cases this form
may
be preferable to
f X*"
I
=r,.ciX,
which
would be given by 122. 130. General Keduction of ^"X''. If in 126 one of the two functions whose product is to be integrated be a;" and the other X', where m and r are any constant indices, the transformation
gives
hrx'dx=J
m +=^--Af 1 m+ 1
hr+^X'-^dx.
J
may stUl be capable of being further reduced by the application of other formulas of transformation already explained, so as to finally reduce it to a directly integrable form. Such a formula is the base of certain Formulas of Reduction. 131. Conditions of Utility of Same. The last formula given is capable of repeated apphcation, provided that X' is proportional either to some power of x or to some power of X, the right-hand
If this latter quantity be not directly integrable, it
TEANSFORMATIONS AND REDUCTIONS.

integral then reducing to the
75
same general form
as the left-hand
it
one.
In
either case, or again in the case xX.'
= a+ljX,
is
not
difficult to
prove that
X must be of the form X = a + te".
be a positive integer, then X' can be expanded into a finite powers of x, which when multiplied by *"' will give another series of powers of x, each term of which can be integrated separately ; so that in this case no need of the above reduction formula will arise ; although in some cases its use may shorten the work involved. But the formula is useful for repeated reductions
If
/
series of
if
is
negative or fractional.
Various cases of such uses are given in Section IX. of the Classified Reference List at the end. 132. Reduction of x'^(a + bx%
If
X =a + haf,
then
X' = 6a!''-i=-(X'-a)
and
130 gives
\x-^X'dx=^j
3-"'+'X''
rn
if-^ m+ 1
m+ 1
/a^-X-VX-aWa! ^ '
r m+l
/
1 TO+1
Ix
J
Xd3C+
m+1
fx^X'
J
Hx
Here we have
to
.
x^X''dx on each side.
Bringing these two terms

their numerical factors,
one
/,
1
side,
,
and dividing out by the sum of

\
I
VIZ.
-{
m+l+rn we T = m+lj m+l

rn
;
find
f
is
uTXrdx^
m + l+7-n +-^ rn m+l +

^"75
by which
(afX^-'dx;*
J
'
a formula of reduction
in the integration the
power
of
reduced by 1, while that of x is left unchanged. The reduction of the power of is compensated for by the multiplication (outside the sign of integration) by the factor a, which has the same " dimensions " as X. This formula can be used inversely to pass from af'X''"' to jc^X"", that is, to increase the power of by 1 without changing that
of x.
* See Classified List, IX. A. vi.
76
If the other form of X', namely, nbx"'^, be used in this transformation, there results
log^YJclx
J
m+l
m + lj
|a!"'+"X'-ya;:
a formula of reduction by which, while the power of by 1, that of x is increased by n.
is
decreased
By
the previous formula la;'"+"X''"^da!

1
may be
/a!"'X''
converted into a
quantity in terms of
tegral in
left
ai^+^X^cZa;,
and thus
raised
reduced to an
inis
which the power
of
is
by
n,
while that of
unaltered.
similar transformations one can ring the changes
By
among
of
the
integrals of the following set of nine functions,
any one
which
can be reduced to any other.

afn-^r+l

(x^X'-dx =
J
'^ m+l+nr m + ^ (x'Ûn l+nrj
77
'^7^'^
- l)cx + na]X'-'dx
'
135. Trigonometrical Eeductions. If in the general formula of 126 the product XS' be equal to sin''a;, then we may split this into the two factors sin a; and sin" ''a;, thus
:
X' = (n - 1) sin""''*! cos x = sin a; B' B = - cos x = - (n - 1) sin''-''a; eos'a; = - ( - 1) sin''-'â;(l X'S = (n - 1) sia"a! - (w - 1) sia""â;
Therefore
sin"ajc?a!
I
X = sin"-'a:
- sin
'x)
= - sin""'a; cos a; -
( - 1)
wH'xdx + (n ^ ^ |sm""m*
.
sin""^<fa;
sin.""â;cosa;
n-\{
n
]
,.
by adding together on the left-hand

and dividing by the sum
side the
two terms in
AvPxdx
of their coeificients, namely, l
+ (w-l) = ra.
136. Trigonometrical Reductions. Since by 78 the anglegradient of the tangent is the reciprocal of the square of the cosine,
and
since
dx = -^
we have
(1
dx = cosâ!rf(tan a;) =
and, therefore,
f
I
- siD.^x)d(ta,n x)
tan^'^xdx =
f
j
tan""%(l -
sin2a;)^(tan x)
tan""ia:
^j
f
/
tan''a;Za;
Or, rearranging,
ta,n''xdx=
^j
tan" "âzâ;.
article,
either the process adopted in this article or that of last the various trigonometrical formulae of reduction are established which are set forth in order in Section IX. B. 1 to 9
By
of the Classified Reference List at the
case the reduction changes the index from the substitution sinâ; = 1 - cosâ;.
by
end of this book. In each 2, which change results
* See Classified List, IX. B.
1.
78
If n the index to be reduced be an even integer, a repetition of the reduction will finally bring down the integral to the form
I
dx, whose integral
is
a:.
If
m be odd, the
xdx
or
I
finally
oedx,
reduced integral
etc., etc.,
will
be either
sin
xdx or
cos
tan
all
of
which have already been demonstrated.

137. Trigonometrico-Algebraic
trigonometrical reductions
Substitution.
If
in
these
is
fractional,
then since
dx =
and
=cosa;,
/
I
.
etc., etc.,
we may
convert the formula into that of

:
132 and IX. A.
1 of
the Olasstfled List, thus

.
/'sill"* ,,
sin''xdx=
J
coBx
d(sina:)=
^ '
f
yr:
sin"a;
,,
^
(l-sinV)'
^-s-a a(sma;)
'
/^X"(l
in
- X2)-*dX
which
stands for sin x.
Similarly
=j j sm-a; cos^xdx
.
/sin"a;(l
jX^-^^__
- sinâ;)"
,,
_
d{sirx x)
= fx''(l-X2)^rfX.
138. Composite Trigonometrical Reduction. From the elementary formulae for the sine and cosine of the sum of two angles, in terms of the sines and cosines of these angles, we may write Since p = (p - 1) + 1
sinâ;
= sin (p cospx = cos (^ and
1)
a;
a;
cos cos
.
a; a;
+ cos (p sin (p
1)
1)
a;
a;
sin x.
.
1)
sin
.
Therefore integrals of
(cos*"a;
.
and (sin*"a; cosâ;), and may, by repeated application of the above formulae, be reduced to series of integrals of the form (sin"a; cos^â;), provided p be an integer. For these latter forms,
(sin*"a;
.
sinâ;),
sin pa;)
(cos*''a:
cosjsa;)
see Classifled Reference hist, IX. B. 5-8.
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION AND MULTIPLE INTEGRATION. 79
CHAPTEE
VII.
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION AND MULTIPLE INTEGRATION.

139. The Second a^Gradient. In fig. 6 we have the area underneath the curve measured between two vertical ordinates called X,
X', is the vertical ordinate to the slope of this curve at any point is thus the a;-gradient This is called the of X', or the jB-gradient of the a^gradient of X. with respect to x" or the " Second Differential Coefflcient of " Second iB-gradient of X." It is written either
and the z-gradient of X, or

curve.
The
is
fig. 5 the vertical ordinate is X, and the gradient of the curve Therefore, in this graphic representation the therefore X'. second a^gradient of is the rate at which the gradient of the curve changes with advance along the avaxis. If the gradient of the curve increases with x, the diagram Kne curves upwards and X" is positive; if the gradient decreases in the same direction The possible there is downward curvature, and X" is negative.
In
X" are shown on fig. 3. If there be no the diagram line be straight, then X" is zero. Although X" is greater the sharper the curvature, still X" is not The relation between X" and the the measure of the curvature. curvature is explained in 145 below. 140. Increment of Gradient. In fig. 5 if the gradient increase in the horizontal length Sx by (X'j - X'j) = 8X', then this divided by Sx is the average rate of change of X' throughout the length Sx. If the two points be close together, then this is the actual rate of change of X' between these two contiguous points ; that is, it is the value of X" at this part of the curve. That is, when Sx is small,
variations of sign of
curvature,
i.e.,
if
?^'
8a;
= X"orSX' = X"Sa;.
If 8a: be small, then from the point 141. Second Increment. - ^Sx) to the point (ajj + |8a;), the curve of fig. 5 rises a height (x^ + ^Sx)=(x^ - !&) to the point X'jSa;, and from the point
(ajj
(x^
+ ^Sx),
the rise of the curve
is
X'^Sx = (X'l
8X')Sa;
= {X\ + X"8a;)8a;
8a;
Thus while the
rise is X'jSa;
through the small stretch
lying
80
equally on either side of the point 1, it is greater than this hy X"(89;)2 through the next equal small stretch Sx lying equally on either side of the point 2. The horizontal distance between these two points is 8a;. Thus an advance of Sx has resulted in an increase of rise per Sa; equal to X"{Sxy. The excess of the second of these rises over the first is called the second increment or second difference of X. It might be written S(SX), but the usual and neater symbol is 8^X. Dividing. by (Sa;)^ we have
82X_
XSxf~
:
8X'
Sx-
Stated in words this reads The second a^gradient of equals the second increment of per 8a; per 8a; divided by the square of Sa;. It must be remembered that this equation has been derived only on the supposition that 8a; is taken very small. The other written
symbol
for
X", namely, - -5- resembles in form

dx'
8.
d^X
S^X
-,-^-^g
with d sub-
(9*)
is the symbol for Sx and that when 8a; becomes
stituted for
It is
sometimes stated that dx

infinitely small,"
S2"Y"
/72'V'
when
8a;
becomes "
"infinitely
smaU"
^j-r, equals
-5
but the present writer pre-
fers to avoid the use of phraseology
which suggests reference to which do not exist, and reasoning about which must, therefore, be quite unmeaning. It should be noted that 8^X is of the same kind and dimensions as X, and that Sa; is of the same kind and dimensions as a;; so that
quantities
X"
is of
the kind and dimensions of X/a;^.
142. Integration of Second Increment.
From the equation
82X = X"(8a;)2
we
obtain the other

Integral of S^X
= Integral
of a corresponding continuous
series of consecutive values of {X"(8a;)^}.
Eemembering the meaning

from one
definite point 1 or
of 8^X, it is evident that its integral

a;j
to
-
any other point x equals

x-^^
8X at X 8X at = say 8X-(8X)i
Both these these two increments being taken for equal small 8a;'s. increments are very small ; their difference is minutely small, and.
SUCCESSrVE DIFFERENTIATION AND MULTIPLE INTEGRATION. 81

therefore, this integration as it stands can be of no practical use as a iinal result. But let us integrate again this minutely small
diflference of
from
increments by taking all the successive values of 8X up to point x and subtracting the constant (8X)j from each, and then let us add all the differences. The result is (by the distributive law in integration, see 83) the same as
a!j
I
8X -
(8X)i.
In the
latter symbol, since (8X)i has a constant
value,
we have simply
to multiply this
is
by the number
of
them
to
be added, which number
~
oX
'
so that
i:
(8X)i
^
Also
/
(SX)i
^{x- X,) (g)^= {X - x,)X\
In fig. 5 X'j is the gradient at the point 1, and this last, therefore, equals the rise of the tangent at the point 1 in the horizontal
stretch (x - x^).
this
8X
is
the whole rise of the curve through

Therefore, this double integration
is
/ /
same
stretch, or
(X - Xj)
of 82X, the shorthand
symbol for which
cP'K, gives the result
r rd^X = (K-X.^)-{x-x^)X\
= X-a;X'i-(Xi-a;iX'i)
its graphic representation (see 26) by the height of the curve above its tangent at point 1. 143. Graphic Delineation. In the process of single integration we found one constant introduced. In this double integration there are two introduced. In the above algebraic representation they are - X\ and - (Xj - XjX.\).
and
fig.
this is evidently
measured in
two
fig. 26 are clearly marked the graphic representations of these constants, the first being the gradient of the curve at point 1. The lower limit is the same in both steps of this double integra-
On
tion,
It is not necessarily so. 1. In the first Umit may be the point 1, and this will give the gradient-constant X\. In the second integration the lower limit might be taken at some other point 2, and this would give
namely, the point
step, the lower
jJd^X = iX-X,)-{x-x,)X\
= X-xX\-(X,-x,X\)
leaving the one constant still minus the curve-gradient at 1, but making now the second constant mimis the intercept upon the
82
vertical axis cut off

at 1.
by a line through 2 parallel to the tangent Otherwise, the integral is now the height of the curve above the liae drawn through 2 parallel to the tangent at 1.
SUCCESSrVB DIfFEEENTIATION AND MULTIPLE INTEGEATION. 83

increase to (a + Sa) in the arc-length Sa, whose horizontal projection is Sx. The curvature is the reciprocal of the radius of curva.
ture, or the " arc-gradient of
the angle,"
i.e., -r-
Since Sa
is
it equals tan (8a), and tan (8a) can be calculated by the ordinary trigonometrical rule from X' and (X' + 8X') the tangents
smaU,
of
a and (a H- 8a)
thus,
8a = tan (8a)
= /^/^/^g^^^y = JTjrx^
is
nearly,
when Zx
is
small.
Also the arc-length
8a =
jW+W? = hx JT+W.
is,
Therefore the curvature
p being the radius of curvature,

1
'
1_(^^8X' p~da Zx
X"
{l-t-X'2}!"
{l-(-X'2}5
if the radius of curvature be easily found by any direct process, the inverse form of the above relation may be useful ; namely,
X" = -{l-l-X'n*.
If
P be the sub tangent on the
cc-axis,
and
if
(see
fig.
27) the
-i
Fig. 27.
intercept on the tangent between this axis
and the touching point
be called
then since
W=
1L'^
+ T^ and X' = -
therefore
84
i+x'^=5
and
^(sr
(a practised draughtsman If the radius of curvature be known can always find it with the greatest accuracy in two or three seconds by one or two trials with the dividers) the construction shown in fig. 27 affords a very easy graphic method of finding X",
measiuêd to scale, according to the above formula -
s;
Those
acquainted with the elements of Graphic Calculation will readily follow the construction from the marking of the figure without further explanation. As an 146. Harmonic Function of Sines and Cosines. Let illustration of these ideas, take an ordinary harmonic curve. h be the height of the curve at horizontal ordinate I ; let rj, rj and
m be constants
then
and
let
h = r^
h'
sin
ml + j-j
cos
ml
sin
= mr^
cos rrd -
mr^
ml
cos mX)
and
h"
= m^
(rj sin
ml + r^
= -.m%
The student should write out these results for the three simplified In aU cases he (1) rj r2 = r; (2) r^Ô; and (3) ri = 0. will find that h" = - mVi. 147. Deflection of a beam. If a beam be uniformly loaded with a load w per ft. run and have a vertical supporting force R applied at one end, the bending moment on the section distant I from this end of the beam is
oases
M = RZ-|wZ2.
a parabola.
The bending moment diagram (ordinates and I) is At any point I the gradient of the curve is
therefore
M' = E-oZ
= R at the end where E acts = at section where wl equals R

between which points
it
varies uniformly.
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION AND MULTIPLE INTEGRATION.
85
The second
and
^-gradient of
is
M"= -w
is thus constant. It is easily shown that, in a
beam
subjected to elastic bending
only, the curvature of the (originally straight) axis equals
==,
where I is the "area-moment of inertia" of the section, and E is the modulus of elasticity. In the case of beams so stiff that the bending under safe loads is very small which is the only case of practical interest to
engineers
it is sufficiently
accurate to take the curvature as the
second Z-gradient of the deflection, neglecting the division by the 4 power of 1 plus the square of the first Z-gradient. Thus if A be the deflection perpendicular to Z, then the second
Z-gradient of
or
A " = == =
and
,
,,
^
-
(RZ - ^wP) in above case
1 A=jTn A"<iZ2 = gjj

,,
[11,-r,,
,ov o {ni-\wP)dP
,
if
both
E and
are
constant along Z:
_ ""
j_
{(-fff A
EI
\-^^
^ 1+
R72 _ mi\rll 2 6 )
^ ^
'] defines the gradient of the line from which the de-
flection is to
be measured
A - ^2 +
a.
A' '^ i''
/j./'R/s
WtAA + l^-g* - 2^* yj;j

is
'"'here
A^
defines the posi-
tion of the line
from which
measured.
the deflection
is
At any
point
the gradient
A'=A', + (lz^-|Z3)Jj.
If the deflection be measured from a line parallel to the bent at this point, axis at its point where wl = R, then A must equal
'
and
this gives
A = - opH^
'j
>
further,
we measure from
a line
drawn through the ends of the axis so as to make the end deflections zero, then A must be zero at Z = 0, which gives A j = 0. Inserting these values of the two constants, we find
^=m{-i^^^-H
86
This equals zero when 1 = ; and, when ml = R, which occurs at the centre of a uniformly loaded heam freely supported at both ends, it equals
B* /
^'=~3EI8V
.If
,\
V
~
5_
24EIw8-
the span be L, the whole load
= wL =
W and R = ^wh, and

WL8
EI
*
^"~
In
5_wIJ
384 EI
of Sine
384
148. Double Integration 146 we find
and Cosine Function.
h"=-m%
and, comparing this with the original equation, we see that the general result of a double integration from this relation is
A = rJ where But
rj
if
sin
ml + r^
cos
ml
and
r^ are the two constants introduced by integration. the second-gradient equation be of the other form
h"
= - rrfi(r^
sin
ml + r^
is
cos ml)
:
the result of a double integration

general, namely,
/i
not the same
it
is
more
= rj
sin ?w?
+ r^
cos
ml + G-J, + Cj
where Cj and C2 are the two integration constants. The former {h" = - m%) is a special case of the latter more general = Cj and this specialty gives rise rule, in which special case Cj = to the relation h" = - m^h, which relation does not hold good in
;
general.
In the general formula the constant C^ gives a choice of gradient from which h is to be measured; while Cg gives a further choice of level at which to draw this datum line. In the special case this level must be such as to make h = r2 when Z = and the gradient of the datiun line must be zero. 149. Exponential Function. If X = 6', then by 95
of the line
X' =
J"
-^
Y aid therefore X" = =2

5XandX" = @X.
If X = 6"" where m is any constant, either positive or negative, whole or fractional ; then
X' =
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION AND MULTIPLE INTEGRATION. 87

This case
is
the counterpart of that in the last article where
t)
is
essentially positive.
and ftuotient of are functions of x, and a^gradients of are

150. Product
and
if
two or more a>-runctions. If X = LM, the first and second
X'
= L'M + LM'and = 1 and M" = X" = L"a; + 2L'.

;
..X" = L"M + 2L'M' + LM".

In the case of
M=
a;,
then M'
therefore
Similarly,
if
be the product of three K-functions, L, M, N, then X" is the sum of a series of terms each of which contains the and N, and in each term the number of dashes three letters L Dividing by indicating the number of differentiations will be 2. = LMN, the result may be written
X;;
L"
M"
W JHW
.
L'N'
WW\
MnJ
'l"*"
M'^N
"^^VLM"*" LN"*"
a form analogous to that of 92 ; and which may be extended to the product of any number of factors. The 151. Third and Lower a^Gradients and Increments. is the third a;-gradient, avgradient of the second a;-gradient of and the a;-gradient of this again is the fourth x-gradient ; and so
on through any number of differentiations. These successive gradients are written either X'",
else
etc.
X''',
X'',
or
-J^,
per
if two successive values of the second increment of per hx be taken at two places 8a; apart, the difference between them is called the third increment of X per Sa; per 8a; per Sa;. This is written S'X and if it be divided by the cube of hi, it is
Similarly,
Sa;
easy to
show
that
y^j = X'" = -3-5 when

The symbol
(i'X
-=-j
S^X
d^'K.
8a; is
very small.
This
is
not a truism.
ought not to be considered
capable of being split into two parts, one of which, the numerator, Nevertheless, it is (PX, is the value of 8'X when Zx is very small correct to write for any very small 8a;
8'X
= X"'(8a:) = ^(8a;)'.
88
Again,
THE (JALOULDS FOE ENGINEERS.

if
8"X be the
re""
increment, and -^
it is
the w"" gradient,
then for any very small Sx
correct to write
152. Rational Integral a>^Functions.
If X =
l)af-^
Itx^,
then
X'
= Ama;"-! X" = km{m ;
and
f^ = km(m - l)(w - 2)If be a positive integer, the constant; ndmely,
- -
-(w
ra)a;'"-'
m^
gradient of
fce""
will
bo a
^
Thus the (m +
gradient,
if
= km(m-l)(m-2)..-.3-2-l=km\
1)""
gradient of kx
is zero,
as is also every lower
w be a positive integer.
be fractional, then the successive gradients pass into But if negative powers of x, so that, in this case, a lower gradient may have a very large value for very small values of x. Thus, if 15 15 5 = x'; then, X' = y'-^^> ^" = -j-^j and X'" = -j ; giving very large
values of X'" for very small values of x.
= ocb" + bx'^~^ H be an integer, then at + kx, and if If each successive differentiation one term disappears, and the m"" gradient is again a constant, viz., am I Thus any terms in the above function, except the first, might be omitted without altering the m""
There are, therefore, (m- 1)! different functions of the above type which give the same m"' gradient ; (m - 2)! different ones which give the {m - l)"" gradient the same in all and so forth, the differences corresponding with those arising from putting any except the first of the constant factors in the above general formula
gradient.
;
equal to zero. 153. Lower ^-Gradient of Sine and Exponential Functions. The successive gradients of some functions have a re-entrant or repeating character. For instance,
X = l\
.:
.-.
sin
mx + k^ cos mx
X"= -mFX
X'^ = w*X
X^=
-m^X,
etc., etc.
SUCCESSIVE DIFFEEBNTIATION AND MULTIPLE INTEGRATION. 89

Again, see 95,
..x"=(4yx
and
this is true
whether
|8
be
or
- *
.
154. General Multiple Integration. If X', X", X'", X'^ etc., are the successive K-gradients of some function X, and if we start with a knowledge of the lowest of these gradients only, and wish to work upwards to a knowledge of the higher gradients and of
by repeated integration ; we /'

where C3
is
find
the constant of integration.
Then
j ix'^dx^
lx"'dx + jc^dx = X" + C3 + Cj
and
I
and
r r
X'^(ia;3
= X' + ^x^ + G^x + C^ = X + ^t^ + ^x^ + Cia;+ C

when
ex-
'x'-c?x*
This result might perhaps be more clearly understood

:
X" may be written (X''' + 0). Then the propressed as follows position is that the fourth integral of the known function X'^ is whose fourth a:-gradient is X", plus the function the function (^CgiB^ + h^.^^ + CjX + Cq) whose fourth K-gradient is 0. If there were n integrations, there would be {n + 1) terms in the result, one of which would be a constant, and (n - 1) of which would be multiples of the first (n - 1) integral' powers of x. 152 illustrates one special example of this general proposition. The constants are to be determined from the " limiting conditions." The number of limiting conditions, a knowledge of which is necessary to definitely solve the problem, is the same as the number of "arbitrary constants" C appearing in the general solution.
* See
Appendix
F.
90
In the above case Cj might be determined from a knowledge of one particular value of X", and then Cj from that of one particular gradient X', the remaining Cq being found from one particular value of being given.
155. General Multiple Integration.

instead of X, and therefore
f {3'J
If in this
If in
126 we write
obtain
Xdx
X instead of X',
we
Xdx}dx = 3 jxdx - jnxdx

be
a;
formula the a;-function
itself,
so that E'
= 1,
there
results
("Xdx^ = X jXdx - jxXdx

which enables two possibly easy single integrations to be substituted one double integration which may be otherwise impracticably
for
difficult.
Conversely, a given function {xX") may be difficult to integrate it X" is recognised as the second a;-gradient of a known function X, and then the form
once, while the part of
lxX"dx = xX'- rX"dx^
= xX'-X
may
be useful.
156. Keduction Formulae.
From
150 we have
^,(.X)=^X" + 2X'
from which
it
follows that
xX = rxX"dx^ + 2 ("x'dx^
In
I
this
substitute
for
X',
and
therefore
X' for X", and
Xdx
for
there results then
rXdx^ = \x jXdx - J
("xX'dx^
Xdx - ^
dX
dx.
SUCCESSIVE DIFFBEENTIATION
Again,
if in.
I
AND MULTIPLE INTEGKATION. 91
the same formula there be substituted
X for
X", and
as
therefore
Xdx
for
X' and
Xdx^
rii
for
X, the result appears
/m
157. Graphic
Xdx^ = ^\ Xc?a;2-jl xXdx^ *
Diagram of Double Integration.
The meaning
of double integration can be very easily represented graphically.
In fig, 5 the slope of the curve is X' and the height of the curve X, the first integral of X' by dx. Thus (XSjc) or the strip of area between two contiguous verticals under the curve is the increment of the second integral of X' by dx. Thus the area under the curve included between two given limiting verticals is their second integral, or
is
Area under curve =
=P
/
Xfda^.
This graphic representation will help the student to perceive clearly that this integral is not the sum of a number of terms, each of which is the square of Sx multiphed by the slope X'. The square of any one Sx multiplied by the coincident slope X' would be the rectangle of base 8a; and height 8X, because X'Sx SX.. The sum of the series of such rectangular areas stretching between given limits on the curve is not any definite area, and it can be made as small as desired by taking the 8a;'s sufficiently small. But this small rectangular area (8a;. 8X) is easily recognised to be the second increment of the area under the curve. The first diflerence is the area of the whole vertical strip between contiguous verticals. The difference between two such successive narrow strips (each being taken the same width 8a;) is the above (Sa;.8X). Thus as X.'dx^ is this second difference which equals X'(8a!)2, there is
nothing illegitimate in considering the symbol dx^ in
X.'dx^ to
represent the value of (Sx)^ when 8a; is taken minutely small. 1S8. Graphic Diagram of Treble Integration. The idea of treble integration may he similarly represented graphically. If the various areas in fig. 5 under the curve measured from any given lower limit up to the various vertical ordinates at the successive values of x, be looked upon as projections or plan-sections of a solid, the successive sections for each x and the following (x + Sx) being raised above the paper by the heights x and (x + Sx) ; then
mi
this
volume
is
the true graphic representation of

slice of
H'da?, because
the increment of this volume, or the
volume lying between
* See Appendix G.
92
two successive parallel sections Sx apart, is the section-area at the middle of the thickness Sx multiplied by Sx. This section-area we
have seen in
157 to be
ru
is
I
X'dx^
and, therefore, the above inore-
na
H'da?.
ment
of
volume
The
integral of this
is
X!d3?.
If the lower limiting vertical ordinate of the area be at a! = 0, then two of the side surfaces of the above integral volume are planes normal to the paper of the diagram and passing through the axes of x and X. A third side surface, namely, that passing through the successive edges (which are the various upper limiting ordinates in the area integrals), is also a plane it passes through the X-axis and is inclined at 45 to the diagram paper. The fourth side surface is in general curved. These four side surfaces, three of which are flat, give to the Volumetric representation of treble integration the general form of a quadrilateral pyramid. The base of this pyramid is plane parallel to the diagram paper. As a valuable exercise, the student should endeavour to obtain a clear mental conception of the fact that X'(8a!)', the value of which becomes ~K.'doi? when hx is minutely small, is the third difference in the continuous increase with x of this pyramidal volume.
CHAPTEE
VIII.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES.
159. Geometrical Illustration of Two Independent Variables. there have been considered combinations of such The functions alone as are mutually dependent on each other. functions x, X, M, etc., have been such that no one of them can change in size without the others concurrently, changing size. In fig. 1, 11, we have a vertical plane section of the surface of Suppose it to be a meridional or north a piece of undulating land. and south section. On it each distance measured northwards from a given starting-point corresponds to a definite elevation of the ground. If we take other meridional sections of the same piece of country, this same northward co-ordinate will correspond with other heights in these other sections. Thus, if h be used as a general symbol to mean the height of the surface at any and every point of it, then h depends not only on the northward co-ordinate
Hitherto
INDEPENDENT VAEIABLES.
or latitude, but also
If there
93
upon the westward co-ordinate or longitude.
be freedom to move anywhere over the surface, the two co-ordinates of latitude and longitude may be varied independently of each other, that is, a change in one does not necessitate any change in the other. Under such circumstances the elevation is said to be a function
two independent variables. In moving 160. Equation between Independent Increments. from any point 1 to any other point 2, the elevation rises (or falls) from say h-^ to h^. Let the latitudes, or northward ordinates, of the two points be Wj and n^, an I the westward ordinates or longitudes be w^ and Wj. Then the same change of elevation
of
would be effected by either of two pairs of motions namely, first, motion northwards (2 - Wj) without change of longitude, followed by a motion (w^ - Wj) westwards without change of latitude or, second, a motion (to^ - Wj) without change of n, followed by a motion (v^ - j) without change of to. This is true whether these motions be large or small. Suppose them to be small, and further suppose that there are no sudden breaks in the ground, that is, that the change of elevation is continuous or gradual over the whole surface. Call the small northward, westward, and vertical movements by the symbols
;
Wj -
= 8w = Sw ?*i h2 h^ Sh.
TCj
fi
Then
if
the meridional northward slope of the ground, just north

1,
of point
be called [~-)
the rise during the small northward
^
^^
I
.Sn
J
and
if
the westward slope
of the parallel of latitude through 2, just east of the point 2, be

,
the rise during the small westward
movement Sw
2,
which, following the above, completes the motion to

I
wiU be
8/*,
\0W/2
=r-]
S'"-
The sum
of these
two
rises gives
the whole of
or
=.-^-(a-^Here the two gradients are not gradients at the same point. If Sg. 28 be a plan and two elevations of the small part of the surface
94
considered, they are the northward and westward gradients at i/j and vj at the middle points of IN and N2 in the plan. If now the passage from 1 to 2 be effected by passing through
W in
fig.
28,
and
if
f^\
and (^^^ be the westward and north-
WesT
l.EVAriON
North
ELVATI0MI
PLAN
Fio. 28.
ward
elevation
slopes of the ground at oij and m^ may be calculated thus,
then the same change of
Sh-
\dw/i
\dnj
where the Sw and the 8w are

quadrilateral
(
1N2'W
(
also the same lengths as before, the being a parallelogram.
and
are the westward slopes on opposite sides of this
parallelogram
Elevation."
they are the slopes of
N2
and
IW in
the " North
and
are the
northward slopes upon the
other pair of opposite sides; they are the slopes of IN and in the " West Elevation." Adding these two equations and dividing each side by 2 ; and, further, calling the means between the gradients on the opposite
sides of the parallelogram
W2
by the symbols ^ and ^

dn
dw'
we have
on
ow
INDEPENDENT VAELSiBLES.
95
a continuous surface such as is here supposed, the above means are, with great accuracy, equal to the actual gradients along the centre lines WjV^ and VjWg of the small rectangle that is, the gradients at the centre of the short straight line 1 2. If the short 161. Equation between Independent Gradients. level length 1 2 be called Ss, so that 8n and 8w are the northward and westward projections or components of 8s ; then we have, as general truths, by dividing successively by Sn, Sw, and 8s,
arithmetic
On
8h^/dh\dh dh/dm\
Sn
\dn/s
dn
dw'\dnjs
dh
8h_/dh\
Sw
\dw)g
ds
_^_hfdn\ dn\dw/,
/dn\ \
dw
Sh_dk_dh
dh /dw\
ito'\dsJs
dn\ds Jb
where the restrictive symbol ( )b indicates a ratio of increments occurring concurrently along the special path s over the surface, an element of which path is 1 2 or 8s ; while the ratios of increments not marked with this symbol are pure northward and eastward
gradients,
-rr-
does not need to be marked, as
its
terms indicate
of the
ds
plainly that
it
s.
means the actual whole gradient
ground
along the path
\dw/s \dn/a \dsjs
\ds
/i
are dififerent measures of the direction of the path s in plan ; the first two are the tangents of the inclination of this path from the west and from the north respectively ; the last two are the sines of the same inclinations. These measures of its direction par-
path to which the equations apply. and dn dw connection with, and are quite independent of, the direchave no tion of this path s they are the due north and due west gradients at a point of the path, and depend upon the position of this point in the field, but not upon the direction of the path at such point.
ticularise the special
:
and - are called the " partial " differential on ow coefficients or gradients of h with respect to n and w.
The
gradients
is
the ratio of rise to northward progress in travelling
96
along the path
THE CALCULUS FOE ENGINEEKS.

s,
and depends upon the direction

from
' .
of this path.
It is quite diiTerent
In
fig.
28
it, (
on
\dn/s
equals the tangent
of inchnation of the line 1 2 to the horizontal base in the "
West
Elevation "
while
equals the tangent of inclination of line
IN
on to same base also in the "

Similarly,!
West
Elevation."
\dwjt
horizontal base in the "
of inclination
equals the tangent of inclination of 12 to the
North Elevation," while
ow
is
the tangent
of line to same base also in the "North Elevation." 162. Constraining Relation between Three Variables. have above considered the ordinates n and w to any point of the surface as mutually independent of each other, and h as dependent upon ioth n and w. But we may equally well consider to a function dependent on both n and h, while looking on n and h
IW
We
Generally between the as mutually independent of each other. three functions n, w, and h there is only one restrictive relational law established, leaving one degree of freedom of variation among the three. If a second restrictive law be imposed upon the relations between the three, this means that we are restricted to some particular path, such as s, over the surface, and are no longer free to take points all over the surface. The meridional section is such 163. Equation of Contours. The parallel of a restricted path; the restriction being 8/0 = 0.
another such restricted path ; the restriction in this case A level contour line is a third example of such a restricted path, the restriction being 8/i = 0. Therefore, if the
latitude
is
being
Sra
= 0.
path
be a contour
line,
we have -^=0, and

is
thus one form of
as the equation giving the shape of a contour
dh/dn\
dn\ds ),
or
dh/dw\
'dw\ds /,
_
dh
tdn\
\dsjg
/dw\
\ds
/dn\ _ \dw/s
dw
dh
dn
/dn\ Here {-r-j
= tangent
of
northward bearing of contour from due
INDEPEITOENT VARIABLES.
97
west, and this is seen to equal minus tlie ratio of the due west slope to the due north slope. The minus simply means that if both these slopes are positive upward gradients, then the bearing is south, not north, of due west. The steeper the west slope is in
comparison with the north slope, the more does the contour veer round to the south. The geometrical linear ordinates of the above illustration may be taken as the graphic scaled representatives of any kinds of measurable quantities related to each other in a similar manner. 164. General x, y, 'E{x,y) Nomenclature. Let the two independent variables be called x and y, and let the function dependent on these be called 'E{x,y). Let also the rate of change of F(a!,y) with x when y is kept constant be called YJ^xy), and its rate of change with y when x is kept constant be called Yy{x,y). Then the equations of 161 are written
{F',(c,2/)}=F>,2/)| + F>,2/)
where {S'J^xy)]
is
when the change

indicated by -.^
;
of
the rate of change of 'S{xy) with change of x x is associated with a change of y in the ratio
-^ being any whatever, but the ratio dx inserted on the right hand being always the same as that involved implicitly on the left hand. 165. Two Functions of Two Independent Variables. Again, if f{xy) be another similar function of x and y, then
dx
this ratio
fdFX^l
rdx,y) + Y,{x,y).% dx
left meaning that the equation gives a the f{xy) - gradient of F(a;^) ; namely, that particular value obtaining along with change of y combined with
the brackets {
on the
particular value
of
change of x in the
ratio
-^ inserted on the dx
right hand.
166. Applications to p, v, t and <^ Thermal Functions. important example of the kind of relation described is that of temperature, pressure, and specific volume of any one definite If t, p, and v indicate these, and if H^ indicate the substance.
An
98
THE CALCULUS FOR BNGINEEES.
pressure-gradient of the temperature with volume kept constant, while t\ indicates the volume-gradient of the temperature at constant pressure ; then for any changes 8p and 8w of the pressure
and volume, there
results a temperature
increment
For any change of thermal condition in which the volume-gradient

of the pressure
is
dv
the volume and pressure gradients of the
temperature are
and
Or
again,
if
p',
and
of the pressure with
constant, then for
he the temperature and volume gradients volume and temperature respectively kept any change defined by a volume-gradient of
p',,
temperature
pressure are
the
temperature and volume gradients of
the
{dp\
dv
[iy^'^'p^di
and
_,
dt
\dv)=P'' dv^Pp' is the slope of the " isothermal " on the p,v diagram the slope of the " isometric " on the p,t diagram ; t\ is the slope of the " isobaric " on the t,v diagram, etc., etc.
Here
p', is
What
is
called
"Entropy," usually symbolised by

its
<t>,
is
most
simply defined by the equation of
increment
this, combined with the above equations, gives most of the mathematical formulas of thermodynamics. 167. K-Gradient of {xy).In fig. 17, 80, the rectangular area between the two axes and the two co-ordinates x and was taken as a function of these co-ordinates, and differentiated with respect to them. The problem was there considered in reference
and
to the ordinates to the particular curve
99
in
fig.
shown
17,
which
may be
regarded as similar to the particular curve s of 161. If in fig. 17 we now regard x and as the ordinates to any point in the whole field of the figure, they will then be independent variables. It will now be better to name the vertical ordinate y, as is throughout this book used to indicate a function dependent on X. The area (xy) will be a function of these two independent variables. Applying the law of 161 to this function, we have
{
{
-3^
ax
f
I
= -V^with
ox
y constant
+ 4P^with oy
,
x constant x -^
dx
dy
where the bracket
indicates that the gradient is taken with { } concurrent change of x and y in the ratio given by y' on the right side. If the given y' be the a;-gradient of the curve drawn in fig. 17, there is here reproduced the law of 80, which is thus shown to be simply a particular ease of a more general law, namely, that
of 161.
168. Definite Integral of runction of Independent Variables. of 161 gives the increment of rise in level SA from any point of the surface to any other closely contiguous point. The integration of this increment of rise gives the total rise from one point to another point, near or distant, on the same surface. Taken between definite limits, this integral means the difference From any of level between two definite points on the surface. lower limit n^w^ to any upper limit ii^w^ the definite integral
The equation
is(^2-/'i)The indefinite integral

of the surface at
is
any and every
a general expression giving the height point measured from any con-
venient datum level. 169. Definite Integral of Function of Independent Variables. In integrating from point 1 to point 2 (distant from each other), the integration may be followed out along a great variety of paths, the only condition a suitable path has to fulfil being that it must The path may be curved in pass through both points 1 and 2. any fashion, or be zigzagged in any regular or irregular manner. The integration along every such path will evidently give the same result. If in fig. 28 the points 1 and 2 be distant from each other, the integration might first follow the directly north path IN, and then the directly west path N2. During the first part 8w would be continuously zero, and the integration would extend from latitude n-^ to latitude n^, keeping constantly to the longitude
100
Cj.
THE CALCULUS TOR ENGINEERS.
same
During the second part, S would be continuously zero. The at constant result is obtained by integrating first from 1 to latitude Wj, and then from to 2 at constant longitude w^. Incidentally 170. Equation between Differences of Integrals. it may be noted that this gives, by converting the equation between the sums of these pairs of rises into an equation between the differences of the pairs of rises on opposite sides of the rectangle,
mo
the
left-hand
expression
meaning
the difference between two
latitude Wj to latitude Wji carried out along the meridians of longitude w^ and tOj ; while the right-hand similarly means the difference between two integrations each aloiig a parallel
integrations
from
and each between the same Umits of longitude. Integral. The indefinite integral h may be obtained by first integrating along any meridian up to an undefined point, and then from that same point along a parallel of latitude an indefinite distance; or the integration along the parallel of latitude may be effected first, to be followed by the meridional integration. In either case the second integration must start from the same point as that at which the first finishes, this point, however, being any whatever. Functional Integration Constants. 172. Independent Although n and w may be varied quite independently, there is a relation between the law of the meridional section and that of the section of constant latitude which deserves notice. The equation of the meridional section, in which n is the variable, changes from
of latitude 171. Indefinite
section to section,
i.e.,
changes with the longitude.
This equation,
therefore, in general involves the longitude w.
For any one such
section the value of
w entering into it remains constant. Thus the general expression for h may be taken as the sum of three terms,
:
thus
^.
= N-l-F(w,M))-)-W
a function involving n but not w; a function involving w but not n ; and F(ra,Mi) is the sum of such terms as involve both n and w. The partial gradient for any meridional section is
where
is
| = N' + F>,^)
W being a constant
in this differentiation.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES.
101
^
The
partial gradient for
any section of equal latitude
is
| = W' + F>,).
These two formulEe exhibit clearly the necessary relation between the two partial gradients. They differ, first, in N' and W, which are respectively functions of n alone and of w alone, and between which parts, therefore, there is complete independence; and, secondly, in \{nw) and YJjiw), which are different but not independent, being necessarily related by the condition that they are the partial gradients of the same fu^ction involving both variables. Constants. 173. Independent Functional Integration Written in terms of independent variables x, y, and ^ the integral function of xij, these fprmulse become
X=X+
F(a;,y)
+Y
of x only, and Y is a function of y only. Complete Differentials. In fig. 28 the slopes of the two lines IW and N2 in the " North Elevation " give the westward gradient at the two latitudes Mj and n^. These lines are drawn parallel in fig. 28 because the points 1, 2 are close together, and for a first degree of approximation the difference of slopes through them may be neglected if the surface be continuous. If a second
where
X is a function
174.
degree of approximation to accuracy be considered ; that is, if we investigate " second gradients," the difference between these two
westward gradients must be taken into account.
It is evidently
dn\dwj
and the
1 to
difference
is
between the
rise
from
N to
2 and the rise from
d_i'dh\
-j.8ra.Sw.
dnVdioJ
Similarly, the difference
IN
as seen in the "
West
between the northward gradients "W2 and Elevation " of the same figure is
dw\dnj
102

difference
and the
1 to
between the
rise
from
to 2
and the
rise
from
N is
d_/dh\ d /dh\ Sw .Sn. dw\ dn)
'
But by
the
common
170 these differences equal each otlier. product 8rt.8w, we have the equality
Cancelling out
dnydwj
Using the nomenclature
of the
dwKdnJ'
of 172, since
enu
dW =0, -_
0,
because
equation
does
not involve n,
and similarly
=
dw
this
becomes
|^(f'0.;))
= say ">>) = |^(^'n(')) = ^y ^'U^^^)
taken
indifferent whether the n or the w differentiation be and whether F"(m>) or F"^(m) be used as symbol. Although these second-gradients, calculated in these two different ways, have the same value, they represent two perfectly distinct The one is the northward rate of change of physical phenomena.
Thus
it is
first,
The other is the westward rate of the westward gradient of h. change of the northward gradient of h. That these are equal, whatever kinds of physical quantities be represented by h, n and w, is a proposition of mathematical physics that is most interesting and fertile in its various concrete applications. When two functions of x and y 175. Second a;, //-Gradient. fulfil the condition of being the partial x and y gradients of one and the same function, then the function formed by adding the products of these functions by Sa; and hy respectively, is said to be
a complete diflferential. ^
Thus
if
Zy ascertained to be the partial x and y gradients of the same function

p^,
^^ and -^ be the functions,

dx
'
then
ox
oy
is
a "complete differential," and this latter is said to be "integrable." If this has been found, by accurate deduction from correct observation of physical fact, to be the increment of a real
l03
physical quantity, then it is certain that the function is theoretically integrable (although the integration, may be impracticably difficult) and that its two parts will fulfil the condition of 174. Of course, it is easy for the pure mathematician to invent functions of this sort that are not integrable, and incorrect physical observation or inaccurate deduction from physical investigation may lead to that are not integrable; but such have no real physical meaning. 176. Double Integration by dx and dy. Conversely, if any function of two independent variables, x, y, be twice integrated
dijBferentials
first by dx and then by dy, the result will be the same as if first integrated by dy and then by dx, being in either case the sum of a function dependent on both x and y and of two other functions depending separately, one of them on x alone and the other on y
alone.
in the
These two latter functions are introduced by the integrations same way as constants are introduced by integrations with respect to one variable ; the one function being a constant with respect to one variable, and the other being a constant with respect
to the other variable.
Thus, for example,
if
dxdy
then
^-
=a + hx + ev-êxy
/
IT
where the laws of the functions "limiting conditions."
and
must be determined by
The
finding of y from the given value of

is
-,
dxdy
is
called the
double integration of this function, and

T= V-
symbolised by
// dxdy
or
I
dx dy
4){xy)dx dy
if
^(xy) be the given functional form of
J J
^ dxdy
177. Graphic representation of Double Integration by dx The meaning of the double integration of (l>(xy) may dy. be represented graphically in the following different manner. Let 4>{^/) lie represented by the height of a surface from a
and
datum
plane, the co-ordinates parallel to this plane being
x and
y.
104

first
Then the
integration
^{xy)dx
may
be considered as extend-
ing along a section perpendicular to the datum plane and parallel The result of to the x-a.'sSs, in this integration y being a constant. this integration is a general formula for the area of any such section. Two such sections at the very smaD distance 8^ apart will inclose between them, under the surface and above the datum plane, a volume equal to 8y multiplied by the area of the ^-constant section
at
the middle of
8j/.
This volume
is,
therefore,
<ji{xy)dx
>
Sy,
and the whole volume under the surface and above the datum
plane therefore properly represents
conception
is
I I
<f>{xy)dxdy.
This geometric
more
easily
grasped
if
the integration be taken
between limits. 178. Connection between Problems concerning One Independent Variable and those concerning Two Independent Variables. In an investigation concerning two mutually dependent variables, such as those in Chapters I. to VII., the two variables may always be represented by the co-ordinates to a plane This curve may be looked on as a plane section of a curve. surface, the three co-ordinates to the points upon which are related to each other by the more general kind of law dealt with in this Thus the former problems may always be conceived of chapter. as the partial solutions of more general laws connecting three The variables with only one specific relation between them. problems of Chapters I. to VII. may thus be considered special cases of more general problems of the kind now dealt with, and each of them might be deduced by specialising from a more general
theorem.
CHAPTEE
IX.
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.

179. General Criterions. In fig. 1, at the parts C, E, H, K, S, IT, the Z-gradient of h is zero. The points C and are places where h rises to a maximum, the maximum being greater than the maximum C, but the phrase " maximtim " being understood to mean a value greater than any neighbouring value on either side. E is a place where h falls to a minimum.
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.

Thus the gradient
falls
105
is
to
zero
wherever there
either
maximum
At the
the forward gradient passes to negative, that is, the increase of the gradient is negative at these places. At the minimum point E, the forward gradient changes from negative to positive, so that its increase is positive. Thus the criterion for distinguishing between a maximum and a minimum is, that at the former the second gradient or second differential coefficient is negative, while at a minimum point it is
minimum value. maxima points, C and K,

or a
through zero hy changing from positive
positive.
It is not always, however, necessary to find the sign of the second gradient in order to make sure whether the point is a maximum or a minimum. For instance, if it be known that at the place where the first gradient is zero, the value of h is positive, and if it be also known that at two points near and on either side of this place the value of h becomes zero, or of any positively less value than at this place of zero gradient, then evidently this
place gives a maximum. At the place H, fig. 1, the second gradient is zero, because to the left of it is negative, while to the right of it is positive. This case of zero second-gradient occurring along with zero firstgradient is the limiting case coming in between the two previous ones, giving respectively maxima and minima ; and it gives neither a maximum nor a minimum. This includes the case of the dead level E,S, where also both first and second gradients are zero. Usually one's general knowledge of the physical phenomenon being investigated is sufficient, without need of evaluating the second gradient, to indicate whether or not there is any such point as H. That is, the practical man who thinks of what he is working at, and does not follow blindly mere mathematical formulas, runs substantially no risk of mistaking such a point as for either a maximum or a minimum point. 180. Symmetry. In very many practical problems conditions
of
symmetry show
clearly
where a maximum
or
minimum
occurs
without the need of investigating either first or second gradient. Thus, if a beam be symmetrically supported, symmetrically loaded, and have a symmetrical variation of section on either side of a certain point of its length, which point is then properly called its centre, then the bending moment and the deflection each reach a maximum at this centre. Such considerations are to be utilised wherever possible, and their use is sometimes more profitable in practical result than the more strictly mathematical process. 181. Importance of Maxima in Practical work. As examples
106
of the utility of these theorems may be cited the finding of the positions and magnitudes of maximum bending moments, of
maximum stresses, of maximum deflections, of maximum velocities, of maximum accelerations of momentum, of the positions of rolling load on bridges to give maximum stress in any given member of
the bridge, etc., etc. the practical theory together in machines obtain uniform stress joint. It is of the
these things are of special importance in In the jointing of pieces of engineering. and static structures, it is never possible to
greatest
AU
over the various important sections of the importance to find the maximum intensities of stress on such sections, because the safety of the construction depends on the maximum, hardly ever upon the average, stress. The average stress on the section is found by dividing the whole load on the section by the whole area of the section. Such average stresses are often very different from the maximum stress, and no reliance ought to be placed upon them as measures of strength and safety.
of
Another class of technical problems in which maxima points are paramount importance is that in which two or more sets of
variable driving efforts, or of variable resistances, are superimposed in a machine. Thus a first approximation to the turning moment on the crank shaft of a steam engine of one cylinder, makes this
moment vary
as sin a, where a is the angle at which the crank stands from the dead point. If there be two cyUnders in which the total steam pressures are Pj and Pj, constant throughout the stroke, and the two cranks, keyed on the same shaft, stand apart then a being the angle from dead point of one ; by an angle remains constant while a crank, (a + A) is that of the other. varies. If S^ and S^ be the two strokes, the total turning moment on the shaft is
^{SiPi sina + SjPj
sin (a
+ A)}
is
which reaches a maximum when
its
a-gradient
zero; that
is,
when
cos
_
A)
S2P2
SiPj"
;
cos(a +
A = 90,
182.
of
This ratio is minus unity then a = 45 at the
when SjPj = SiPj and if, further, maximum. Connecting Eod Bending Moments. The connecting rod
by transverse accelerations of momentum, which, taken per inch length, would increase uniformly from zero at the crosshead to a certain amount at the crank end if the section of the rod were uniform. The
an engine
is
at each instant bent
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.

actual bending
to
this
107
moments on the rod follow nearly the law due
of load, because the excess of weight in approximately centred at the point of support at either end and, therefore, does not affect the bending moments. If L be the whole length ; I the length to any section from the crosshead ; w the transverse load per inch at the crank end then
distribution
is
each head
Li
is
the load per inch at
I.
On
97^
the section at
I,
therefore, the
bending moment
is !
"S"
"q" f
The first ^-gradient of this is moment that is, this point has a
;
zero at the point of
maximum
distance
given by
wL wP _ .
or
Z
i=
wlP
-5773L.
Inserting this value of

find as the
in the general value of the
moment, we
maximum moment
loL
\
73 " L6 X 3^3 /3
>
)
= 06415wL2
which may be compared with '0625wT?, which is the central moment in the case of the same total load, ^wL being uniformly distributed along the whole span. It is 2|% greater than this latter, and its position is 7J% of the span away from the centre. 183. Position of Supports giving Minimum Value to the Maximum Bending Moment on a Beam. The following illustrates how maxima of arithmetic, as distinguished from algebraic, quan-
tities
may sometimes be found

If a beam,
without use of
differential
coefficient.
freely supported, overhang its supports
equally at the two ends, and be uniformly loaded ; then certain positions for the supports will make the maximum moment less than for any other positions of these supports. Let L and w per inch be the total length and the load, and I the span between the supports. The bending moment on the
section
over each support
is
lo
-^
j-
= -q- (L - 1)\
\
The
central
moment, taking
wTu
"2"
it
I
of opposite sign, is
Y ~ T" T ~ X V ~ T/
wL L _ wLf
108

be negative,
i.e., if
If this latter
i<-^, these two moments

is,
will be
of the
same physical sign; that
the
beam
will be bent If
convex
on
its
upper surface throughout
its
whole length.
i>-^, a
on the upper surface, and and outside this length the moments will be of opposite sign. As Z is made larger, the magnitude of the central moment becomes always larger and that of the moment at the supports always smaller. Therefore, neither has any algebraic maximum. But when they are arithmetically equal, their common arithmetic
certain central length will be concave
inside
magnitude is then less than the magnitude of the greater of the two for any other span. So that, irrespective of sign, the minimum of the arithmetic magnitudes of the three maximum moments
is
reached
when
or
I
= -SSbSL
I
and
^^ = 2071L
moment we
find
Inserting this value of
in either formula for the
Central
moment = moment
over each support
= 02144wL^
which is only 17% of the central moment on the same beam with same load when supported at the two ends. This fact may be regarded as the basis of the great economy of the modern " cantilever " style of bridge building. 184. Position of BoUing Load for Maximum Moment and for Maximum Shear. The next example shows how reasoning about
increments, instead of differential coefficients,
may be
used to find
maximmn values. The bending moment produced by
a load on any section of a
girder, supported freely at its ends, is of the
same sign wherever Therefore the moment on the load be placed within the span. each and every section produced by a uniform rolling load reaches a maximum when the load covers the whole span. The right-handed integral shear stress on each section equals the supporting force at the left-hand support, minus the load apphed between this support and the section. Therefore, any load applied right of the section increases this shear stress, because it increases the left supporting force and leaves unaltered the load between it and the section. But a load applied left of the section decreases the same stress, because it increases the left supporting force less
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.
109
than it increases the load between it and the section. Therefore the right-handed shear stress on any section due to a uniform rolhng load reaches a maximum when the load covers the whole of that part of the span to the right of the section, but covers none
it. The left-handed shear stress reaches its maximum part êft of the section is covered. The arithmetic maximum of the stress is reached when the larger of the two segments into which the section divides the span is covered while the shorter is empty. 185. Most Economical Shape for I Girder Section. The
to the left of
when the
economic proportioning of sections is illustrated by the following. Let be the bending moment strength of an I girder, whose depth is outside the flanges and h inside them, and whose flange breadth is B and web thickness viE. Let the area of its cross-section be called S.
Then
the
moment
strength per square inch of section
may
easily
be shown to be
S"6H' B.~{\-w)h
If
and h be increased
in the
same proportion,
this
M
-
will
increase in proportion to the first power of either of them, large sections being always stronger and stifier per square inch than is increased without alteration small ones. It also increases if
of h.
M also -^
S
increases as
is
decreased towards zero, the
web
section contributing to the moment strength less than the flange section and, therefore, less than the average for the whole section.
however, the web thickness be supposed fixed in accordance with the requirements of shear strength, and if h be diminished
If,
while
is
this flange thickening
economy
decrease
;;;
unaltered, thereby thickening the flanges internally, will, up to a certain limit, increase the of the section, beyond which a further thickening will
again.
it
The
/i-gradient of -3- is
3(1 -
w)h^B. -
(1
- w)h} + {l- w){W -
(1
- w)W}
6H"
If this
{H-(l-w)/jp
zero, there results
be equated to
2(.-,(|)'-3(i)\.
This
is
= 0.
a cubic eqjiation giving the most economical depth inside
110
the flanges when that outside the flanges, as also the ratio w of web thickness to flange width, are fixed by other considerations. This ratio between h and essentially depends on w; \iw = Q, giving zero thickness to the web, the above equation gives h = H, i.e., gives zero thickness to the flange also, or the whole section shrinks to zero area. When useful '5, it gives A/H = "6527. exercise for the engineering student is to solve this equation for values of w ranging up to "5. The solution can be very easily effected by the method of solving for w taking a series of values of S./H ranging from 1 down to "6 ; tabulating these graphically as a curve and then reading from the curve the fe/H for any desired values of w* 186. Most Economical Proportions for a Warren Girder. The economic proportioning of general dimensions is the subject of the next example. If a Warren girder of height H, and length of bay B, have the bay width B made up of 6 the horizontal projection of a tie-brace and (B - U) the horizontal projection of a strut brace ; then the weight of material required to give the structure strength to carry the desired load, exclusive of that spent in jointing the various members together, may be expressed by a formula of six terms involving, besides H, B and h, also the span, the load, the stresses allowed on the sections, and four numerical coefficients which do not vary with the nor with the span or load nor with the ratio
w=
^ x>
and vary very
little
with the number of bays.
The same formula
may be
applied to any pattern of lattice girder by suitably adjusting the numerical coefficients. Four terms of this weight decrease as increases, while two increase. certain girder depth will, therefore, be most economical in expenditure of material. Assuming everything but to remain constant, and equating the H-gradient of the above to zero, there is obtained the best girder depth. Again, the girder weight contains two terms increasing with B
and two others decreasing with B.
Assuming the
ratio
-^ and
all
other quantities except B to be kept unaltered and equating the B-gradient of to zero, we obtain a formula for the most economical bay width for given span and height, which gives also indirectly the best number of bays to insert in the given span. This formula cannot, however, be precisely followed, because the number of bays must necessarily be a whole number while the equation gives in general a fractional number. The girder weight also varies with 6 in two terms, one of which
* See
Appendix H.
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.
Ill
Considering everyincreases while the other decreases with 6. thing but b as fixed, and putting the 6-gradient equal to zero, a rule is found for proportioning the length of the ties to that of the
struts.
These results are not formulated here because to guard against

their incorrect application requires rather
more explanation
of
special bridge-building detail than is suitable to this treatise.
of Amiual Charge on Prime Cost and of many technical problems are, or ought to be, solved by reducing to a minimum the sum of two main first, the initial cost of construction and other necessary costs preliminary expenses; second, the cost of working, maintenance, and repair. These can only be added when reduced to terms rationally comparable, and this is usually done by reducing both
187.
Minimum Sum
Cost.
Working
:
^Very
to an annual cost or charge. Interest on all initial expenses, including prime cost of actual construction, is to be added to an annual charge to provide for a sinking fund to reproduce the capital after a period within which it is estimated that the plant will become useless from being worn out, or having become obsolete which annual charge is often referred to as " depreciation " and this forms the first part of the whole cost. The second part consists of wages, materials used up in working, power for driving, etc. If the initial expenditure be skiKully and wisely spent, its increase nearly always, within limits, decreases the working exIt follows that in most if not all cases a certain initial penses. expenditure is that that will make the total annual cost a mini mum. Thus the adoption of a larger ratio of expansion in a steam engine wiU, within certain limits, diminish the consumption of water and of coal required to produce any required horse-power but it will necessitate a larger and more expensive engine for this same horse-power, which will be, moreover, more costly to keep in good working order ; and this is the real consideration which ought to determine the commercially most economic cut-oflf in steam Lord Kelvin's calculation of the best cross-sectional engines. area of electrical leads is another example of this kind of problem. 188. Most Economical Size for Water Pipes. The following is a similar example directed to the calculation of the most economic diameter of water pipes, first published by the author in 1888. If a given weight or volume of water is to be delivered per hour at a certain station at a certain pressure, this means the same thing as delivering so much water horse-power at this station. Let this horse-power be called H, and the pressure demanded at the point let L be the distance from the pumping or gravityof delivery p
112
THE CALCULUS FOE ENGINEEES.
power station, and d be the internal diameter of the pipe. Then the loss of power in transmission, through friction and viscosity (exclusive of loss at bends and valves), can be shown to be nearly
a -r- where a
J
is
a numerical coefficient dependent on the smooth-
ness of the inside surface of the pipe and on the shape of cross If q be the cost per hour of generating 1 horse-power, and if the delivery be continued for T hours per year ; then the cost of this waste horse-power per year is
section.
The prime
cost of pipes
and pipe-laying (including trenching)
be taken as the sum of two terms, the iirst proportional to the length L, and independent of the size of pipe ; the second proportional to the quantity of metal in the pipe. The thickness
of pipe requires to be designed according to the formula
may
fA-t-^j
where and B are constants. The part of the initial cost which varies with the diameter will, therefore, give an annual cost in interest and depreciation of
rLdt
{--'i)
a factor dependent on (1) the price of iron; (2) the nature of the ground to be trenched ; and (3) the prevailing rate of interest on money. That part of the total annual cost which varies with the size of the pipe is, therefore,
where r
is
Equate the
<i-gradient of this to zero
the result
is
an equation for the determination of d, which, although of the 7th degree, is very easily solved with the help of Barlow's Tables Other things being equal, it makes the diameter vary of powers.
according to a power of
*
H lying between ^ and

Jr
.*
-f
After demonstrating this law, the author incidentally diseovered that
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.
113
189. Maximum Economy Problems in Electric Transmission of Energy. Calculations of maxima enter into many important problems in electric engineering. Let an electric current generator exert an E.M.F. equal to E, and that part of the electric resistance of the circuit under the control of the supply company be E, while the rest of the circuit has a resistance r. Then the current is
E
if
there be no counter E.M.F.
The
electric
work per second
in the external resistance r

this as great as possible
is
=;
(E + r)2
If
it
be desired to
make
or E,
we
by adjusting r without alteration in either find the r-gradient of this external work to be zero
when
r = E, and the external
work
is
then
E^
-7-,
the whole work
ir
being double this. If there be an external counter E.M.F. equal to
\=:;
e,
^
the current
is
E+r
'
and the work done on the counter E.M.F.
is
E+r
'
This
work continuously
change in
or
e.
decreases as either r or is increased without If E, E, and r be fixed while e is adjustable,
the e-sradient of this work ^

e
= JE,
giving the
E + r' maximum work that

-.=i^
is
which becomes zero when

can be done on
e
e
under
these conditions equal to
E^ -j
and the
efficiency =- equal to ^.
This gives
Tiot
maximum motor work under the prescribed conditions, ma/ximum efficiency. In the early days of attempted transmission of power by electric current, it was believed by many that this showed that no higher
efficiency than \ could be reached in such transmission. This misapprehension was acted upon practically by electricians of good reputation, and retarded progress in this branch of engineering.
The
efficiency of the transmission is -=-,
and
this can be
made
nearly unity by making e nearly equal to E. By so doing, the excess of driving over driven E.M.F., namely (E - e), is diminished, and the current and horse-power delivered are diminished unless the decrease so effected be neutralised by increase in e, and, therefore, also in E, or by decrease in E + r. "With small resistances, howan old established firm of water engineers had empirically framed rule which was nearly identical with the above.
114
ever, combined with high voltages, large horse-powers can be transmitted with high electric efficiency. The necessary voltages and resistances required to deliver any required horse-power with any given efficiency are easy to calculate, but the calculations do not illustrate the subject of this chapter. large number of electric transmission calculations of values giving maximum economy, etc., under various conditions, may be found in a series of articles by the author in Industries, 1889.* 190. Maxima of Function of Two Independent Variables. If a function of two independent variables be represented by the height of a surface with the two variables as horizontal co-ordinates, then any plane vertical section will give a curve which will rise to maximum height or fall to minimum height where the partial first gradient is zero, and the partial second gradient is not zero. If two such sections cross each other at a surface point where the partial first gradients are zero in both sections, then the surface is level throughout a small extent all round the intersection point. There are six cases to be distinguished. (1) The partial second gradient is positive in both sections ; then the point is at the bottom of a hollow in the surface, all neighbouring points being higher; so that the value of the function represented by the height is here a minimum. (2) The partial second gradients in the two sections are both negative ; then the point is at the top of a convexity or globular part of the surface, all neighbouring points being lower ; so that the value of the height function is here a
(3)
maximum. The one partial second gradient is Here the surface is negative.
shaped ;
other.
it
positive, while the other

is
anticlinal, or saddle-
hollow in one direction, and round in the This gives neither minimum nor maximum value
is
to the height function.
(4)
The one
is
partial second gradient is positive, while the other
passing from positive to negative. Here the part of the surface is the junction between a hollow portion lying on one side of a vertical plane and an anticlinal portion lying on the other side of the same; and the height function is again at neither maximum nor minimum value. (5) The one may be negative, while, as in (4), the other is zero.
zero, * Also many other problems dealing with modern conditions are solved In Chap. III., on "Economic Deductions from Statistics and Technical Conditions," in the author's Electric Traction, published 1905.
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.

There
is
115
here indicated the junction between a round an antichnal portion; and again neither maximum nor minimum occurs here. Here two semi-anticlinal surfaces (6) Again both may be zero. join together, and the point gives neither maximum nor
portion and
The
first
minimum. two cases alone
are important as regards finding maxi-
mum
and minimum values. In these cases both first gradients are zero, and the second gradients are of the same sign. To find the maximum or minimum values of a function of two independent variables, the process is to equate the two partial first gradients to zero, and combine these two equations as simultaneous ones. Afterwards the second gradients should be examined as to sign if the physical character of the problem is not so plain as to make
this unnecessary.
191. Most Economic Location of Junction of Three Branch Railways. As an illustration of this process, take an elementary problem in the theory of railway location. Three centres of trafiic are supposed situated in a plain across which the construction of
the railway is equally easy in all directions. The three centres are to be joined by three branch lines radiating from a junction, the finding of the best position for which junction is the problem proposed. The traffic issuing from and entering each centre is the sum of the two traffics between it and the other two (inclusive possibly of traffic going through these to more distant points). The importance of the three traffics to and from the three centres being properly measured, and being here symbohsed by A, B, and C ; and the distances of the three centres from the junction being called a, b, c; the correct solution of this problem means the location of the junction so as to give a minimum value to
Aa + Bb + Gc
A, B, C being given, while a, b, c are to be found. Eeferring to the notation of fig. 29, in which the distance and C is called L, and the projecbetween the points of traffic tion on L of the distance between the points of traffic and B is called A,, while the projection of the same perpendicular to L is called ; the problem may be conveniently stated to be to find the co-ordinates I and h of the best junction. "We have with this notation
a={P + h^}i
The two
thus
partial
I
&={(A.-Z)2 + (H-;i)2p
e={{L-iy+h^}K
are taken;
and h gradients
of
(Aa + Bh + Cc)
116
da
INTEGKATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

and (y -
117
a), are the three angles between b and c, a and b, e and a. Since the sides of a triangle are proportional to the siaes of the opposite angles, it follows immediately that these three angles
A
and
ea, to which the three branches are to be adjusted, are the exterior angles of a triangle whose sides are made equal (to any convenient scale) to A, C, and B. By constructing this triangle these angles can be found, and by drawing upon two of the lines joining two pairs of centres of traffic two arcs of circles containing these angles, the proper junction is located as the intersection of these arcs. This result may be perceived more directly by noticing that the two partial gradients to be equated to zero are, one the sum of the projections on L, and the other the sum of the projections on H, of A, B, C, measured along the lines a, b, c, outwards from the junction. Other maximum problems of technical interest are solved in Appendices I., K., L.
bo, ab,
CHAPTEE
X.
INTEGRATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

192. Explicit and Implicit Belations between Gradients and Variables. ^The utility of the art of integration arises from the fact that in the investigation of phenomena it often happens that the discovery of the ratio between simultaneous increments (or gradient) of mutually related quantities is effected more easily by direct observation than is the discovery of the main complete relation between these same quantities. This complete relation is then logically deduced by the help of integration, combined with the further observation of special or "limiting" values. The complete relation being less general than the dififerential relation, there appears in it an " arbitrary constant " whose value is not given by the differential relation, and which value must be discovered by examination of the "limiting conditions." The differential relation apphes equally well to a whole " family " of
integral
relations
which
differ
among themselves
in respect of
these limiting conditions.

If, when the differential relation is expressed as an equation, the gradient can be placed alone on one side of the equation, while on the other appears a function of one only of the mutually dependent variables ; then, in order to establish the integral relation, nothing
118
more has to be done than to integrate this latter function directly according to one or other of the methods explained in previous chapters, or given in the appended Classified Reference List of Iniftgrals. This is the case of the gradient being expressed as an expUcit function of one of the variables. If, however, the differential equation involve the gradient and both variables in such a way that the above simple separation does not appear ; that is, if the gradient appear as an implicit function of the variables ; then either the impHcitness of the relation must be got rid of by some algebraic process, or else a special method of integration must be employed. This process is caUed the "solution" of the differential equation. 193. Degree and Order of an Equation. Nomenclature. An ordinary algebraic equation is said to be of the w"" power or degree when it involves the n^ power of the " unknown " quantity or of either of the " variables." In a differential equation, the gradients
being the quantities to be got rid of by integration, the equation is said to be of the n^ degree when the w* power of the highest occurring gradient is involved in it.
If it involve a
second gradient
-^ V
it is
said to be of the
said to be of the
second order.
If it involve
an n^ gradient,
it is
n^ order. The integral
relation
deduced from the

is
differential equation
may
be called the integral equation, but equation.
also called the primitive
In what follows X'
will
mean
ax
194. X'=f{x).
The form
of differential equation simplest to integrate is the
explicit relation,
T^-f{x)
where f(x)
This
is
a function involving the variable x alone, equivalent to

is
and not X.
dX=f{x)dx
integrable by help of any of the formulas in the /( ) Reference List, the integration can be effected at once ; thus
if
and
is
X=
where
[f{x)dx + G
is
the constant of integration.

195.
119
X'=/(X).
Again,
if
X'=/(X)
only and not
x,
where /(X) involves
then
and
direct integration of
-^,
if it
be possible by one of the formulas
ia the Eeference Liat, gives the integral relation between
X and x
fdX
//(X)"
^
then
logj
;
As an example,
if
/(X)
=X
X=
a;
+ C.
tan -~-
As another example,
if /(X) = sin X
then
log^
= x + G.
196. X'=/(a;)F(X). Again, if the differential relation be found in the form
X'=/(*;)F(X)
where f{x)
is
whUeF(X)
then
a function involving x and not X, x;
jYx"\
=f(x)dx
and
'F(X) /jf)
= //(^)â. + C
if
which gives the integral solution found directly. As an example, take X' = cos a; then
-^
loge
both these integrals can be
sin
X
.
tan -^
= sia a; + C
The case of 195 is only a special case of the more general method of the present article, namely, the case in which /() = 1 while that of 194 is the other special case in which F(X)= 1. In aU these cases X' has been found as a function of x and X in a form in which X', x, and X can be completely separated as
distinct terms or factors in the equation.
120
THE CALCULUS FOE ENGINEEKS.
to
197. X=f{X!). Suppose now that a certain function of the gradient X' equal x ; thus,
is
found
x=f{^).
This equation may be capable of easy algebraic solution so as to give X' as an explicit function of x ; thus,
X'=f-\x)
It ) means the function that is the inverse of /( ). must be noted that such a solution has in general more than one
root.
where yî(
Thus,
if
are
two
roots.
/(X') be a quadratic rational function of X', there This solution can then be dealt with by 194;
ix -jrK^)dz + G
thus,
provided the function /~^( ) turns out to be directly integrable. This method, however, may be impracticable, or else may involve more labour than the following. Take the X-gradient of
x=f{X')
dx__\ _
,,
,.dX'
from which we deduce by transposition
dX = X'f'{X')dK'
and
X=
Here jX'f'{X')dX'
is
jX'f{X')dX' + C.
the same function of X' asjxf'lxyix would
be of x; and if xf'(x) is directly integrable by dx, the above can be directly found as a function of X'. Let this function be called Then from the (f>(X'), and suppose it expressed in terms of X'. two simultaneous equations, of which the first is the original
differential equation,
x=/(X')
and
X = ^(X') + Cf
and X.
X' can be eliminated so as to leave an equation involving only x This is the integral solution of the given differential
equation.
121
As an example
Then
let
X = sin X'.
/'(X')
= cosX'
and
f X' cos X'c^X'
= X' sin X' + cos X' = u;X' + (1 - a;2)i = x sin-ia; + (1 - x^)K
Therefore
X = a;sin-i.B + (l-a;2)i + C.
The same
from
this.
result
is
equation for X',
viz.,
obtained by solving the given differential thus X' = sin~i2;, and integrating directly
198. X=/(X'). If the implicit relation
is
found in the form
X=/(X')
either the algebraic solution of this for X'
may be
obtained,
whence
the integration
/
dX _
or else a
method
similar to that of last paragraph
may be
followed.
Thus, taking the a>gradient,
whence
jl^dX.' = say .^(X') = + C

a:
this integration
of X',
which
From
and
by rfX' involving X' only, and giving some function here symbolised by <^(X') the two simultaneous equations
is
.
X=/(X')|
>
x + C = <j>(X.')\
is to be eliminated by ordinary algebraic means, leaving the integral equation involving only x and X.
X'
199.
= X'. particular case of the last
mX
is
that of /(X')
X'.
1
,
Here
122
THE CALCULUS FOE ENGINEEKS
m
or
1
m
dX
ax
m X
the integration of whicli gives directly
^=llog.(CX).
fact, in this case the differential formula of 198 reduces to that of 195, and is the first of the two examples of the result of 195 given in that paragraph. = :b/(X'). 200. differential formula only slightly different from that of 198,
In
and
to be dealt
with in the same general manner,
is
X = x/(X').
Taking the a-gradients of both
sides,
;x:'=/(X')+^/'(X')^
from which
'
/(X-) X' -/(X')
_dx
~
X
and therefore
/:
From
and
the two simultaneous equations
X = a;/(X')
log(Ca;)
= </.(X')
X'
is
to be eliminated algebraically so as to leave the integral
equation between x and X. = wa;X'. 201. A particular case of the last formula, which time a particular case of 196, is
is also at
the same
f(K.')
= nX'
or
X = raa;X'
or
dX.
_ Idx
n X
123
whence by
direct integration of eacli side

1
X = Ca;''202. X=a;X'+/(X'). If the differential equation be of the more involved form
X = a;X' + /(X'),
by taking the a>-gradients on both sides, there cancelHng out from the two sides,
0={a;+/'(X')}X".
This equation has two solutions.
is
obtained, X'
The
first is
X" =
whence
X' = CiandX = Cia; + C2
since
a!X'+/(X') and X' Ci. of the given differential equation.
X=
This
is
a partial integration
The other
solution
is
a!+/'(X')
From
this
and
X = a;X'+/(X')
treated as simultaneous equations, nated, leaving an equation giving Let this equation or implicitly. This ^(a;,X) = is a second partial
tial
X' may be
of
algebraically elimi-
X in terms
x either explicitly be symbolised by <^(a;,X) = 0. solution of the given differen-
equation.
of these two partial solutions gives the complete most general form, which, in application to whatever physical problem may be in hand, must be particularised by the
The combination
solution in its
These limiting conditions insertion of the " limiting conditions." sometimes exclude one of the " partial " solutions as impossible, leaving the other partial solution as the full true solution of the
particular physical problem in hand. The solution of a more generahsed
form of
this
differential
equation is given in that of 208.
210, the method of solution depending on

last
A form differing
Here
from the
only in the sign of xX!
is
X-f-a;X'=/(X').
X + xX!
is
the CB-gradient of a:X.
124
Therefore, the integration gives
xX = jf(X.').dx = j^.dX';
and,
if,
X" be
expressible in terms of X' alone
and the function
\^J be
integrable by dX.', this integration will give an equation
between x, X, and X', between which and the original equation, X' may be algebraically eliminated, leaving one involving only x and X. Kational Functions. If the relation 203. Homogeneous between x, X, and X' be found in the form
(ax^ + bx"'-^X + CK^-^X^
+ - )X' = Aaf + Bx^-^X + Caf-^X^ +
where the {x,X) functions on the two sides are both "homogeneous " of the m"^ degree, that is, where each consists of a series of products of powers of x and X, the sum of the two indices in each term being m ; then by dividing each side by a;, this may be
converted into an equation in
X
X
:
Call
X
Dividing by
(a
a;"*,
=4f)
or
X=x^
therefore X'
= 4p + a'-^'.
the diiferential equa.tion becomes
+ &J + cJ2 + ---)(J+a;J') = A + BJ + C4^2 + ---.

deduced
a+
From
this is easily
^ ~ A + (B-a)J + (0-6)1^2 +I
The
right
integral of the left side
is
is
dx _
hM + (iS^ +
<^'9-
,,
logs;.
Therefore,
if
that on the
directly integrable * to a function of Si say ^( Jf )=<^f
then the equation

loga!
+C=
^(|)
gives the desired integral relation
A convenient shorthand symbol for

function of the w"" degree
is
between x and X. such a homogeneous {x, X) f{x^^, X^). The two such functions
HI. A.
19.
INTEGEATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
125
differential
may be
called
./(a;""'', X*")
and
F(a;"~'', X'').
The given
equation
may then
be written
X'/(a:'"-'-,
X')
= F(a!'"-'-, X'')
obtain the same function of 1 and as/(a;~'', X'') is of x and X. The quotient may, therefore, be written /(l-', Ml, and similarly that of F(a:'"-'-, X') by a:" may be written F(l"'-'-,
Dividing /(a!-'",
X'')
by
a;"
we
^1
The
integral equation then appears as
dx
F(l"'--, J'- )_
loga;+C=
204.
y
last
Homogeneous Rational Functions.
The
form
is
particular case of a more general one involving the first power of X' only, and the ratio only of to x. Call this ratio as in last article, so that as before X' = + xM'. The present more general
form of
differential equation
may be
written
where /(
indicates
any form
of function.
Therefore
"^
or
dx
X
dM
/(J)-J+C
The
integral solution of this, namely,

loga;
=
dM
/(J)
-J
X also in terms of x.
is
gives
X in terms
of
M=, and
therefore gives
205.
X = k/(X'). X = ^/(X')
form of differential equation of cognate inverse character that solved in 200, namely,
or
J=/(X')whereJ = |.
One
solution of this is given in 200. Otherwise, it may possibly be more easily solved algebraically so as to give X' explicitly in
126
terms of M-

Let
f-\
Then
this algehraic solution
denote the inverse of the function /( would appear as
).
of which, according to last article, the integral solution is

loga;
+ C=
{Ax + BX + G)^{ax+bX + c). A differential equation bearing a Resemblance to that

206. X' =
of
203
is
(ax +
If the
bX + e)X' = Ax + 'BX + G.
two constants c and C did not appear, then by dividing by each (9;,X) function would be converted into one involving the But c and C can be got rid of by ratio only of the two variables. are shifting parallelly the axes of co-ordinates from which x and be the measured, which change does not affect X'. If x and new co-ordinates, then it is easily shown that the axes must be
X,
shifted so as to
make
x = xThen, since
Bc-bC
-T-,
A6 - aB
X',
is
and.
,^ = - Ga-cA A A. -TT
fs A6 - oB
== dx dx
by dividing out by
x, there results
an
equation of the form dealt with in 203.

207. Particular case, B = - a. If in the equation of last article B = - a, then the two terms with the common factor a combine to make the complete increment Thus the equation then reduces to of xX.
(6X + c)d:X + a{Xdx

the integration of which gives
-t-
xdX) = {Ax + G)dx
^bX^ + eX + axX-Âx^
in
-0^ + ^ =
which
K stands for the integration constant.
208. X'-i-X^' = S. Let ^' and S be given functions of x, of which ^' is a function whose integral by dx can be directly found, namely M. Then, if the differential equation between X, X', and x be found to be
X'-hX^' = S;
INTEGRATION OF DIFEEEENTIAL EQUATIONS.

this
127
can be solved by the device of multiplying by what is called an " integrating factor," which means a factor which converts both sides of the equation into directly integrable functions. The factor which does this in the present case is e^, where is the integral of the given function ^' and e is the base of the natural logarithmic system. Since the a;-gradient of e^ is e^^', that of Xe^ is X'e* + Therefore, multiplying both sides of the differential "K-X'eêquation by e^ and integrating, there is obtained the integral equation
Xe5= fHeStfe+C.
This formula is of practical use only when He* is a function which can be integrated either directly or by help of some transformation.
209. X' + X^' = X''S. This process may be followed in solving the differential equation
x' + x^'^X'-s
because X^S is a function of x and may be inserted in place of S in the above solution. Another solution, however, is obtained by dividing each side by X" and multiplying by the integrating
.
factor (1
- ra)e-"'5.
The
a;-gradient of
XV^ is X
(rX'
so that, taking s
+ sXJ')X'-V*
the a>_gradient of is (X' + J^')X'-' . re'*. The first factor here is identical with the left-hand side of the differential equation of this article when each side is divided by X" if ? = 1 - ra. Therefore the integration gives
= r,
XV*
Xa-ied-'ii = {l-n)
He'^""'
^dx + G.
Provided He"-"'* be integrable,

use.
this
formula wQl be of practical
210.
X = a;F(X')+/(X').
is generalised from that of 202 by inserting the general function F(X') of the a^gradient of X, in place of the special simple function X'.
The following equation
X = x{X')+f{X').
Taking the
a;-gradient of each side,
X'
Transposing
this,
= V{X') + {x{X')+f'{X')}^.
F'(X')
'^
dx_
dX'
f'jX')
X'- F(X')
X' - F(X')
128
This
is
THE CALCULUS FOB ENGINEERS.

of the
same form
as that of
208 with the substitutions
va.
place of
,, ,,
X
a;
X
F(X')
X'-F(X')
and
/'(X')
"
4^'
X'-F(X')
Therefore,
if
"
"
."
we
use the shorthand symbol
so that 4p is a function of X' only
and further use
a for.
another function of X' only
;
/(X')
X'-F(X')'
the integration gives
a;ei= fSe^dX' +
C;
which, if He^ be directly integrable by X', gives an algebraic equation between x and X'. Combining this with the original equation as simultaneous, the algebraic elimination of X' gives the desired integral equation involving only x and X. 211. General Equation of 1st Order of any Degree. The preceding differential equations contain X' in the first power only. The general equation of the first order and of any degree may be expressed thus
X'
+ J_iX'-' + X-^X'"-^ +
- -
- + JiX' + Jô =
where 3in-\,^n-%-" â are n different functions involving both X and X, and n is the degree of the equation. If possible this should first be solved for X' algebraically in terms of x and X. There will be n solutions giving n values of X' which may be X'j^ X^ each of these values of X' symbolised by X'^ X'_i_ This reduces the above being expressed in terms of x and X. equation of the ra"" degree to an equivalent series of n linear or
first-degree equations; for instance the first of this series is
X'-X' =0
129
where X' is a function, supposed now to be known, of x and X. Integrate each such linear equation if possible, by one of the methods already given. Let the integral solutions be here
symbohsed by
<^(a;,
X, C) =
<^_i(a;,
X, C)
etc., etc.
Then the
general solution, that is, the equation which includes these various solutions, is either
^J,x, or
all
X, C)
other
<^_i(^,
X, C)
<^lx,
X, C)
U^,
X, C) =
of
some
algebraically
legitimate
combination
these
result
solutions.
212. ftuadratic Equation of First Order.
Applying the
of ,^
of last article to the equation of the second degree, namely,
X'2
+ X'^ + H = 0.
X' in terms
1
The
algebraic solution of this for
and
is
X'=-f +fVJ''-4S.
The two
integral solutions are, therefore.
4f,
and
X + JJ^cZa; + 1 f V-^^ - 4S(^x + C =

As an
easy example, take the differential equation
X"i
+ X'sina:-^ = 0.
4
;
Therefore, tions are
^^^ - 4H = ^sin^x + cosâ; = 1
and the two integral solu-
X = |-(cos x-x)-\-Qi
and
X = |(cos
In
differential
a;
+ a;) + C
213. Equation of Second Order with One Variable Absent.
equations of the second order with only one independent variable, there may appear powers, trigonometrical, or any other kind of functions of all the four quantities
X", X',
X and X,
I
130

be expressed in terms of X' and either
a;
Now X" may

means
or
X by
of the substitutions
does not Therefore, if in any second-order differential equation appear, it may be transformed by help of the substitution (a) so as to make X" also disappear, leaving only
ax
X' and X
This is an equation of the first order between X' and x, and may be solved by methods already explained so as to give X' as a
function of
(i.e.,
so as to eliminate
-r-
This again
is
first-
and x, and by a second similar solution order equation between we may pass to the integral equation between and x. On the other hand, if x does not appear in any second-order equation, it may be reduced by the substitution (6), so that it will involve only
^=7
oX
X' and
This is an equation of the first order again between X' and X, whose solution gives an equation between X' and X not involving
-=-; and from

aX.
integral relation
this again
by a second
integration,
the desired
between and x may result.* The linear, or Ist degree, 214. Second Order Linear Equation. equation of the second order appears in a very general form as
X" + X'f{x) + X-E(x) = 4>(x),

are any forms of function. where /, F and Provided this equation can be solved when ^(a;) = ; then also, when (j)(x) is any function, it may be reduced to an equation of the 1st order. Thus, let B be a function of x which would be a solution if <l>(x) were zero ; that is, let
(jt
U" + n'f{x)+'BF(,x) = 0.
* See Reference List, XI. C, 5f

Give the name
equation, to
131
X
;
to the ratio of
is,
X, the true solution of the given
that
let
X = JB;
Then
and
Therefore, inserting these substitutions in the original equation,
it
becomes
M"U + ^'{2S' + nf{x)} + M{n" + n'f(x) + mx)} = <^(a;)

But the bracketed
factor of the third
term
is
zero; so that the
transformed equation becomes
S'n+M'{2U'+nf{x)}=i>(x).
supposition is that H has been found ; from which H' can also be found in terms of x. This last form of the equation therefore contains only known functions of x besides X" and j^'. Now ^" is the first a^gradient of M' ; and this is therefore a 1st order linear equation as between ^' and x. Thus, if any of the already explained, or any other, method of integrating 1st order Hnear equations be applicable, then ^' can be found as an explicit or implicit function of x, thus giving another 1st order equation and x. By a second integration by one of these same between methods, 3i may then be found as a function of x; and finally = can be obtained as the desired solution.* 215. X" + aX' + 6X = 0. The equation determining H in 214 is soluble or not according at any rate to the particular forms of the functions /( ) and F ( ) no reduction of the equation has yet been discovered showing, independently of the forms of /( ) and { ), how it may be solved. One simple case is that in which these functions are both constants. Let f(x)=a and 'F{x)=b, a and b being both coninstead of S, The equation is then, using stants.
The
X Û
X" + aX' + 6X = 0.
Using the substitution
(b) of 213, this
becomes
(+rfx)^This
'-1-6X
= 0.
7.
may be
written
*
See Reference List, XI. C.
132
which
is
soluble
by the method
of
204 dK'
or
it
may be
written
-^=
which
is
+rfX
soluble
is obtained which is printed in the Classified Reference List, at XI. C. 3. 216. X" + aX' + hX = <l>(x). In this simple case of f{x) = a and F(x) = b, the more general equation of 214 becomes
By
either
by 200. method the solution
X" + aX' + 6X = .^(a;);

and
its
reduced form, when divided out by S, becomes
*.*{
By 215 both and this equation is of the
4}=^'.
208,
W are known functions

form given in
integrable because
and, therefore, of x and can be integrated

;
<
so
as
to
give ^', provided the function

dx.
2-^^
+ a> can be
in-
tegrated
by
This
is
it is
found that
_ a
_ Jib-aHa.n
|
^îb^^+C
when a2<46.*
\
217. X<'"=y(2:).
If the k"' aj-gradient of
'"'
.
be called
repeiating the integration of a function
X'"', and the process of n times be symbolised by
/
it
then,
if
the differential equation of the w'" order be
Xi'"=/()
has already been shown in
154 that the integral equation
between
and
fin)
/
a;
is
X=
f{x)dx^ + G_raf-'
and
+ C_2a!"-=' + - - + Cia; + 0^ .t
-
* See. Reference List, XI. 0. 6
3.
t See Reference List,
XL D
3.
INTEGKATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

218.
133
If the equation of the
X<'=/(X):X""=AX. w* order be
X""=/(X)
it
integrable only in particular cases. the case

is
Thus in
153
is
given
XW = >fcX
where k
is
any number
or
Let
be any number, and
let
Tbe
base
the
is b.
"modulus"
Take
/8
of the system of logarithms of
which the
= T/^V". Then
a solution of the above equation is

;8a;.
X = 6P'orlog6X =
If b be taken equal to and the solution is
e,
the base of natural logarithms, then
T=
1,
log,X = 7<:Va;.
If decimal logarithms be used, or
6=10; then T =
"iSi,
and
logiX
= -434AV''a;.
if i
Again in
153
it is
shown
that
be an even number, and
if
XW = (-1)''/%X
then an integral solution
is
K-I'^x
X = A sin
where
219.
+ B cos Ul^x
and
are constants of integration.*
X"=/(X).
ra
When
= 2,
this equation
becomes
X"=/(X).
A general rule independent of

iling
the form of /( ) has been found for with this second-order equation. Multiply each side by
since
2X''.
Then
2X'X"
is
the a^gradient of X'^, and since
Xldx =
ciX, there results
X'={2J/(X)rfX + A}i;
from
wliich,
by another
a;
integration,
+B=
rfX
{2|/(X)rfX +
*
Ap.t
iutegi'ation-ccnstants
n values. The insertion of these gives the this -th order equation. + See Reference List, XI. C. 5.
The
l/ji""
root of k has
ol
134
As examples, the results of 148 and 149 may be reproduced; but these are included in the more general formulas of last article,
218.
220. X'"'=/(Xi"-'i)found as a function of X'"~'' ; then, since the a^gradient of X'"~" is X'"', if we call X'"~" by the name M, the equation may be written
If X'"' be
J'=/(J),
the integration of which by dx gives
-,
dM
that is, give^ x'""'' as a function of x, a case which has been already dealt with in 217.* 221. If X'"' be found as a function of X"-'' ; then, caUing X"-=' by the name ^, we have X'"' = ^", and the equation becomes
the integration of which, by 219, gives X'""''' as a function of x, and this reduces the integration to the case of 217. t More general forms of equation, to which these last substitutions are equally applicable, are given in the Section XI. D. of the Reference Tables. 222. If /( ) and i^( ) be two functions of any form whatever,
and
if
X=^. + f) + <^(.-f),
the second gradients of found to be ,^
X with
respect to x and y
may -easily be
f44-?)4*"(-!)'
Therefore,
if
the second-order differential equation

rf^X
dx"^
, <X^
"
dy^
be known to be true, its general integral solution is X = the above form, and the particular forms of the functions /( ) and ^( ) must be discovered from the limiting conditions of the particular
concrete case.
* See Reference List, XI. D.
1.
t See Keference List, XI. D.
2.
APPENDICES.
Appendix A.
(End of Chap.
Time-Rates.
II., p. 28.)
Differential and Integral Calculus was first studied as an exact method of analysis of physical phenomena occurring in time, chiefly kinetic phenomena. The changes of observed physical condition occur from instant to instant, and an " instant," or small lapse of time, was taken as the common measure by which to compare simultaneously occurring changes of various kinds. Thus time was taken as the base ordinate of the diagrams which graphically describe such changes. The flow of a fluid along a channel is the simplest possible illustration of such change or progress, and all phenomena were thought of as developing in the flow, or flux, of time, the universal basic increment being a small flux of time. Thus the early name given to the then new method of analysis was "Fluxions." Unless it were otherwise specified, x' or X was understood to mean the time-rate at which x increased, and the relative rates of increase of various kinds of quantities were always obtained by comparing their respective simultaneous timerates of progress or development. So long as investigation deals with things which " take time " to develop or change in magnitude, it will be found that this original method corresponds with our The corresponding innate and almost ineradicable mental habit. increments of such things we can hardly avoid thinking of as those
The
which are developed in
the
same
time.
Appendix B.
(End of
Enbrqy-Flux.
68, p. 33, Chap. III.)
Energy manifests
itself to
our means of observation and measure-
ment
in various forms, such as kinetic, electric, thermal, luminous sonorous (sound), gravity potential, electro-magnetic (light), potential, radiant, etc. These are reciprocally convertible, and
are,
therefore,
all
measurable
it
in
is
like
"physical
is,
namely,
MV^
or
ML^T"^.
As energy
or is
dimensions," believed to be,
indestructible, the variations
subject to are (1) change of
136
form ;

;
and (3) (2) transference from one mass to another mass transference from one place to another place. The time-rate of transference of energy is horse-power ; a special Unfortunately, unit time-rate being adopted as unit horse-power. many unit time-rates of energy- variation are in use ; but they are
In terms of of course, of the same kind, namely, horse-power. mass and velocity the measure of energy is E = ^M.V^. The timegradient of E in a constant mass M, due to variation of velocity
all,
in that mass,
is,
therefore, -;-
= VM^ = V'F,
at
where
is
the time-
at
acceleration of of energy. It
momentum,
product of the
may momentum and
or the force active in the transference also sometimes be usefully thought of as the
The
space-rate or line-gradient of
the velocity acceleration. E with constant is
= MV = MV-.
-
dl
dl
dt
dl
-=M =F, because V=-. dt dt
Thus the two important energy-gradients are the time-gradient or horse-power, and the line-gradient or active dynamic force ; and the former equals the latter multiplied by the velocity.
It is also interesting to consider the time-gradient of E with both and V varying together. When a mass receives new energy from without, it absorbs it usually (and perhaps always) at its surface, and the new energy spreads through the mass with more or less rapidity or slowness. New impulses of kinetic energy by impact or pressure of other masses always enter and penetrate the accelerated mass in this way. In such case the time-gradient, or horse-power generating kinetic energy in the mass, is
f=v..iv^_| = v(..ivf)=j|(MV,f.v*MQ|.
is the time-rate at which new mass is affected by the " dt kinetic energy, and (MV) is the whole momentum acquired at any
Here
instant.
Appkndix
C.
Moments
(End
I
op Inertia and Bending Moments.
of 73, p. 37, Chap. III.)
The
"
integral
bK^dh over the whole
section
is
called
the
Moment
of
Inertia " of the section.
For an I - section with
APPENDICES.
137
equal flanges and web of uniform thickness, if B be the flange width, (1-/3)B the web thickness, the whole depth, and jjH the depth inside the flanges then the
I = Moment of Inertia = ?5!(1 _/?^3)^ and the
M = Stress Bending Moment = ft (1 - ^r^).

The
sectional area is
A = BH(1 -^8?;),
A
and therefore the

of section
stress
bending-moment strength per square inch
=^=ftl ^-Pv"
6
'
1-I3rj
Girder-sections are mostly made up of rectangular parts, and the repeated application of the method here given is usually suflBcient for the calculation of their moment strength. In making such calculations, free use should be made of negative rectangular areas as parts of the section.
Appendix D.
Elimination
(End
of Small Kbmainders.
of Chap. III., p. 45.)
In previous examples given, the middle of 8a; and assuming middle of 8X, that is, assuming SX and Sa;, has resulted in the
at the'
device of taking the point a;,X this to correspond also to the linear proportionality between exact elimination of all small
remainders.
that such
device.
The
case of
X
X
is
a useful illustration of the fact
exact elimination does not always result from this

is
In this case the result
^^8X
\x J
x+
,
^ 8X
Sx
2
x^
Sx 2
~ iSa:^
'
the small quantity ^Sa;^ not being eliminated and only disappearing "in the limit." The student should satisfy himself that the same result appears from the geometrical method followed in the text, with fig. 18 in the centres of Sa; and SX. modified so as to put x and
138

Appendix E.
Indicator
p. 65,
Diagrams.
(End of 111,
Chap. V.)
An " indicator diagram " is any instrumental graphic record of a varying quantity. The lawjpy" = A, a constant, applies approximately to very many such records when the variation is not of an elastic vibratory kind. The p and the v instrumentally observed and recorded may not be the totals measured from absolute zero of the quantities thus symbolised. For instance, p may be pressure measured from atmospheric standard, or it may be temperature
APPENDICES.
If the
139
same value of P be found from several such pairs of points, then the curve is truly hyperbolic. Similarly, V can be found on the assumption that P = O. Also by measurements at three points, both P and along with h can be calculated. Fig. 30 shows the very simple graphic construction for finding the origin of the hyperbolic axes. From three points ABC on the curve horizontals and verticals are drawn, giving six intersections, marked as shown on fig. 30 ; namely, {a.^) the intersection of the horizontal through A with the vertical through B, {ah) that of the vertical at A with the horizontal at B, etc., etc. The pairs of points are joined by straight lines (a/J) with {ah) ; (jSy) with (6c) ; (ay) with {ac). Any two of these three lines wiU intersect in the hyperbolic origin 0. There are three such intersections, and their coincidence is a useful check upon the accuracy of the draughtsmanship. But to test whether the curve be truly hyperbolic, more than three curve-points must be used ; they must all give the
same origin 0.
To
find the index
n in the formula pv" = ft
to
fit
the curve of
first,
any given indicator
card, there are four methods.

,
The
^
most
commonly
second
is
used,
is
the logarithmic method n =
"
log
t^^ pi= p
The
, the
log ^2
the differential method, which gives w
dv
slope of the curve, or -f-
being measured directly from the paper.

it is ra
dv
the variation oi pv
;
The
third
method
utilises
=1its
\^
dv
area
In the hyperbola
'
J^
= 0;
and in any other curve
deviation
from zero gives a good measure of the index n. The fourth method may be called the integral method. Since the area under the
curve W=P^'"^~^^'"^, therefore w =
1
n-
-f-Mi-;_2
The
can be measured from the diagram by a planimeter or otherwise, and this method has the great merit of deducing the result, not from isolated points on the curve alone, but from the curve as a whole in its stretch between two distant points
1
and
2.
generality of the formula, and its power to represent accurately recorded physical results, is very greatly extended by shifting the axes by adding constants P and Y, the formula being
The
then {p
+ P)(w
-I-
V)" = ft.
The measurement
'of
p and
v at
four
points of the curve, and the planimeter integration of the area
140

jpdv between these
points, are sufficient to determine the
W=
,
four constants Jc, n, P, and V. The three areas under the three stretches of the curve between the four points being called Wjj W23 and Wg^ the constants n, P, and are obtained by elimination from the three linear equations
,
W^{n W23( W34(m -
1) =p.^v^ 1)
1)
=P22 -Psâ + =i'3'3 -Piî +
-p^v^ + (pi -p^)Y - Pra(2 - i), (Pi -Pi)'^ - P(^3 - '"2)1 (Ps -PiW - P("4 - ''s)-
are obtained.
These are solved for (n-1), V, and P, from which n, V, and P Then the fourth constant is obtained by the primi-
tive equation
kîp + F^v + Y)",

taking any pair of values p and v. With the four constants thus found, the formula will give a curve which will pass correctly through the four points, and will give also correctly the area under the stretch of curve between each pair of points. When re = 0, the curve is a horizontal straight line, giving constant p. When n is negative it slopes upwards, p increasing
is well suited to represent systematic expansions of gases and vapours under various thermal conditions, the stress-strain relations of elastic and inelastic solids, the strain-time diagram of the slow deformation of plastic substances, and, under certain conditions, also the leakage of high-pressure water, gas, vapour, or electric charge from storage vessel^, batteries, condensers, etc., and the laws connecting velocity with wind-pressure and with viscous fluid resistance to
with V. In this extended form this formula
all
flow.
Appendix
F.
Reouehent
(End of 153,
Harmonic and Exponential

Chap. VII.)
Functions.
p. 89,
ing
The combination of these two much more general result.

6, /3, a,
cases gives the following interestlet
Let A, B, C, function be
p,
q,
k be constants, and
the primitive
X=C
-1-
6^*+''{
A sin {px + q) + 'B cos {px + k)}.
APPENDICES.
Let
141
p2
= (Slog 6)2 +p2 = -^

P
and
6 = tan-'
piogb
so that
sin
(9
and
cosfl
= ^M^,
P
Then
direct differentiation
and the ordinary trigonometric com-
binations
sin cos
^ cos 6 + cos <^ sin = sin ^ cos ^ - sin ^ sin 6 = cos

+ q + O)
{if>
(tf>
+ 6) + $),
A;
give
X'=
p'^+''{A sin (px
+B cos (^ + + e)}
X"=p^^''+'^{Asm(px + q + 2e) + Bcos{px + 7c + 20)}

X""'
= p''6^:+{ A sin (px + g + 6I) + B cos (px + k + nd)}.
The only restriction among the constants is that the constant p the same in the two harmonic functions. If x measures time, the equality of the two ^'s means that the two superimposed vibrations have equal periods or frequencies. Their difference in phase is {k q), and this is unrestricted. In all the successive X- or time-gradients, the phase-difiference, as well as the frequency, remains the same in the two superimposed harmonics. In each gradient the frequency is the same as in the primitive. The 'phase-difference between each gradient and the next lower gradient
is is
^ = tan~'
-.
i-
The
factor J^*+
represents the
damping
of the vibration, as its energy is gradually reduced by viscous The amplitudes of the succesor similar dissipative resistances. sively higher gradients are successively less in the ratio p. This
ratio p
down
depends equally upon the frequency (the period
= )
and
of the damping coefficient b^ or ft log 6. This proposition can evidently be extended to the superposition of any number of harmonic vibrations of different amplitudes A, B, etc., and of different phases, so long as the frequency is the same in all and so long as the same damping coefficient applies to all. It is of the highest practical importance in modern electrical industry. See also Appendix Q, page 184.
upon the vigour
142
the calculus foe engineers.
Appendix G.
Successive
Reduction Formula,
Chap. VII.)
(End of 156,
p. 91,
The " reduction formula " of 126 may be applied repeatedly. Such application is represented by the general formula below. The repeated application in concrete special cases is, however,
simpler to appreciate than
is
the general result.
Let Let
X and H be any functions of x. D be the m'* a;-gradient of X = X""'.

/(m)
r
Tlien D' = X"+>' and
nm+i)
Idx=
[jy
I
Udx'^K
jldx
I dx,
Now JBldx = D jldx -
Applying
this repeatedly,
{x'S.dx
= X iudx - JX' judx^ = X [S.dx - X' j^dx^ + jx" Ûdx^
= XJ'Bdx-X'l
rm
ndx^ + X"
r(n)
Bdx^-X'"
rM
m
'Bdx^+--
+ x"'-"l
ndx^T x'^n ndx'^+'K*
By this means the function and its derivatives are brought outside the sign of integration except in the last term. By carrying the series to the proper number () of terms, in the last term X'"', or the w"" a;-gradient of X, may be reduced to 1 or to a constant, or to some simple function of x which combines with the " integral of B to form an integrable function. This
last
term
may
also be transformed to
Jx<"-'i
I in
rUdx^
more
dX,
which form
it
may
possibly be
easily integrable,
I.
* See Reference List,
8,
144
between
is
fi

and 8 independent of M, M', H, and H'.
(1
This relation
+ 8)2(1 - 8) = 4(1 - ^){2 - (1 + ;8)S2}

is
a relation
which
very closely approximated to by the simpler
equation
;8= -805
+ 1(8 -
-72)2
(8
-72)8.
minimum
value of
^ = "805
is
reached at 8 = about
'7.
It is
freely supported at its two ends, these adjustments lead with very close approximation to the proportion
shown that on a beam
for the standard case of a uniformly distributed load
8= -72
'^'
TL^B
where M^ is the central bending moment, L the span, width, and T the outside normal stress on flanges.
the flange
Appendix
I.
Economic Design op Turbines.

of Chap. IX., p. 117.)
(End
In The Engineer of 27th May, 10th June, and 17th June 1904, be found a series of interesting calculations by the author on "Dynamic and Commercial Economy in Turbines." It is there shown that for greatest dynamic efficiency the angles between the periphery of the rotating wheel and the blades should be equal at entrance and at exit, that the tangent of this angle should be
will
double the tangent of the peripheral angle of the fixed entrance guide-blades, and that the peripheral velocity of the wheel should be half the peripheral component of the water entrance-velocity. The angle of the rotating blades being called ^, that of the fixed guides y, and the water-velocity through these guides w, and the
wheel-velocity
b,
these conditions give

2 tan j8 = tan y and 6
= cos y.
The
linear velocity with which the water is fed into, and discharged from, the wheel is then w sin y Calling the dynamic efficiency e, the power in ft.-lbs. per
APPENDICES.
145
second delivered by the water to the wheel H, and the watercovered gate-area A, we find for water-turbines
= cos^ y
and
H = -97 Aw^ sin y cos^ y.

e
The smaller y
is made the nearer does y-gradient of the power developed is
approach unity
but the
H' = -dlAw^ cos 7(1-3
sin2 y),
and this gives

sin2y =
maximum power
at
ôry=35
16'with
.-.
^ = 54
44'
and =|.
o
This would he the best angle for the design if, for a prescribed of wheel (measured here by A) and prescribed entrancevelocity IV, the chief aim was to obtain maximum horse-power without consideration of water-consumption. This, however, does not mean maximum commercial economy.
size
The power
" in the water " consumed
is
Suppose that the
consumed is p, while the value of each extra unit of power developed (H) is h. Then the " net revenue " or " working profit " obtained from the use of the turbine is shown to be
cost of each extra unit of water-power
E = -97 A7m3 sin y^^cos^ y-lV-Q

where C represents from the wheel.
initial costs
incurred whatever power be taken
The
y-gradient of
is
R'
= -ÎKhvfi cos y^l
-3
sin^
y-
The maximum net revenue

velocity
is
R for given size given waterthus obtained with guide-blade angle giving
sin^
f) A and
.
7 = if 1 ^ ^\
hj
and
=_
3
-f-
- E-,
3 h'
in that
which y
is less
than for
maximum power (H' = 0)

Here ? h
is
S
h
is
here
subtracted from unity.
the ratio of cost of extra unit
146
of water-power

consumed
to value of extra unit of
power
utilised.
With y
so adjusted the
maximum
revenue
is
For
different ratios of
to
A the following
are the results
p
h
APPENDICES.
147
this angle the less is the efficiency, but the less also is the size of
Let K', A', and turbine required to develop the prescribed H. be the y-gradients of K, A, and t. The above equation gives
'
K' = aA'-pH-i-.
is
minimum when K' = 0, and
this gives
.2A = Zh,
a
the criterion
which, expressed in terms of
y, gives
l-3sin^-y _^^,3j? l'94sin*'y a
From this equation both H and A have disappeared by elimination, showing that the angle y giving maximum commercial economy does not vary with the horse-power required, and is the same for large and small sizes of turbine. In finding it the water entrancevelocity w has been assumed constant, which practically means The best y depends on that the available head of water is fixed. the cube of this velocity, and on the ratio of the extra working costs per extra unit of water-power consumed to the extra capital
costs per extra square foot of
gate-area in the size

:
of
turbine.
The following
are the numerical results of the formula
148
gradient
is zero at the place of maximum or minimum, on either side of this exact place there is a considerable range of base condition throughout which the deviation from maximum or minimum Indeed, in industrial is so small as to be of no consequence.
problems the really best adjustments are hardly ever coincident with the exact values found theoretically, and for this reason that the theory never includes the consideration of every influential element. Minor elements are left out of the account in the theoretical calculation, and when the theoretical result has been found these minor elements quite rightly indicate the advisability of a small deviation from it in one or the opposite direction. In the author's work. Commercial Economy in Steam and other Heat Power- Plants, published in 1905, many very interesting physical and financial maximum problems in the economic use of steam are worked out. In this work the author enunciates for the first time a definite measure of industrial economy applicable to all productive efFort.
To
this
the
name " economy
coefiBcient "
is
given.
It is ^=~
P 01
where
equals the value of any quantity of the product,
the
cost of production of the same, and T the " time of turn over." be taken as the tim^-rate of production reckoned at its final If value, then CT will be the " working capital " permanently held
up
-7-
coefficient
in the maintenance of the manufacture ; so that the economy may also be expressed as " Value of Annual Production
Working
Capital."
This working capital does not include the
sunk in plant, buildings, etc. The economy thus measured is capable of being raised or lowered by changes of various kinds in the methods of production. If such change afieot all three factors P, C, and T, and if the change
fixed capital
be capable of being made gradually, then the concurrent rates of change of these factors may be called P', C, and T', these being, say, the a;-gradients, if x be the measure of the element of manufacture which is being varied. Maximum economy is reached,
so
is
far as
zero
;
it is affected
is,
by change of
x,
when
the !B-gradient of
p CT
that
when
P
This criterion of
its
F^c;_ C
r
T
of
maximum commercial economy

to every kind
applicability
development
by
is quite general in productive industry in its every sort of change capable of continuous
APPENDICES.
gradation
149
whether in the manufacturing experiments the change be actually made gradually or suddenly. If P be the quantity produced per unit time and e a coefficient of physical efficiency giving the ratio of this product to the
consumed, so that
quantity of raw material
is
this
latter
quantity; if to be the total cost per extra unit of such raw material consumed together with the cost of working it up to the condition of the finished product ; and if p be the final value per extra unit of the product P ; then, if p and w are constant, any modification of the manufacture which affects P and concurrently, gives a rate of variation of the net revenue
-="v{fe-')4iThus the maximum revenue

production
is is
obtained
when
the
rate
of
adjusted so as to
make
iK-P.-l.
pyp
Here the size and character of plant is supposed fixed, and this equation gives the most commercially economic rate at which to work the given plant. The other most important commercial problem is to determine the best size of plant for a prescribed rate of production P. Here P is constant (P' = 0). With a larger or more expensive plant the efficiency may be raised so as to lessen the working
expenses in proportion to
mP
but at the same time the capital
charges are raised. These capital charges may be taken as equal to an initial constant plus hVf{i) where A is a constant factor and /() is a function of the efficiency dependent on the kind of The total annual cost for the prescribed industry investigated. rate of production P is thus
= Constant + ftP/(e) +
and
this is
made
minimum by
the adjustment
w and
E
k being among the prescribed data, and /(t) and therefore being functions of the size or prime cost of the plant, this
150
equation determines
the most commercially economic size of plant to use. A particular example of the calculation has been given in Appendix I,
Appendix
L.
Indeterminate
IX., p. 117.)
Forms.
(End of Chap.
Whatever meaning be attached

is
to the
symbol
oo
the ratio
clearly
and
definitely
or zero
while the ratio
is definitely
00
But the three
quantities
oo
are
more
difficult to
They arise as They are termed " indeterminate." and products of variables or fluxions, when these variables take special values, the said ratios and products having no ambiguity or indeterminateness when the variables have other than these special values. Thus X and may be functions of X, both of which copie to zero for some special value of x. There is in reality no such thing as a ratio between two zeros a ratio can exist only between two quantities, and zero is not a
evaluate.
ratios
quantity.
The meaning attached
to the
symbol - must, therefore,
The meaning attached to it is the these functions have any corresponding or simultaneous minutely small values. To give this meaning real significance both and J^ must pass through zero as continuous functions of x ; therefore they can both be represented graphically by curves on a scaled diagram. Let fig. 31 illustrate such graphic representations. Both and curves cross the horizontal axis at the same point Xy Draw tangents to the two curves at this point. These tangents coincide with the curves for minutely small distances on either side of the touching point, and all minutely small values of and of are given equally well by the curves or by their tangents. The slopes of the tangents are X' and J^' taken at Xj, written, say, X'j and ^\. For any small + Sx on either side of a^, the values of and J^ are thus X'jSa; and ^\Sx Concurrent values of and J^ are those in which the 8x is the same in both. It follows immediately that at any point close to x^ on either side of it
be in a sense conventional.
ratio of
X to
.Jf
when
APPENDICES.
151
As neither X'j nor
^\
is
zero or ambiguous in value,
-^ j
or
according to the meaning above assigned to this symbol, can be
Fig. 31.
evaluated as the ratio of the two a;-gradients at the particular

lue Kj.
In
this demonstration it is
assumed that both curves
and Jf
Fig. 32.
pass through the zero axis without break of gradient, that is, that both X' and Jf' are continuous. In fig. 32 are shown two pairs and are themselves of curves in which, while the functions
152

is
both continuous, the gradient of one of them, X',

at Xy.
discontinuous
.
In this case -^ and, therefore, also
X'
X -^
, has a certain definite
value for any + Sx beyond a;^ and another different definite value for any - Sx below a~. X' If -^ also assumes the form similar reasoning shows that
,
-^
have the same value as ^, and can be evaluated

second gradients. The best graphic obtained from a diagram with x as Isase
Jp/i
by finding the
ratio of these
is
demonstration of this
and X' and Jp' as ordinates to two curves. Then X and Jp for any Sx on either side of ajj are the small triangular areas under the curves with common base + Sx. These areas are proportional to X' and Jf', and, therefore, also to X" and Jp". If at x^ the value of becomes oo and that of Jp zero, then
construct an a;-diagram with two curves giving
= and X
^.
At
Xi
the
= curve, X
as also the Jp curve, both cross the zero axis,
and
the above rule
may
serve to evaluate
\'
\l/X/i
=^ = (Xi^), = oo
)
0.
(1
X' ^j = -^,
we have
(XJX=-(X='|;)^;
from which can
also
be deduced
(xjx=-(j2|;)^.
But neither
becomes
function
oo
of these at
la.st
two formulas
value
of x,
is
useful, because if
also
any
finite
so
does X'.
The
(^j,
however,
may
often be differentiated in terms of
X so as
to eliminate entirely
both
X and X'.
X
Thus
(XJ)i =
oo
= TYh
\X/i
may
usually gives a definite value.
Otherwise the product XJf
APPENDICES.
153
reduce by cancellation to a function of x which does not give an indeterminate value at x. This latter method must be adopted when
X^x,
To
because
(Y =-\
at
a;
gives
(a;J)
3s,'
=
=
- a;^ J' = at
oo 2
0,
since, if
^=
= 00
necessarily
also
same
limit.
engineers the most interesting case is that of the commonly used expansion curve ju?)" = K. This gives infinite volume for
zero pressure.
Here! =
andî; = Ko' " = E"y
In
this case at zero pressure,
pv =
if
=h = 00
,,
>1 K=l
n<\,
the last case being for a curve lying above the hyperbolic or " gas isothermal." This last curve corresponds to expansion accompanied by very rapid heating. The work done by the expansion down to zero pressure from pjUj is (see 110, p. 63)
yy
Piî
- {P)p=o -
n1
When = 1, W,
form
Piî re-
iin>l
= 00
ra<l
according to this formula, takes the indeterminate
but the special integration

f2
j
pdv = pjVj^ log
-?
^1
shows that the value
is 00
when p^ = 0, and
..
Wj
= 00
If X,
= =o
and
if,
= co,.then^ = |l = ^yi.^= 0;
Taking the
ratio
to
which the
first
rule given applies.
of the
a;-gradients, there is
found
As
it
stands this
is
of
no
use, because both X'j
and
J^',
= xi
But
154
by
cancellation,

or
otherwise,
the
ratio
-^^
may
be reducible
to determinate form, while
-^
X is not so.
is
Si
when x = 0.
theoretically important case
the value of x log^ x
It takes
then the form -
oo
Taking x logj x =
-~
and
value
differentiating
=-
both numerator and divisor,
we
1/x find the
XX
a;
at the limit.
The
the
x^ discussion in 104, page 60, affords another illustration of a;" 1 theoretical importance of this method. Here was
demonstrated graphically to equal

value
it
loge
x when n = 0,
at
which
takes the form

is
-.
Considering x constant, the re-gradient

re
of ("- 1)
x" logj
X,
and the n-gradient of

gives at once
a;"
is 1.
Since a;=l,
the method
now explained
= log^
x when
re
= 0.
PAET
11.
CLASSIFIED REFERENCE TABLES

OP
INTEGRALS AND METHODS OF INTEGRATION,

IN
ELEVEN SECTIONS.
PAKT
OF
11.
CLASSIFIED REFERENCE TABLES
INTEGRALS AND METHODS OF INTEGRATION,

IN
ELEVEN SECTIONS.
TABIS
Table of Contents,
Notation,
Abbreviations,
.
157, 158
Appendix N, A,
i> ))
PASS 180
181
B,
159, 160
.
IV. Logarithms
ponentials,
.
and
.
Ex-
160
.182
.
Genekal Theokbms,
I.
161-165 162 Integiation by Parts, Approximate Integration, 163 Undetermined Coefficients, 164 164 Imaginary Forms, 165 Logarithmic Terms,
.
.
v. Hyperbolic Functions, 183 VI. Trigonometric ,, 184-189 Appendix P, 187 188-189 Q, ,, VII. Inverse Functions, 190, 191 VIIL Mixed 192-194
. . .
Differential
Coefficients
.
Reduction FoEMULiE,
165
IX. Algebraical,
195-199
from Tables,
Sub-section
.
A,
Methods
of
Teansfoema.
II.
TioN, 166, 172 . R6sum^, Sub-sections A to K, . . . 166, 167 Sub-section Expansions, 168 D Partial Fractions, Sub-sec. .169 tion E, . . Sines and Cosines, Sub-section F, . Substitutions,
. .
.170
G,
Sub-section . 171, 172

.
Tables of Intbgeals,
III. Algebraic
Functions,
.
Mainly Rational,
173-194 A, 173-176
Algebraic Functions, B, Quadratic Surds, . 177-179
TABLE OF CONTENTS,
Section.
NOTATION,
ABBREVIATIONS,
GENERAL THEOREMS,
INTEGRATION BY PARTS, APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION,

.
UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS,
IMAGINARY FORMS LOGARITHMIC TERMS,DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENTS
.
FROM
TABLES,
METHODS OP IRANSFORMATION,
RESUM]^,
....
Detailed
....
A to
K,
Sub-section D, E, F, G.
Sub-sections
EXPANSIONS, PARTIAL FRACTIONS,

SINEd AND COSINES, SUBSTITUTIONS,
158
CONTENTS.
Section.
Pagea.
TABLES OP INTEGEALS,
N.B.
at end of Definite IrUegrals each Section III. to VIII.
173-194
fmmd
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS,
,,
A, Mainly Rational, B, Quadratic Surds, APPENDIX N, A,
III.
LOGARITHMS AND EXPONENTIALS, HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS, TRIGONOMETRIC APPENDIX

INVERSE FUNCTIONS
IV.
...
P,
V.
VL
VIL
VIII.
MIXED
REDUCTION
....
Sub-seotion A, B, C,
Q,
173-176 177-179 180 181 182 183 184-189 187 188, 189
190, 191
192-194
rOEMULffil,
.
195-199
IX.
195, 196 197, 198
ALGEBRAICAL, TRIGONOMETRICAL, MIXED FUNCTIONS,
199
GAMMA FUNCTIONS,
200
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
FIRST ORDER, FIRST DEGREE,

Sub-seotion A,
201-207
SECOND AND HIGHER DEGREE, SECOND ORDER ORDER HIGHER THAN SECOND,
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS,
XL
201, 202
,,
B,
C,
203 204
205, 206
D,
E,
207
KOTATION.
159
NOTATION.
Letters near the beginning of the alphabet denote/ constants positive or negative, whole or fractional, Those near the end of the alphabet real quantities or numbers.
which may in general be

denote variables.
The symbol = stands for "denotes" or "is identical with." The symbols >, >, <, <t stand for greater than, not greater
than, less than, not less than, respectively. The symbols /( ), ]?( ), ^( ), i/'( ), denote any function of the quantity placed inside the brackets, except when restricted by the
context.
briefer symbols for functions of x. also sometimes denote functions of the variable, Q, Y=any function of the variable y which is independent of x. /(a)=the same function of a that /(a;) is of the variable x.
X, B, ^, X
L,
a^re
M, N, P,
~dx
dy
'
"
dx^
dx"
Y'Jl'
Y"^ -Y'"'^^ dy^' dy"

,,
rf/(X).
._df{Y)
^=partial
differentiation
with respect to
x.
/(a;,y)=the differential coefficient with respect to x of the ' function f{x,y) where x and y are independent variables.
If
I'
f*"(x,y)=f"*(a;,2/)=the
respect to
second differential coefficient of f(x,y) with x and y, where x and y are independent variables.
160
NOTATION.
Xrfa;=Integral of
I
with respect to x
I
l\dx^= I [Xdx'^= I jxdxdx^ 1 1 jxdx

Xjdsi^=
I
dx
(ndx's)
j I
-- {nfimnbois)Xdx''=
- -
{n/môu)Xdxdx - -
jjf{',y)<iy<io:=f
I
lf(x,y)dy
dx
I
or S(
)=Sum
of a series of terms of the same type as that following S or placed within the brackets.
/{x)dx=
L-
lf(x)dx
J
I
=the limiting value towards which

r
~]i
J a
-i
'2f(x)Sx
approaches as Sx ap0.
proaches the limiting value

/
f(x)dx=
f(x}dx
to!=1x2x3
logj(,a;=log
30
(m-I)xw;
in the
(n being a positive integer).
Decimal or
Common
system of logarithms.

of
logja;=log
X in the Natural or Neperian
6=2-7182818
=1 + + + +5-J
base
Neperian
logarithms
exp(a:)=e'=l
Bj,
+y+
f?
+ 3T + " " " "
(Bernoulli's Numbers).* Bj In trigonometric functions the angles are given in " circular
measure," the unit being the radian which =

nearly.
180
or 57 17' 45"
IT
r(w)=
e-V-'^dx (the
Gamma
Function).
See X. 1-6.
Abbreviations.
Sp. Case=Special Case Exc.=Exceptional Case, or Case of failure.
* See note at
end of Section VIII,
I.
GENERAL THEOREMS,
1-6.
161
I. 1.
GENERAL THEOREMS.
lx'dx = X + C
/(21
j X"'dx^ = X + C^^ + G,x + Go
fM
j
Xmx- = X + G^.^x"-' + C_2!B"-

f'{x)dx=f{h)-f{a)
+ da; + Co
2.
j
3.
af{x)dx
= a\f{x)dx
4.
j {X'H^---)dx = J Xdx I Udx j ^dx-.-.

Xc?a;=
X<?a!+
5.
J a
Sp. Case:
ja
fb
XcZa;
Xdx=
rx,
fa
-
Xdx
j
fx,
6.
Jb
f{4.(X)}4>'(X)dX
f{x)dx^
^1
j Xi
x=^{X)
, .
where
<^^(X)
cZa;
Sp. Case:
{xdx=(^,dX
162
7.
I.
APPENDIX M
GENERAL
THEOREMS,
7.
(Integration by Paets.)
I ix'JHdx 01jxu'dx = xa - JTrnx = xs - [h^x

Sp. Case
:
jxndx = xjndx-
\dx
Xdx = Xx - I xdX.
Appendix M.
Integration
(I.
by Parts: Special Cases.

7.)
No.
The
special case H'
= "
is
worth
notice.
It gives
[Xx'^dx =
J
?^ m+
1
L_ (x'x'^+^dx. m+lj
- i- jx'x^dx.
With
m= 1
jXxdx =
m = 0:
jXdx = Xx
jX'xdx.
m=-l:/ dx=X\ogxxfdx =
="'^'
iX'logxdx.
With
X = (log a;)"
With
(log
:)"
fa:'"
(log
_n
Ln,
/^
^\n-ij^_
X = loga;: X = loga;:
formulae
of
fa;loga;c?x
= -^^^loga;-J-V
- jdx.
deduced
All the
this I. 7.
H' log airfa; = B log a;
Section
IX.
are
by help
of
r.
GENEKAL THEOREMS,
- X'
8-10.
163
8.
XHdx = X I H(â;
+ X" rUda^ +
Sp. Case
.n=l: lxdx = ^X- ^^X' + Jx" - f,X"' + etc. 1'2

J 1
3!
4!
9.
I
10.
^dx = 2-3026
- - - -
logiX +
C = log. X + C
Appboximate Intbgbation.
(i.)
I
Xf?a;=*^(Xo+2Xi + 2X2 +
where X^
1>
>)
+ 2X_, + X)
is
the value of
!) II
X
J!
when x = a
-^1
*+
'*"*"
>
-^2
"
"
"
"
IJ
^r
)I
)>
j;
jj
* +
+
''
with
(6
a) divided into
n equal
parts giving (n
1) values of X,
(ii.)
(Simpson's Kule.)
"b
, ,
Xdx='Lî^ X, + X,, + 4{X, + X, + X,+
---.)
j:
where Xq Xj
, ,
+ 2(X2 + X, + X,+
etc.
----
+ X,_,)|
as in
(i.)
with (6 - a) divided into 2m equal parts giving (2

f{x)dx = hh{f(b) +f{a)} +f{a
+ 1)
values of X.
(iii.)
+ h) +f{a + 2h)
+/(6-/i)]
*
* See note at end of Sect, VIII,
164
11.
(i.)
I.
GENERAL THEOREMS,
11.
Method op Undetermined
Coepfioibnts.
If a function be expressible in a certain form containing unknown coefficients, these coefficients can be determined by transforming the identity and equating coefficients of terms whose variable part is the same function of the variable {e.g., the same power, or the same trigonometrical function), or in which the
variable
is
absent (constant terms).

:
The transformation
(a) Differentiating
referred to may be both sides (as in III. B. 18). (6) Clearing of fractions (as in II. E. 2, etc.).
(ii.)
Another method
: Give to the primitive variable as many different values, in the identity, as there are coefficients to be determined ; whereby we get as many equations
as are necessary to
determine them.
Gbnbeal Note
re Imaginaries.
Some
become
certain
of the formulas here given contain parts which would imaginary if the quantities involved took values outside
:
becoming, e.g., square roots and logarithms of limits negative quantities, inverse sines of quantities greater than unity, etc. When a definite integral is deduced from the indefinite one, these imaginaries, explicitly or implicitly, cancel one another, if !But, in many instances, the subject of integration is itseH real. two or more forms are given for the integral of the same function (e.g.. III. B. 6, VI. 5, 6), of which that one is to be selected which, for the values of the constants in the particular problem under consideration, is free from imaginaries. Some of these formulas contain parts which are imaginary for certain values of x only, whatever the constants may be, and
others do so for all values of
certain limits.
E.g., the
lies
~'^
x when the constants are outside

is
but not when x
formula sin"â between - a and + a.
imaginary when x>a,
On
the other hand, the
formula
^
Jb
sinh
{
I
V/ a
\
)
contains
imaginaries
when
is
negative, whatever the value of
x may
be.
under which a formula involves imaginaries are, as a rule, pointed out in cases of the latter sort, but not in those of the former.
In these
classified tables, the conditions
1.
GENERAL TaEOKBMS.
165
SPBCfAL Note as to Logarithmic Terms.
A log X, where A is a constant, occurs becomes imaginary when x has such values as make negative ; but in such cases A log ( - X), which is real, may always be used instead of A log X, since it has the same differential coefficient as A log X. This note applies to III. A. 3,
When
an
a term of the form
in
integral, it
5, 11, 16, etc.
Note
re
Inverse Use op Tables to find Differential

COEPPICIBNTS.
Integration, they
Although the chief purpose of these Tables is to assist in may also be used to find gradients or differential
coefficients of given functions. To use them for this purpose, search for the given function on the right-hand side of the page. Its a-gradient is the corresponding quantity on the left-hand side
of the page
with the sign of integration
and dx removed.
The function to be differentiated will not, however, always be found under the subject-title proper to the function, since the arrangement of the tables classifies differentials, and not integrals, according to subject. For instance, the differentials of sin~'a;,
in"', etc., sin'
Algebraical.'
166
n.
CHIEF METHODS OP TKANSFOKMATION, A-F.
II. CHIBr
A.-
METHODS OF TRANSFORMATION.
series of
Express the subject of integration as the sum of a
terms,
and integrate these separately
(see I. 4).
(Integration
by
decomposition or separation.)
E.g.,
flog{(l
+ 2x){l + 3x)}dx=
=
I
f {log(l
+ 2x) + log(l + 3x)}dx

+ 3x)dx
E.g.,
log(l
+ 2x)dx +
log(l
B.
Add and
subtract the
[
same quantity.
/'
xdx
(a
+ 1) - I J
1
Jl + 2x~J
+ 2.X
'^^
î
C.
T~2(l + 2a;)
}''''
Multiply (or divide) numerator and denominator by the

.
same quantity.
E.g.,
f,
3
7
/'tan'a;(l H-tanâ!)da;
+ tanâ;
_
Sp. Case
rtanVitana:
J
1
+ tanâ;
m + nJR
D.
m^-nÛ
E.g.,
Expand
in a series (see p. 146).
J{1 -%mn^x)
:
=/ 1
+ i^"'^"'' + M^''^'" + -}dx.
Sp. Case
II. F.
E. Eesolve rational fractions into partial fractions.
(See
p. 167.)
F. Express a product of powers of sines and cosines as a sum of terms, each consisting of a sine or cosine multiplied by a constant. (See p. 168.)
n. CHIEB'
METHODS OF TKANSFORMATION G-K.

and/'(X)dX
(-
167
I. 6.)
G. Substitute /(X) for x

Sp. Case
:
for dx.
(See
/(X)=i)X
= a;
dx = pdX
In the case of a definite integral, change the limits correspondingly (See I. 7), or else transform back to x after integration, before assigning limits. (See p. 148.)
H.
Differentiate
it
quantity in deduced.
which
or integrate an integral with respect to any is not a function of x, and a new integral is
K. Use integration by
parts.
(See
I.
7.)
168
11.
CHIEF METHODS OP TEA.NSFORMATION.
II.
D. Chief Methods of Expansion in Series
Binomial Theorem. Exponential Theorem. 3. Expansion of Log,(l x). 4. Trigonometric series derived from the preceding expansions, by use of imaginaries. 5. Taylor's Theorem or Maclaurin's Theorem (including 1, 2, 3,
1
2.
as special cases).
6. 7.
Fourier's Expansion in series of sines
and
cosines.
Spherical Harmonics, Lamp's Functions, Bessel's Functions, Toroidal Functions, etc.
11.
CHIEF METHODS Or TRANSFORMATION.

II. E.
169
Partial Fractions.
F(a;)_Aa;"'
f{x)
1.
ax" +
+ Ba;"-! + - - - - + H where bx"-'+h

Y(x)
m and
n are positive
integers.
If ni'^n reduce
z,
-^
by ordinary division
to
an integral
function of
2.
+a
fraction of similar
form to the above with
m<n.
First Case.
/(a;)=a product of simple factors,
all different.
f{x)=a{x -p){x -q)

f{x)
{x-s)
x-p x-q
which
x-s'
1.
To
find P,
S,
are constants, use

-îp)
11
(i.), (&).
Otherwise
p,_^(cL)
3.
Second Case.
Some factors repeated. Kg. f{x)=a(x-p)\x-q)\x-r)..-
fix)
x-p^ {x-pf^ {x-pf^ x-q {x-qf^ x-r^""

11.
(i.).
TofindPiPj.-.-usel
4. Third Case. /() not a product of real simple factors, but contains quadratic factors all different. E.g.
+ kx + l)(x^ + mx + n){x -p)(x -q) L Mx + TS P f{x)~x^-\-kx + l x^ + mx + n'^ x-p'^

f{x)=a{x^
g(4_
Ka! +
Determine the constants K, L, M,

5.
etc.,
by
I.
11.
(i.).
Fourth Case.
Some
quadratic factors repeated.
E.g.
+ hx + Tf{x'^ + mx+n){x-p) 'e(x) __ KjX + 'Li K^x + L^ _K^+L3_ f(x)~x^ + kx + r (x^ + kx + iy^ {x^ + ke + iy M.x + 'N + P + + -x^ + mx + n x-p
/{x)=a{x^
Determine the constants Kj Lj
etc.,
by
I.
11.
(i.).
170'
11.
CHIEF METHODS OF TKANSFORMATIO^f.
II. F.
1.
Sines and Cosines.
Use repeatedly
Sin
mx
cos
nx=--
<
sin
(m + K)a; + sin (m - n)x
Cos mx cos nx=-Sin
<
cos
(m + n)x + cos (m - n)x

(m - ) =-;
>
mx
sin
nx=
<
cos
cos
(m + w)a!
^.ff.
Sin'a; cos 2a! cos
=
8
sin 4a;
sin 6a;
=-5 sin 2a;
lo
lb
2.
Alternative method.
i=J-\.
.-.
Use Xse"
2 cosa: = 2isina; =
X + X-i
X-X-i
X-"
2cosHa; = X'' +
2i
sinraa;=X"-X-".
Express sines and cosines of x or its multiples in terms of X. Multiply out. Collect pairs of terms of the form C (X"X-"), and reintroduce sines and cosines.
E.g.
Sin'a; cos 2a; cos
^
(2if 22
(X-X-i)^(X2 + X-2)(X + X-i)

- X- - 2(X* - X-*)
sin 4a;
= -
1 jt,{X
16 2
T-R
+ X2
X-n
"
1^^ 6a; - 2
+ sin 2a;}.
II.
CHIEF METHODS OF TEANSFOEMATION.
171
II. Gr.
Substitutions.
1.
{ax+bfdx==X"dS.
,
'a
]
I
yKâx + b.
P
2.
V{ax + b)dx= ~-F{X.)dX\
Sp Case:
5
&= -^.
(See VI. head note.)
dx xj{ax^ + b)
-dX
^{a +
bXP')
X=i
^-
X=((Kt!
5.
+ 6)V*.
'E{ax^
+ bx + c)dx = 'E{a{X? + k))d:yL
v'Ka;
-)(-
6)}
1-X2
^v/C-Ô-
7.
Y{x'^
+ k'^)dx = 'E{k'^s&d^X)kaw''XdX.
X=tan-ii.
A;
Otherwise
= 'E{kHosh?lL)h cosh X?X

X=sinh-i^.
ft
8. r{(a;2
A2)4}cia;
= F(A; tan X)A; sec X tan XciX

X=seo"^^-.
ft
Otherwise
= F(ft sinh X)A; sinh X
rfX
X=cosh~i
9.
F{(ft2 -
a;2)i}cZa;
= r(ft cos X)ii cos XrfX

X=sin-if
ft"
172
10.
r(a;,
II.
CHIEF METHODS OP TRANSFORMATION.
log^)dx = F(e^ X)e''dX
X=log^.
11.
'E(bcosx +
eamx)dx = 'F{^(b^ + c'^)smX}dK

X=a; + tan"'
c
.
Otherwise, as in II. G. 12.
12.
F(a + 5cos + esin.)c^. =
F{-^2g^:iM^)^^
X=tan
2
1 3.
F(a +
6 cosâ;
+ c smâjjtfo; = F <
X2
X2
f
1
X=tan a;
14. F(cosa:,sin2a;).sina;rfa;=
-F{X, (1 -
X2)}(iX
X^cosa;.
15. F(sina;, cosâ;). cosa;(a;
= F{X, (1 - X2)}dX
X=sin X
16. F(8in-ia;)ca;
= F(X)cosXtO:,
X=sin~i X
and
similarly for other inverse functions.
TABLE OF INTEGRALS,
IIL
A.
1-10.
173
III.-IX.-TABLE
III.
OF INTEGRALS.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS.
III.
A. Mainly Rational.
1.
\adx
CBMa;
/
=C + ax.
2.
=C+?
[Exc. w
3.
= -
1.
(See III. A. 3.)]
[^
{(ax
=0 + 2-302585---- xlogios;
= 0-1- logâ; \ hfdx = C +
Exc.
4.
j^
(ra-t-l)a^
+ *)''+^ '
n=-\.
a
(See III. A. 5.)

/ X logUax + o)
,
,
5.
f
I
dx
=^
ax + b
= ri +
,
2'3026
,\
= C + log,{ax + i).
6.
I
J
7.
ax +
=~rfa;
= C-)a
x+
logAax + b). '
(f
II. A., or
lar{ax + bfdx.
Use
IX. A.
1,
or III. A. 20.
8.
f-^
J
=C-Htan-'a!
= C-cot-ia;,
9.
f-^ 1-x^
=C-t-|log,l? = C-f-tanh-'a;
1
~x
[x<U '
[a:
'
= C + ^ log^ = C +
10.
coth-'jc
> 1]
.
- =
-7^^. tan-'xj
%+C
when a6 >
(See III. A. 9.)
174
,,
f
in.
A.
11-15.
dx
__!__,
/ Aa:
+ B\
and n a
it
j{Ax + B)(ax + b)~^'Âb-aB^'\ax + bJ'

12. \J J l+af
where
to is a positive iateger or 0,
positive
integer,
li
m<^n, use
II. E. 1
m<n,
thus:
= C + (^)"logXl +x)-^'2 {cos'^*^ + 1> log,(^^ - 2x cos r^^ +

2 -^ ) r(m+l)7r, ^tan .1/ M 2,-{ sm-i
.
1)}
Ix
- cos
N.B.
If
TC
is
odd, r takes the values
1, 3, 1, 3,
5 5
(w
- 2).
If
is
even, r
i
is
{n-Vj, and the
term
1 3.
I
Îoge(l +a;)
omitted.
f x^dx ^
J ^
-^
where
wi is a positive integer or 0,
and n
is
an odd
positive integer.
= ( - l)+i/'?!^ where
,
X= - x.
(See III. A. 12.)
fx^dx
14.
I
where
wi is a positive integer or 0,
and n
is
an even
positive integer.
= c + liogXi -x)- i::^ iog,(i + x)

_
ly
n
co/('^ + l)" log,(:.^ _ 2x 00^"^+
1) I
sm-^^
r(m+l)ir,
^tan
J
^
sm
2, 4,
n
(w
where r takes the values
- 2).
See III. A. 12,
m and w
i
are positive integers.
t( -
r^
"^^"-^
^K -t)
1.
'''
See III. A. 13,
14, if
m and n
are positive integers.
Otherwise, see IX. A.
m. ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS,
16.
A.
16-20.
175
Jax' + bx + c
f-^l
=C + Â^^tan->^^+A where A^V-iae,

V(-A)
1
V(-A)
ifA<0
ifA>0.
f
I
= 0+
,
log.|^^*ZL^
,
17.
jax' + lx + c
1^5
f(Ax +=-î B)dx
2 =-\oQ.{ax^ + ox + ^'^
7,
,
2a
c) '^
+
,
2aB - Ah
2a
J ace"
dx +
s
i
6a;
+c
(See III. A. 16.)

18.
I
^=
X"
dx where X=aa:^ + bx + c
2(?i-l)aX-i
Sp. Case
:
= ;w
^^
r-\
2a
;X"
1=^.
(See IX. A. 4.) ^

^
A = 0.
'
(See IX. A. 4.)

--
19.
fAx + Jix'"~^4
J
ax" +
:rbx''-^
+ Kdx, +p
where m, n are positive integers 6 f

'
Keduce by
II.
E. to terms like these
JAx^dx, 1^^^,
J
1^^, Jx-p J{x-pY

A.
,^-,+
^
m
I Jx^ + lx +
dx,
J{x' + lx +
Jr^^J^; my
<iX
for which, see III.
2, 5, 4, 17, 18.
20.
\x^{ax''
+ hyi<^dx = S^\'X?*''-'-{
where X=(aa;''
+ 6)'"
_ _
2_ [l,{m+l)ln+plqr^q
(;j\
(m+l)/-3>/S-IX^+9-lc?X
where X=(6a;- + a)W.
Use the former when

latter
is
a positive integer.
"
-- + ^ is
n
q
a negative integer.
III.
In either A. 2.
case,
expand the binomial
factor
and use
II.
A. and
176
III.
A. 21-27.
Definite Integrals with
Numerical
{or Particular) Limits.
=
0^
+ ^"
ax ^^
n sin <"' + n
^)^
where n and
are even positive in-
tegers,
and
m<
on 2 22.
I I '
-'" -af) 0^(1-
IT . IT = cosec iira>l,
1
23.
,/=" , ;/(l+a!")
=-!Lcot^ n n
"
"
(See X. 1-6.)
r{x'"+x^)dx _i.\im,-vV)V{n-irV) -TJo ]u,Ji _ r(m+i)r(wyjo

I I
(1+^)'"+"+^
r(m + M +
25.
I
i}
II
'
r(m + w + 2)
26.
^
-a;)+'
27.
rV(a_c)Ma; = a++^%lM^) ^ ' r(m + + 2)

I
III.
B.
1-7.
177
III.
B. Quadratic Surds.
1.
\{ax + 'b)idx =
G + ^{ax + V)i.
2.
J/Km + hf}dx = ? jXf{X)d{X)

where X=(aa; +
Sp. Cases
(-?)
:
l>)i
J
[
x{ax
+ V)Mx = C + ^{ax + &)l - ~lax + 5)?

f
()
-7-î = 2
(See III. A. 10.)
3-
/(^^j =C + log,{a; + (a=^+l)n=C + sinh-^.

[
.f'"
4.
=C + loge{a; + (a^-l)i}=C + cosh-ia!.

s^T
5-
7^
J
6.
(I- ar)i
,
= C + sin"ia; = C - cos~ia;
f'^.vx
-C + i-log,{a!> +
(aa;^
+ S)J}
if
a>0and6>0
a>0
= C + -^sinh-iwA/r
= + -^ cosh-la; ^Jl?
6>0 6<0 6>0

III. B.
fl>o
=C+
Otherwise
:
;^)Sin-V-f
.
<0
put
x=X
//( Va or a;= X VV \ and use ;

&).
3, 4,
or 5.
7.
f.-?^
=C+i(aa;'^ +
178
8.
III.
B.
8-16.
/"__^__ - _
Sp. Case
:
f-J^ where X=^

sn
(See III. B.
6.)
Jx{l+x^y
I
=C
- sinh~' X
= C - cosech"' x
jx{i-x^y
9.
= C - cosh"' _ = C - sech"* x
r
{Ax + -B\ax' + b)hdx = C +
{^x^^
|a; + ^)(a:' + *)*
+ ?frÂU2 J {ax' + o)i

8p. Case
:
(See III. B.
6.)
L{ax'' +
h)Hx = C + ^{ax^ + bf.

.
1 0.
J {2ax
I ,-77
3ri - arp
= C + vers-i- = C + cos-^
a
in
[ J
d^ _p x{2axx')i~
dx
n
'^
(âxsi?)^
ax
,
^X
+ 4ac - 62)
6.)
*
J (ax^
+ 6a! + c)4
^'*j {ia^T^
Where Xâ; +
,
,
A
,
(See III. B.
.
(Aa; + E)da! _ A
j(aa;'^
+ te + c)i"a^'*^"^'* +
''^
"^
2Ba - A& /'___if^___ 2a J {ax'+bx + e)i'
(See II. B. 13.)

15.
f(Aa;
+ B)(aa?+6a! + c)i?a;
/B
p^jA,
\2
A6\
B&
Ac
rfa;
A6^K
,,
.,
/Bc_A6c_B6^
4a
A&'W
""
8a
16aVi
(aa;^
+ 69; + c)*
(See III. B. 13.)
,g
f (Aa;
(aa;2
+ B)f?a; ^ ^ 6E 2eA + (2aB - 6A)ie + bx + c)i~^'^ (4ac - J^)(aa: + Sa; + c)*

"^
"
III.
B.
17-18.
179
J
if
{ax'
+ bx + c)'î
;
a'-^+
where L,
{ax'
+ bx + ef-i
is
be determined by
a positive integer I. 11
K. are constants to
(a).
(ax^
+ bx + c)i
fta;
Mdx = (Pk"-' + qx'^-' + ---- + S)(aa;2 + bx + e)i + f^-^ (aa;^ + c)5 y (aaf +
where the constants P, Q, S, For the last integral, see III. B. 13.
M are determined by
I. 11.
Otherwise, see IX. A.
3.
180
III.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
APPENDIX
N.
Appendix N.
Section
III. Some Special and some MORE General Cases.
A A
A
(4). '
^
(8).
^ '
^=1--^, }{x-vhf = C + ^-^. f-_^ b x+ x+b z + b' f_^=C + -^tan-'fx^/^). jax'^^-b \ V b/

Since
.".
(9).
f^,^=C + llog^f'.
"When
(12).
n=2,
m may be
or 1
and the formula gives
When n = 3,m may be

with
or 1
or 2
and the formula gives

1)
m = 0,jj-j^g=
-Iog(l+a;)- g log(a;2-a!+
4-577tan-^ + C,
and with OT= 1,1
r^-A= - ^log{l+x)+ -
log
(j;^
- a; +
1)
4-577 tanand with OT= 2

ra
,
2y +
;
C,
J
,
[^^= I log 1+x^ 3
(1 +a;3)
+C
or 2
,
When = 4 m may
with
be formula gives
or 1
or 3
and the
m=
'^^
=J_log*i^^^ + J_tan-^^ + C:
4n/2
1
/, l+K*
and with m =
x^-xj2 + l
2^2
l-a;2
f^=C-Jtan-l;
and with m = 2,
f^=-Llog-^--f+l+-Ltan-'^4.C;
yi+5c*
4^2
,
a;2
+ a;^/2 + l
2 v/2
l-a;^
and with to = 3
III.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
APPENDIX
N.
181
j(l-ax)
f
3a2
'
^^
-C+
i(a;H-l)^'52^1
VA~^ a'+l"
(^J^^-^-^ = c - /îi Va;-r i(a;-l)V52^
{J'^jL^dx
=C+
V(a:
+ )( + 6)
{ \/a:
+ (a - &) log
^
+a+
>/
+ &}.
<^)-/(P^>=-;^''-(f)(13).
Another form applicable whether a be + or (
dx
'
dK
with K.=x +
)(ax^
+ bx + cy
J(aX^-|!+cy
2a
182
IV.
1.
TABLE OF INTEGRALS,
IV.
1-9.
LOGARITHMS AND EXPONENTIALS.

= C + e'(e=base
of Neperian Logarithms).
je'dx
[a'"dx
J
2.
=0+ / a". nlog,a

Sp. Case
:
je'^dx =
G+-e".
3.
log^dx
=C + X logeS! - X
4.
jlog^dx
=C + a;(logja!-log6e).
G + x{log^f^x-4:34:29
Sp. Case: 6 = 10, ilog^gXdz =

5.
/
).
{log^ydx = C + a:{(logea;)" - nQogfi;)"-' + n(n -
l)(logea!)''~''
n\}.
6.
jx'ê'dx
= C + e'lx^ - mx'"-'^ + m{m =

is^'^h-'dx.
l)a;"'-''-
m\).
7.
id'^t'dx
(See III. A.
2.)
For other formulse involving logarithms or exponentials, see

VIII. 7-25 and IX. C.
Definite Integrals loith
8.
Numerical
(or Particular) Limits.
("e-'^dx Jo
.
=1 /^
2V
Jo
where
a>0.
(See X. 1-6.)
Aog i Xdx =
a
e-Vdx = T{n+ 1)
Appendix 0.
IV.
(7).
From
the equality of the logarithms of the two sides,
a""'6''
= "'"%"
and
e"'?"=a!".
Therefore
nlog a+l
fa"
n logâ and
Also
I
\e"^''^^dx
;
e-a;''<ia;
=-
n+\
= a-'"+'T(w+l).
TABLE OF INTEGEALS,
V.
1-6.
183
v.HYPBEBOLIC FUNCTIONS.
L,
tanha;=
sinha;
:
,,
cotha;=
cosna;
tanha;
secha!=
"cosha;'
^^j
coseoha;=
sinha;'
gda; = cos"' secha; = sin"' tanha; = tan~i sinha; = 2 tan'Hanh 2'

1
sinha;.da;
= C + cosha; = C + sinhx
= C + log^
cosha;
2.
I
ooslia;.tZa!
3.
tanha;.c?a;
4.
dotha;. dx
= C + log^ sinha;
5.
sechai.cZa;
=0 + 2 tan" V = C + gcb
= C + log^
^
6.
I
cosecha;.cZa;
--
=C+
og,
tanh
Note. Every formula in VI. gives rise to a corresponding formula in hyperbolic functions, and vice versd, by writing ix for X and using the identities
:
sin ix = i sinha;
cos ix = cosha; tan ix = i tanha;
where
i=^{-
1).
184
TABLE OF INTEGRALS,
VI.
1-8.
VI. TRIGONOMETRICAL FORMS.

Note.
The substitution oipx + q

16,
for
x and of p.dx
for dx, gives
more general forms of VI.,

Sp. Case :
19-25.
for
- a; + -^ for
x
a;
and - dx
dx changes every
trigone-
metrical ratio of
1.
sin. {jpx
into its
complementary function.
+ q)dx=G- cos(^ + g').

Sp. Case
:
sin
xdx = C - cos a;
2.
\cos(px + q)dx
= C + sin (pa; + g)
I
Sp. Case:
cos
axita:
= C + sin a;
3.
tan {px + q)dx =
G- logj cos(â; + g).

P
;
Sp. Case
tan xdx =
logj sin
C - log, cos x
4.
cot
(px + g)dx = C +
Sp. Case
p
/
[px + q)
cot
xdx = C + logj sin x
5.
/sec
(,...)..
=C.|log.^5gj)
= CH-ilog.tan(^+--f).
6.
f cosec (px
J
+ q)dx = C + llog,
2p
l-cos(y' + g) l+cos(â! + g')
= C + llog,tan^^. 2 p
r
7.
jsm\px + q)dx
J
1 X =G + -- am(px + q)coa(px + q).
2p
f
8.
j
cos'{px + q)dx
1 =C + + sin(jpa; +
2')
cos(â!
+ g').
VI.
TKIGONOMETKIOAL FORMS,
9-19.
185
9.
ta.ii\px
+ q)dx
=G-x+ tan{px + q), =G-x- cot{px + q).

p
0. J
1.
cot^{px + q)dx
Isec^(j)x + q)dx
J
=G + tan(j>x + q).
p
cot
2.
+ q)dx = C - J p fe,m{px + q)dx 1 ^ J C0B^{px + q) p

/
cosec^Qja;
(px + q)
,
, ^
'
[cos (px
J
+ q)dx
/
\-c-
\
,
8ia'{px + q)
p
r
1/
sin Js.
(px + q) cos (px +'q)
=C+
loge
tan (px + q)
6.
[sm''xdx, Lo&^xdx, jsin"*' J J
(-^, (-^,
icosV
(tm''xdx,
J
'
Icof'xdx.
J
1, 2.
For the
first
two integrals use
second pair
last pair
II. F. or IX. B. IX. B. 3, 4. VI. 21, 22,
See also VI. 19.

17.
I
sin
(px + q)
cos"(j3a;
+ q)dx = G-
-.
J 18.
I
(n + V)p
-.
- cos"+i( pa; + q)
+ q)
cos
(px + q) sin''(pa; + q)dx = G +
^y- saiP''^\px
19.
sin"a; cosârîa;
Four methods.
Method
I. (1) if
(2) (3)
m is an odd positive integer, use X=cosa! n X=sina; X^tana; H- w even negative m and n are positive integers,
5, 6,
and the integrals become rational.
Method
Method
II. If
use II. F.
III.
Use IX. B.
7 or
8.
Method IV. If in or n or both are fractional, use Xssina; or=cosa;, and expand the binomial factor which results.
186
VI.
TRIGONOMETRICAL FORMS,
dx.
20-25.
20.
sin!!! cos"a;
smqxcosrx
n, q, r
Where m,
21.
are positive integers, use II. F.
jtaD.''xdx.
If
IS
even,
= C+
Mn-
+ tana; + a;.
logecosa;.
ra-
odd
=0+
=-I
^+-----s 2 n-3
+ -i-
22.
(coVxdx = C
J
n-1
!^ 71-1
cof-ia;
n3
n-3
cof-â!
cot + ,
a;
-J.
11
n even.
=C-
cof-iw + -1- cot"-a! +iog^sina;,
i cotâ; ifModd.
23.
fa +
=C+
a;
CDS
CI
:
+ o cos +& _i a cos + 77-5 jtrCos 1 J ;^(a2 - 62) a + & cos x

a
iE
^(o^ - a^)
,,cosh-i^^gg^J
a;
if6^>a^
-f J.O
if
^ 62<a2.
_o
a+
& cos a;
+ c sin a; ~ J o + ,y(62 + c^) cos X

(See VI. 23.)
it
where X=a! - tan-iy.

Sp. Case
(1) (2) ^ '
when c= 0,
when
1
becomes VI. 23.

"
= 0,
\ ya + csma
^r
25.
y (a + 6 cos a;)"
if
f^!^
(a^
f(acosX-6)'"(a
6cosX) irfX,
6^)" 'J
a>6,
^,^
m+l<w,
,
where tan--=
2
/
ffl
-tan
+6
=
if
[(6
- a coshX)"(6 coshX - a)"-"'+id:X,

,
ffl<6,
m+l<n, where
tanh -- .
/6-a / j^,
''^^
Expand
in each case by Binomial Theorem, and use II. A. then VI. 16 or 19, or Note at end of V.*
* See Appendix P.
VI.
TKIGONOMETEICAL FORMS,
26,
27
APPENDIX
P.
187
Appendix P. The
definition of
;
of its value
but
it is
here given is the best for ready calculation well to note that
.
tan
X = A / a-h V a+ 2
;
ton
X
2
means
also
sin
X=
hjo? -
+ 6 cos a;
cosX =
a cos x + b a + b cos X
''''''
tanX=>/^^^'
a cos x + b dx
a+
b cos X
Definite Integrals with Particular \or NumericdC\ Limits.
26.
&m:'xdx=\
^0
eoa"xdx=-
-.
^-
(See X. 1-6.)
i.
2r(| + i)
p /m + 1 \ p/w+l \
27.
/'^'2
I
sin"a;cos"a;(ia;
/^
o\
/ "
"
188
VL TRIGONOMETRICAL FORMS
APPENDIX
Q.
Appendix Q.
VI. (7) and
(8).
/x /x
Some
sin.2
other Special and some more General Cabbb.
{px + q)dx = C + ^- - -^sin 2(px + q) 2 4p

1
cos'
{pz + q)dx = C + -^ +
2
-r-sin
4p
^{px + q)
VI. (17) and

I
(18).
sin (pa
+ q) cos {px + q)dx = C + sin' (px + q)
=C/"
ip
COS i(p
^''\^.
;j-
cos 2{px
+ q)
/ \ / .7\j r^ sm {px + q) cos {rx + k)dx'= C
+ r)x + q + k} '
'-
cos
{(p-r)x + q-k}
{(P + r)x + q 2{p + r)
f sin (px + q) sin (rx + k)dx
= C - ^^
sin
+ k}
{{p-r)x + q-k] 2{p-r)
f cos (px + q) cos (rx + k)dx = C

J
+ ^^^ {(P + r)x + g + k} 2(p + r) sin {(p-r)x + q-k}

2(p-r)
sinpx sin (px + q)dx = C + -^ cos 3 -
i sin (2pa) + g)
VI. (26) and (27).

/W2
I
.
r,r/2
/-^
Jo
j
sinaw[a;=l=l Jo
oosxdx = 0=
siii^xdx
.
cosa;aic.
Jo
sva.xdx = 2.
Gosxdx=
cos^xdx.
sinxdx.
Jo
= ~= r
2
J
.
/ÎP
g
sin''(px
+ q)dx= =j^
,
Mp
cos''
(px
+ q)dx
VI.
TRIGONOMETRICAL FORMS
I
APPENDIX
:
Q.
189
if
It
p = ld
and r md,
and
then
m
p
being integers
that
r, I
is,
d be
the greatest
calculable
common
factor or divisor of
:
.
by
= im r
= l.2v d
d
and
and
.
and r
to
m being ^ = m
.
Ti-ir.
Therefore, since iir = 360, the addition of

posite trigonometrical function of hofh (px
a;
in
any com-
+ q) and (rx + k) brings the function recurrently back to the same value. It also does the same to any similar function of {(p + ')a; + constant} or of Therefore the definite integration be{(p -) + constant}.
tween any value Kj and
given
sin (
)
aij
+ -
of each of the three functions

)
above,
sin (
),
VI.
(17)
(
and
)
(18),
),
and cos
I
cos (
namely of sin( gives zero integral.
cos(
),
Also
sin (px
+ q) cos (px + q)dx = 0.

-t=-
If
X denote flux of time, then
is
the lapse of time, or
"period," between successive recurrences of identical values of any composite trigonometrical function of (px + q) and (rx + k), corresponding to the " beats " of the composite harmonic function.
The two harmonic functions have the

1ir
different periods
and
190
TABLE OF INTEGRALS, Vn.
1-5.
VII.INVEESB FUNCTIONS.
[Note. These can be transformed into mtegra,ls involving the corresponding direct functions by substitutions like X=sin~'a; .'.a;=sinX .\dx=cos'KdX, etc.]
N.B.smh-^x =
cosh-'a:
log,{a: + ^(1 +x^)}. = loge{a; J{x^-l)}; x>l.
tanh"'a;
= -;7-loge=
Z
L
X
I
x<l.
coth-'!B
= -jr-logj?
Jt
X
X
-;
x>\.
V(^~"'^);
secb-'a;
= cosh-' = log,-^= sinh-^ = log/

X
,
X
"^
x<l
cosech-'a;
n/(^
+ '^') ifa;>0
,
X
.,
^^ = log, 1- J(\+x^) ^,
X
if
<
gA~^z sech~'cos x = tanh~'sin x = sinh~Han x
=2
tanh-Han |-
= log.tan(^^
"''
y) = "2 ^"^'T^ sina'
+ sin
a;
sin-'a;<?a;
=C+ =C+ =
1
a;
sin-'a:
(1
- x^)i .
cos~'a;ia;
a;
cos"'a;
+ ( 1 - ai^)*
1-^ - wa.-^x]dx
3.
tan~â;c?a!
=C + x tan~ia; - -^log6(l + x^)

= C + a; cot~ia; + -s-loge( 1 + a;^)
,
4.
cot~ia;cZa;
5.
seo-^xdx
=G + x sec-â; - log.fa; + ^(a;^ - 1)}

=C+
a;
sec~â;
cosh~ia;
Vn. INVBKSE FUNCTIONS,
6-12.
191
6.
cosec~i!BcZa!
=C + x cosec" ^x + loge{a; + J(x^ - 1) }

= G + x cosec'â; + cosk-ia; =C+
sinh-ia;
7.
sinhrhidx
a;
- 7(1
+ a:^)
8.
cosh~'^xdx
=G + x cosh~ia; - J{x^ - 1) =G + x tanh-ia; + -i-log^l

=C+
9.
I
tank" ^xdx
- x^)
^^ logXl +
x)
+ ^^log.(l - x)
- 1)
10.
coth-'aicZa;
= C + a; coth-â; + -llogXa;^
=C+
11.
/
log/^
+ 1) -^-^ log.(a; -
1)
sech"'a;cfa;
=C + a;sech"â;-cos"'a;.
= C + a: cosech'â; + suih~'a;.
12.
cosecli~'a;(â;
192
TABLE OF INTEGRALS, Vm.
1-9.
VIII.
MIXED FUNCTIONS.
a? x^
x^
,
fsmxdx
fcosxdx
-,
n
^-
/^=^+^s^-2:2!+4:4!-6:6T+-j~^~-^'*'
f cotxdx
a;^
a;*
a^
[Unxdx_^
4(4-l)Bi^
2:2!
"^
42(42
_i)e^4
4.4!
48E3a;S
48(43
i)B3a!8
"^
6.6!
+
,
.*
_
1
,
4Eia;
1.2!
1
4^638:3
j K
3.4!
{
(
.
5.6!
"'"
{s&zxdx
+ since
1..
I-r.
4.
W*
Use
6.
II. A., II. F.,
and IX. C. 3 and
fgg^-^.=c-l+2{^^-V^%(^^;y x X 1.2! 3.4!

\
+ (2-l)E3a^
5.6!
""
^-
fe'tâ;
a;^
cc^
a:*
J-^ = ^ + ^S'^ + *'+2X! + 0! + 4.4! +

I
--
8.
x'êf^dx \n=a, positive integer]
a;"
wa;"'^
(w
a'
1)
^
w(w-l)(w-2)
2.1
a^
+
If
is
not a positive integer, use II. D-
9.
-jjfia;
[wi=a positive integer]
"^
(m-na?"!" (m - l)(m - 2)ai(m - l)ar-'-
5+----
^(OT-l)(OT-2)----2.a;/ "^(TO-1)!7
Otherwise see IX. C.
For values of B^ Bj
see note at
7.
"
yill.
7.'
end of Section VIII.
Vra.
MIXED FUNCTIONS,
XO-18.
193
10.
jx'^+^dx=
Ix'ê'^^'ê'dx
Use
11.
II.
A. and VIII.
18.
j^''sm{po= + q)dx = G + '"'"^''^''^^,^}-,^'^'^ + ^^K Up".

j e*^" ooaipx + q)dx= je'"-^ sm{px + q + ^ )dx
J3ifcosfxmi.^xdx, -where j>
.
12.
(See VIII. 11.)
13.
and q are
positive integeis.
By
14.
II.
F. and II.
A. reduce to IX.
C,
and
2.
l'E(x)f{siax,coax)dx,
'
[() and/ (
to
)=rational integral
functions].
By
r
II. F.
and U. A. reduce
15.
log,(sin
mx)dx = C
all
IX. C,
1
and
2.
logj2
k" (sin 2?wa; +52 *

)
/x
log,(oos
+ -^sm6mx + -r^Bin87rKC +
if
o<mx<-^
^sin imx
1
mx)dx = C
log.2
^^{sio. 2'mx -
+ =2 sin 6mx + r-^sin 8tnx

[if--|<m<-|].
loge(tan
1 7.
mx)dx = C
(sin
2mx + j^ sin 6ma! + -^sin lOmx
+ =jSinl4wKB + ----). 72
18.
[^"(log^)"*!
[e'-^+^^X-dX
X=logea;.
(See VIII. 8.)
194
vm. MIXED
-FUNCTIONS,
19-25.
19. jx'^J(\ogaX)dx,
[F( )=a rational integral function]
Use
II.
A. and
VIH. 8.
Definite Integrals with Particular [or Numericat] lArmts.
20.
re-'!>Pdx = T{n+\).
(See X.)
21.
JVaogrc? = (-ir^|^,.
(SeeX.)
23.
?E^da;=^ if^>o
I
24.
a:
.^
r J.
I
2??^cZa;=oo
""
25.
log,(sin a!)rfa;
= -
-2-log,2
Note.
Bernoulli's
Numbers.
B(j
Bi
Ba
1
Bj
B4
1
B5
_B_ 15T
B7
ÎF
TJ
Bl
^TFff
Tff
Bj 8817
SIO
B9
4 8867 "?!
"4810
Bio ^to., etc. 12 2 277
TABLE OF mTEGEALS,
IX.
A.
1.
195
IX.rORMULiE or REDUCTION.
Note.
Formulas
of Reduction of 1. 4, I. 7,
may
be obtained by combinations
and H. A, B, C.
IX. A. Algebraical.
fiB^X'd rdx
where Xsacc" + h
being
m,
n, r
or -
whole or fractional
indices.
By the use of one of the subjoined formulas, the integral of any one of the following 9 functions may be reduced to that of any of the other 8
^w+n^r+l
196
IX.
FOEMUL^ OF REDUCTION,
A. 2-4.
(vii)
jafX'-dx
i^ | ai^+'X' - nra
(wH1
ar+"X'-^dx \
(-rai)
= .-^p-
,/ +TOr)(m+
,
+Mr - w)
/
(
(w + ^
- M)a;'îX''
+ âf-"X'-+'- {m+l-n)nrlx'^-"X'-'dx
2.
X=(aa;' +
&i;
+ c)
w-^+iX*-
(i)
[x^X'-dx
J
m+l+nr {
^^
I
+ wrc iaTX'-^dx
y
-nraix'^+'^X^-'^dx \
(w
+ mr - m)6
\al^''X''dx
|
- ( +
3.
- 2)c (x'^-^^X'^dx
X=aa;2 +
j-x'^X-idx =
fee
+
I
^
+
a!"-'X* - (ot
- 1)6 jaf-^X-idx
-{m-iyJar-'X-idx
If wi be a
4.
integer, this reduces to III. B.
14 and
13.
X=ax^ + bx + c
/^"^^ = (r-l)(4'ac-6^) |(^^^ + ^)^"'-"

+ 2(2r-3)a[x-'-+iZa!l
If r be a
+
(+
integer,
this reduces to III.
A. 16,
17.
integer
+^)
III. B. 13.
IX.
FORMULA OB BBDUCTION,
B.
1-6.
197
IX. B. Trigonometrical.
Note. The following formulae remain true suhstituted for x and pdx for dx. (See II. G.)
when px + q
is
Sp. Case
If
^ = - 1,
and
q^
radians, in this substitution,

ratio
we
is
deduce a new formula in which each trigonometrical replaced by its complementary ratio.
N.B.
bo
The following formulae, when n and are integers, reduce the formulae referred to in the right-hand column.
Isin''xdx=
J
m
':
1.
n
n
sin"-'a;cosa!
+^
/sin"
'xdx
j
VI.
III.
1,
or
1.
n
/
A.
2.
cos'^xdx
= cos""^*; sin x +
- cos X
VI.
2, or
(Ms''~''xdx
J
o f
J [
/ III.
A.
1.
dx
71-2
dx
sin"-**
JsiD"x
.
~{n-l) sin"-'a!
a;
n-lj
Ivi. 6,orl2.
dx
jcos"a!
n-2 f_ sin ** " ^ f _ ~ (n-1) cos""â; a. w-ljc
dx
I
VI.
5, or 11.
5.
sina;cos"aj(â!. ^,n=js 1
-"-771,
m+n
m+n m-\ m+n m+n sin*"-!* cos"+'a; + ^, -^^-2,

-*^îi,
sin^+'a; cos""'a;
n-\
n'i
-
VI.
III.
1, 2,
or
17, 18, or
A.
1.
re
6.
X,
'
sma;
cos"a! J COI
1
sin^+'a)
cos-'a!
w-
m - 2VI.
1, 3, 5,
^""
w-1
w-1
'^x
TO -
m-n
cos""'a!
m-riXm-2,n
or 16, or, III. A. 1.
198
IX.
FORMULA OF KKDUCTION,
dx
B.
7-9.
7.
X,
_
1
cos"+'!i;
Sin"
cos''"'a;
ciTi'*~"ll sm"~'a!
'a;
m - M - 2Y m- 1
1
VI.
1,
2, 4,
nm
wn w
or 16, or III. A. 1.
sin"^!!; cos"a; Jsi
w + to-2y
.VI.
5, 6,
m+n
sin*""'!*;
''^
2,
15.
m-1
9.
cos""'*
.n-l-^'*'
/tan"a;da;
= *^-"
Aan"-î(fo;
IX.
tORMUL.^ OF REDUCTION,
C. 1-11.
199
IX. C. Mixed Functions.

sin
la;"!
of mxdx = x^
IL(x''~h cos mx + mj cos mxdx m
TI.
1,
or 2,
TO is
when
teger.
positive in-
cos mxdx =^
sin mx
(x^-Hsin mxdx
'
Other wise, use II. D.
and
II.
A.
sin
mx.dx
sin
mx mx
m m
f cos
mxdx mxi
J-
/
f
{n,-l)x''-^'^n~-l}
COS
n-l x"-^
If a positive integer
mx
COS
sin
n mxdx
VIII. lor Otherwise, use II. D.

1
2.
5.
\(XogxYx'^dx =
^âQ0xY
logâ
^m+l
IIL HL A. 2
if
^\(\osxf-^^dx
\
U=apo8iif
6.
fxâ'"dx
J
=4^ n
=
w logefly
^{yf'-'ard:
1
IV. 2
m= m
} a positive
*
integer.
fi!^
ia;
-g'
fe'dx
~(w-l)a!*-'"''m-lja;"-i
6*^008"
f is
'
VIII. i if a whole
number.
IV. 2if= even positive
integer.
8.
fax nj ^"cos'^xdx
Ww sin ^
n'
-
a; =
-fa cos a;)

'-
a'
f
+
'
n(n-l)
n^
+ a'
e^'cos^-^xdx j'
VIII. 12ifi
odd positive integer.

if
n J Q /^ aismxax _ y.je
e'"sin"~^:g(a sing
- wcos x)
]
I
IV. 2
M is an even
if
n^ + a^
positive integer.
(^ r
rt'
f VIII. 11
J
^ôdd
+ a^J
positive integer.
10
( d ] cos"*
^{aoosx -{n- 2)sina;} (re - 1)( - 2) cos"-ia;
a^
(w - 1)(
a^
-f
+ (n- 2f f e'$x - 2)j oos^V

(w
_
~
e'{asing -t-
(?
2)cosig}
2)^
/"
e^tgg
jsiH^
(m - l)(m - 2)sin'-'!
^ {n- l)(w- 2)/sin"-V
200
X. GAiSMA.
CONC*IOSS,
1-6.
X. GAMMA FUNCTIONS.
Properties of thb
Definition:
Gamua Function.
j
1.
r(n)=|^
e-'x''-^dx=
^
(log,^)"'^'^
where n>o.
2. 3.
r(M+l) = TOr(t).
If
re
is
a positive integer r(n)

it
= (w -
1)
and r(l) =
1.
4.
r(re)r(l-)=^
T{n)-
smWTT
lî
n>o and<l.
+ /*)
where /u is a positive integer.
Lim
/i.
m"
(m
5.
= 00
n{n +1)
N.B.
II.,
Legendre, in his TraiU des Fonctions Mliptiques, Vol. 1 to gives an extended table of 1000 entries from 2, to
12 decimal places.
6.
Table of Values
76
of 1
+ logigr(n).
XI.
DUTERENTIAL EQUATIONS,
A.
1-7.
201
XI.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
XI. A. First Order, First Degree.

1.
X' + toX = 0,
X' +f{x) =
X'
X = Ce-', or
a;=
logS-. m G
2.
X=C ,
lf{x)dx
3.
+ X/(a;) =
Sp. Case
:
X = C eay { = mx^ ;
log
h(x)dx)
f{x)
^=
Îj^"*'
4.
X'
+ X/(a;) = <^(a;)
\f{x)dx}\G
Sp. Case
:
X = exp{
j<l>(x)exp{
jf{x)dx}dx]
f{x) = Jc,
.:X'
+ KK = ^{x);
U{x)^dx},
X = e-'"{G+
5.
X' = 'l>{x)f{X)
j-^ = j<l>{x)dx
4>{x)
Sp.Caê:
6.
= l,
.
..X'=/(X),
If the condition
=-j^y
M, = ^
is fulfilled,
/(,X)X'
then
+ <^(a;,X) =
j,t>{x,X)dx
+ j[f{x,X) - ^^^^dx'^X = C
or
jf{x,X)dX + [[^(aX) - J^^M)axJrfx = C

the integrations being partial.
Note.
dition, it
may do
of a: or chapters IV., V.)
If the equation as given does not fulfil the above conso after being multiplied throughout by a function (See Boole, or both, called the Integrating Factor. E.g.
{x^X+X + l) + X'{x + x^).
Integrating Factor, 1/(1

7.
+ x^).
where
Solution
/(a;,X)
Xy(a;,X) + Substitute in x,X.

<^(a:,X)
xX + tan"â! = C + <^(a;,X) is homogeneous

:
Xâ;^ and
reduce to XI. A.
5.
202
8.
XI.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS,
A.
(ax + bX + c)X' + {/x + gX + h) = 0. Assume ax + bX + e=z fx + gX + A=Z hence - Z'z +/z - jfZ = (See XI. A. 7 or 3.)
;
,
Mee.
when a:b =f:g put S=ox + bX hence (J + <=){S -a) + gM + bh = 0. (See XI. A.
,
,
6 Sp. Case.)
9.
X' + X/(x)
= X''.^(a;).
Substitute
.
4^=Xi-"
Then
4.)
S+
10.
(1
- n)Mf{x) = (1 - n)4,ix)
(See XI. A.
If
a;X'
= (AX + B)(aX + 6);
then Ca;" =
If
^=
aX + 6
=-
where a = Ab~ aB.
xX' = aX^ + bX + c;
^'^''
then
11.
= 2aX + b + 1
'
'^^^^^
"= JW^Îae,
a;X' = (AX + B)(aa) + 6); If thenAX + B = a;*.e*"*'+'".
Xr.
B.
203
IX. B. First Order, Second or Higher Degree.

1.
/(a;,X,X')
= 0.
If possible, solve for X'.

if
Each
solution X'
= <^(a;,X)
2.
solved by XI. A.
possible, gives part of the
general solution.
/(X,X')
Use XI.
Each
B. 1
if
possible
otherwise solve for

gives x
X if possible.
+C
3.
.
solution
X = <i6(X')
= j^^^dX'
Then
eliminate X' between the last
two equations.
/(a;,X')
= 0.
Then
Use XI. B.
if
possible: otherwise solve for

gives
X if
possible.
.
Each solution x = <^(X')
X=
two
X.'<t>'(S.')dX'
+C
4.
eliminate X' between the last

(Clairault's Equation)
equations.
X = a;X'+/(X').
X=:ex+f{c).
See 202,
p. 123.
204
XI.
XI. C. Second Order.
C.
1.
X" + ??i2X = 0,
X = A cos
=
cos
??ia;
+ B sin TTia:
(mx + K).
2. 3.
X"-m2X = 0, X = Ae"" + Be-".

X" + a X' + 6X = 0. Two
forms
X = e
/^
Aea;p(|- J(a^ - 46))
+ Beay ( - 1.
^(a^ - 46))
when a2>46
-4.
Acos(|vIF3H-^).Bsin(|v463^.)
^^
= Ce-/^cos||-7(46-a2) + Ki
X" =/(a;),
<**
j
X = jj f{x)dxdx + Aa; + B
6.
X" + aX' + 6X =/(). By XI. C. 3, find M by
solving
XL
X+
3^S'
A.
4,
4!f
fHtîc
S
.
a3^' + b^ = 0. + {2j' + aJ}B=/(a!),
Then
7.
X=
See
2 1 6,
page 132.
X" + X'/(a;) + XF(a;) = .^(a;).

if possible from J" + M'f{x) + JF(a;) = 0. B by XI. A. from n'M + 'B{2j + Mf{x)} = <l>{x). Then X = ^j'adx. See 2 1 4, page 1 30.
Find
8.
=
/72Y
5
/-/SY s
.
c^
where
is
a function of x and y
General integral solution
where the forms of the functions /( mined by limiting conditions.
and
<^(
are deter-
XI.
D.
205
XI. D. Order higher than Second.

1.
f(x, X'"-", XW) /{x, ^, J') = 0. f(x,
= 0.
Put
J = X'"-",
Put
and equation becomes
(See XI. A, or B.)
2.
Xf-^
=/().
/
X"-^', X<"1,)
becomes f{x, J, J', J")

3.
= 0. = 0.
J = X"-^'
and equation
(See XI. C.)
XI")
X=
4.
f{x)da!" + C^x"-^
+ Cja;"-^ +
-
- - - -
+ C
X"*'
+ aiX<"- + agX'"-") + wij,
+ a. ^X' + aX =
where
OT"
m^,
are the roots of the auxiliary equation
+ ai?w"-i + a??i"-2 +
+ a_jm + a = 0.
Note 1. If wij =j? + q -I and wij =j? -q -I are a pair of imaginary roots, the terms Gj^^" + Cê^^ are equivalent to the
real
form ^' (A cos ja; +
B sin
g's;).
Note 2. If there be r equal roots m^, m2 m each=/i, the corresponding terms in the value of are (Cj + G.^ + Gâ? H + G'iif~^)ei^. And if there are r pairs of imaginary roots each
P ?>/ ~ 1)
e*""!
*li6
terms are
AjCOS qx
+ BjSin ya; + ^(Ajcos qx + Bjsin qx) H
5.
X"" + aiXi-" + a2X'"-=" +
+ a!''~^(A^cos qx + B,sin ga;)} + aX = 6 + Mh- 622;^+ + h^.

-
+ times and solve the resulting equation by XI. D. 4. This solution is too general, having n + r+\ arbitrary constants but by substituting in the equation and using I. 11, we get r + 1 relations between the
Differentiate both sides r
1
:
constants.
Otherwise
see XI.
D.
6.
206
6.
XI.
D.
X"" + aiX'"-ii + a^Xi"-^' + - - Let

/(a;)
+ aX =f{x.)
X = F(a;)
be tte solution on the supposition that

4.)
= 0.
(SeeXI. D.
Then
X = F(a;) + 2 A^p{m^)
are such as to
exp{
- m^f{x)}dx,
the equation
1
where Ai Aj Ai
m-7?ii
'
make
A2
'
A
'
TO-9W.2
i-wi
m" + fflim""' + asm""'' H
i-a
identically true.
(See II. E.)

:
Another method 75.
By variation of Parameters
see Forsyth,
XI.
E.
207
XI. E. Partial Differential Equations.

1.
! = '.
where
or
2/
= Gexp{a.x + o?aH)
C and a are arbitrary constants, = { A cos aa; + B sin ax}exp{ - a?aH),
and
being arbitrary constants.

:
Oenerdl Solution
the above.
E.g.
= sum
of
any number
of solutions like
y=
F{a.)exp{ax
+ o.âH)da,
where
is
an arbitrary
function.
where
F and / denote
drdi
arbitrary functions.
dt''
ox^
dt
*,
ox
j8
y = Ce^+^' where C,
the condition
ap,'^
are arbitrary
but
a, j3
subject to
Oeneral Solution
+ la.j3 + ca.^+f^ + ga+h = 0. y = the sum of any number

:
of
such
particular solutions.
4-
"^ + *g| + = 0,
''
{ct
+ ay) = ^{cx + hy)
where <^=an arbitrary function.
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Petroleum, Thomson and Redwood, Sidney H. North,

.
Mineral Oil Testing, J. Hicks, MACLEOD AND WaLKER, Metallurgical Analysis, F. Osmond & J. E. Stead, F.R.S., Microscopic Analysis, Phillips and Bauerman, Metallurgy (General), Prof. Humboldt Sexton, (Elementary), J. C. F. Johnson, F.G.S., Getting Gold, Jambs Park, F.G.S., Cyanide Process, Julian and Smart, Cyaniding, Borchbrs and MMillan, Electric Smelting, W. G. McMillan, F.I.C., Electro-Metallurgy, J. J. & C. Bebinger, Assaying, J. J. Morgan, F.C.S., Metallurgical Analysis, Metallurgy (Introduction to), Sir "W. Robebts-Austen, K.O.B., Dr. Kibke Rose, A.R.S.M., Gold, Metallurgy of, H. F. Collins, A.R.S.M., Lead and Silver, Thos. Turner, A.R.S.M., Iron, Metallurgy of, F. W. Harboed, Steel, m''"wllliam and longmuir, General Foundry Practice, Prof. Turner, Iron-Founding, Dr. Max Bauer, Precious Stones,
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60 60 60 66 59 69 59 67 67 66 66 63 63 64 66 65 68 68 68
CO.,

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J

BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE

ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF

Cornell University Library

Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

the United States on the use of the text.

Cornell University Library

3 1924 031 253 903

ENCtTNEERS ANT) PHYSTflTRTS

NET BOOK. This

not allow of Discount

CHARLES GRIFFIN &

ENGINEERS AND PHYSICISTS.

PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS FOR ENGINEERS.

of the Mechanical Engineering Department at the Institute, London, E.G.

A,M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Meoh.E., Wh.Exh., Northampton

Authorised Surveyor for the Governments of

THE THERMO-DYNAMIC PRINCIPLES OF

Third Edition. Pocket

THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S REFERENCE BOOK.

and Methods for Engineers, Students, and Draughtsmen.

LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN &

EXETER STREET, STRAND.

WITH APPLICATIONS TO TECHNICAL PEOBLEMS

CLASSIFIED KEFERENCE TABLES

^SSOO. M.LO.E., M.I.MEOH.E., M.I.EL..,~WH. SOH.,

EM. PKOFESSOE OF ENOINEERINS.

SECOND EDITION. REVISED AND ENLARGED.

CHARLES GRIFFIN AND COMPANY,

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.

following remarks appeared in the Preface to the First Edition

"This work aims

features in the study

the second place, a set of Eleven Classified Tables of

are schoolmen of the pure orthodox mathematical

arising a rapidly increasing

wholly trained by continuous contact with the hard facts of

find great difficulty in giving faith

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.

outside the limits of their

Experience in the use of the book since

trained, the better

must automatically develop con-

tinuously and permanently after his formal study of mathematics

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.

Considerable additions have been made, mostly in the form of

These deal for the most part with new applications,

the original work of the author, to specially important technical

Eeference Tables of Integrals.

Integration more useful than

Rational Method, . Active Interest in the Study, Object of present Treatise, .

Illustrations, Classified List of Integrals,

Nature of Derived Functions,

Scales for Graphic Symbolism, Ratios in Graphic Delineations,

Differential Coefficient, a;-6radient, or X', Scale of X', . Sign of X'

Snbtangent and Subnormal,

Increment on Infinite Gra18

Increment Symbols, Integration Symbols