Welding

The process of joining two similar or dissimilar metallic components with the application of heat, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal. Heat may be obtained by chemical reaction, electric arc, electrical resistance, frictional heat, sound and light energy. If no filter metal is used during welding then it is termed as Autogenous Welding Process'.

Welding
Heat Source Pressure Force Fixture Filler Material Joint preparations Flux Cleaning Inert Atmosphere Heat Treatment Safety

Welding
Classification
Heat Source and Type of Interaction
Gas(Oxy-acetylene,Oxy-hydrogen) Arc(Carbon,Shielded metal,Submerged,TIG,MIG, Electro-slag,Plasma etc) Resistance(Spot,seam) Solid State(Forge ,Cold pressure,Friction,Explosive,Diffusion) Thermo Chemical(Thermit Welding & Pressure Thermit) Radiant Energy (Laser, Electron Beam)

Metal Joining
Fabrication & Repair Joint Faster & economical Can join dissimilar materials Not integral except solid state welding Hazardous

Applications
Aircraft Automobile Civil Construction Pressure vessels, tanks & containers Rail Roads Piping On Ships & underwater welding

Gas Welding
Heat of combustion of Oxygen with Acetylene or any other fuel gas to generate a flame with intense heat. Copper coated Filler Material melts & fuses together the edges of the parts to be welded

Gas Welding

 Types of Flames
Neutral
O2 & C2H2 equal. 3260 deg C. Well defined light blue inner core surrounded by dark blue envelope. No chemical change effects in base metal.

Oxidizing
O2:C2H2::1.5:1.0 burns with a loud roar. Short but pointed blue cone. Shorter outer envelope tends to fan out at the end. 3500 deg C. Extra O2 at high temperatures combines with the base metal.forms hard,brittle,low strength oxides and not used in welding of steel.

Reducing(Carburizing)
Rich in C2H2. 3000 deg C. Acetylene feather exists between inner cone & outer envelope. High carbon content implies C2 mixing with the base metal producing hard & brittle outer layer. Hence called carburizing.

 Leftward/Forehand
Flame away & the filler directed towards the completed weld. Preheating achieved Good control, neat More consumption of filler Joint is not visible For thinner sections

 Rightward/Backhand
Flame towards the completed weld & filler rod in between. Lesser consumption of filler Joint is visible For thick sections Better quality with lesser defects

 Flux
Borax, Boric Acid, Lime, Magnesium Powder, pastes or liquids Fusible & non-metallic To remove the oxide film & to maintain a clean surface Prevents oxidation Higher affinity to O2, reacts readily forms oxides & floats over the top of the weld bead to cover it from further contamination. Removal later on by chipping,filing or grinding

Gas Welding
Advantages
Versatile Good control for welder Slow heating & cooling rates, minimizes property changes Low cost, portable

Disadvantages
Not economical for heavy sections Flame temperature is lesser than that of an Arc Refractory (W, Mo, Ta) & reactive (Ti, Zr) metals can not be welded Prolonged heating implies greater HAZ (Heat Affected Zone) Flux shielding is insufficient Safety in storing O2 & Fuel gases

 Applications
Thin section welding Heat sensitive materials joining Joins almost all ferrous & non-ferrous metals In automotive & aircraft industries

Electric ARC Welding

Heating with an electric ARC Application of pressure & filler metal is optional Uses either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or nonconsumable electrodes. The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi-inert gas, known as a shielding gas, and/or an evaporating filler material.

ARC Welding
Arc is struck/drawn between an electrode & the workpiece Electrode is consumable or non-consumable. Electrode is flux coated or bare Twin electrodes can put workpiece out of the electric circuit Polarities can be reversed while welding different materials DC gives one polarity at a time AC reverses the polarities in cycles which aids arc cleaning action

 DCSP, job positive, more HAZ DCRP, job negative, lesser HAZ AC, implies cyclic, better control, more electrode life & optimum HAZ More the angle more the penetration Angle implies stability to the arc Negative waveform controls penetration Positive waveform controls arc cleaning action

Carbon Arc Welding

Single or Twin Electrode Inert gas is optional Arc struck between pure graphite or baked non-consumable Carbon electrode & the workpiece In twin type the arc is struck between the two electrodes only & the workpiece doesnt form a part of the electric circuit The power source is AC to keep electrodes at same temp. DC Straight polarity & longer arc lengths to avoid Carbon infusion into the base metal. Filler is used has the similar composition to job & size similar to that of electrodes.

 Advantages
Heat input controlled with arc length adjustments Less distortion Easy to mechanize process Butt welding of thinner jobs Simple & less skill required Cost is relatively low

Disadvantages
Carbon infusion Separate filler metal Poor quality, prone to welding defects

Applications
Non ferrous metals & alloys In preheating, brazing In castings repairs

Flux shielded metal arc welding

Arc between flux coated consumable electrode & the job No separate filler metal required Flux is in-built Temperature can be controlled by varying arc current Flux coating of electrode decomposes due to arc heat & protects weld metal ,arc stability etc.

 Advantages Simplest of all arc welding processes Portable & fairly low cost Flux & filler are inbuilt Wide range of metals & their alloys can be welded Any position welding possible (even overhead) Disadvantages Delicate electrode & coating makes mechanization difficult Fumes & slag obstruct the metal transfer Poor control Electrode length is limited, changeovers lead to welding defects Due to flux coated electrode, chances of slag entrapment & other related defects are more compared to TIG or MIG Applications Most of the metals coatings are available hence welding range is higher In repairs & maintenance Huge tanks, ship building, pressure vessels, piping, bridges, aircraft & automotives industry

Submerged Arc welding

Arc between a bare metal electrode & job Arc & weld pool hidden under blanket of molten flux Flux serves as a shield against atmospheric contamination Electrode is consumable & serves as filler Flux is conductive once molten. Arc is struck with the help of steel wool Electrode is wire fed continuously Arc length is self adjusting, arc length & Voltage are inversely proportional to current & hence the burn off rate

Advantages Weld thicker sections High welding speeds Less distortion Small HAZ Single pass weld Smoke, fumes, sparks virtually absent Neat appearance Can be carried out in windy areas Disadvantages Weld is hidden, poor control More fixtures Only flat position welds Flux pre-placing & removal Cast iron & non-ferrous metal alloys can not be welded Applications Fabrication of railroads, bridges, vessels, boilers Ship building & nuclear power industry Hard-facing, depositing wear resisting alloys Welding medium & low carbon steels

Tungsten Inert Gas welding

Arc between non-consumable tungsten electrode & the job Shielding by an inert gas Ar, He or N2 Arc is struck with HF unit, or touch & glow method Separate filler metal is required Inert gas cylinder etc. are ad-ons Electrode is thoriated or zirconiated to increase current carrying, minimize contamination

 Advantages
No flux hence no entrapment defects Clear visibility, better control All position welds Less spatter High quality for thinner sections Good for Aluminum & Stainless steel Slower than MIG Tungsten inclusion are hard & brittle High cost Inert gas atmosphere is a must

Disadvantages

Applications
Welding refractory metals Welding non-ferrous metal alloys Welding thinner sections Welding expansion bellows, transistor cases, instrument diaphragms, can sealing joints. Precision welding in atomic energy area, rocket motor chamber fabrication

Metal Inert Gas Welding

Also called gas metal arc welding. Arc between a continuously wire fed consumable metal electrode & the job Separate filler not required No flux, Shielding by inert gas Welding rate controlled with self adjusting arc principle

 Advantages
Faster than TIG Deeper penetration Both thick & thin jobs possible Easy to mechanize No flux

Disadvantages
Complex Air drafts may disrupt the gas shielding Higher base metal cooling rates Not for outdoors Welding tool steels & dies Manufacturing refrigerator parts Aircraft, civil, automotive industry Non ferrous metals & their alloys

Applications

Flux Cored Metal Arc Welding

Consumable tubular wire filled inside with flux & alloy additions Shielding gas is optional & flux alone will do. Flux ingredients create gas atmosphere after melting & float on the top to cover the weld pool from contamination Electrode is wire fed

 Advantages
High quality, flexible welding tech Neat appearance Variety of steels & wide ranges of thicknesses Easy to mechanize High travel speeds Only for ferrous metals. Especially steels Slag cleaning Expensive Only for flat welding position Replaces MIG For surfacing & build-up Only for ferrous metals & their alloys to any thickness ranges Bulldozer frames & blades Tractors & other locomotive fabrications

Disadvantages

Applications

Electro-slag welding
Arc between the consumable electrode metal & the job Arc melts the flux to form the slag & then extinguished Slag is maintained in molten state with the aid of its resistance to flow of current between the electrode & the job The molten slag temperature is enough to melt the electrode & aid the deposition The weld pool fills in from the bottom to the top of the weld. A progressive welding technique The order is solidifying weld, molten metal from electrode & molten slag above all.

Metal Joining

 Advantages
Easy joint preparations Thick sections readily welded High deposition rates Less distortion No spatter, fumes Low flux consumption

Disadvantages
Less economical than SMAW Difficult to close cylindrical welds Vertical uphill position only

Applications
Heavy plates, forgings Uniform thickness castings High strength structural steels

Plasma Arc Welding

Arc Plasma is temporary state of gas The gas gets ionized with the passage if electric current & breaks into electrons & positive ions. The energy of this plasma is utilized in welding. Every arc welding is a partially ionized plasma but this is a deliberate attempt on full scale The water cooled nozzle employed constricts the arc & stabilizes it with an impingement effect.

 Non-transferred Arc process

Arc between electrode (-) & water cooled constricting nozzle (+) initiated by HF unit Arc plasma emerges out as a flame Workpiece is not part of the circuit Lesser energy density, better control though Used for plating, spraying

Transferred Arc process

Arc between electrode (-) & job (+) Higher energy density, higher plasma jet velocity Mainly used for cutting instead of welding Can cut stainless steel & non-ferrous metals

 Advantages
Arc stability, uniform penetration, simplified fixture Can weld thicker sections Excellent weld quality Radiography quality welds at high speeds Infra-red & ultraviolet radiations High decibel noise Chances of electrical hazards Complicated equipment Inert gas consumption is high Single run autogenous welds In tube mill applications Welding cryogenic alloys Welding of steel rocket motor cases Nuclear sub-marine pipe system Welding of refractory metals For melting high melting point metals For spraying & cutting as well

Disadvantages

Applications

Resistance Welding
-Pressure welding processes in which heavy current is passed for short time through the area of interface of metals to be joined. -No fluxes are used, and filler metal rarely used. -Heat is generated in localized area which is enough to heat the metal to sufficient temperature, so that the parts can be joined with the application of pressure. -Pressure is applied through the electrodes.

Heat & application of pressure H=IRT, Heat, Current, Resistance & Time of current flow Heat is generated with the increase in current. Increasing current density can decrease the time for the weld.

Metal Joining
Resistance Welding
Resistance of the workpieces R3,R5 Resistance of electrodes R1,R7 Contact resistance between electrode & work surfaces R2,R6 Resistance between the faying surfaces R4 R4 must be optimum & relatively higher to obtain a sound weld & to avoid overheating

 Resistance Welding
Squeeze, initiation, upper electrode gradually applies pressure & current starts flowing at the end of the cycle Weld, current flows, passes through electrodes & workpieces Hold, sustained pressure at the welding point when the last impulse of current seizes. Off, time lag to the second weld

 Advantages
Fast No filler Semi-automatic Less skilled labour Less weld defects Both similar & dissimilar metals welded High initial cost High maintenance Surface preparations Bigger job thicknesses not possible Joining sheets, rods, bars, tubes Metal furniture Aviation & automotive industry Making fuel tanks of cars & tractors Making wire fabric

Disadvantages

Applications

Resistance Spot Welding

Rocker arm machine
Frame which is the main body of the machine, houses transformer & the tap switch Upper is movable & lower arm is fixed Welding electrodes on both the arms Water lines to avoid overheating of electrode & to cool weld. Step down transformer is used which reduces the voltage & proportionally increases the current Different knob controls to adjust current flow, water flow, hold & squeeze etc are available Operated with foot lever or air cylinder Other variants are press type machine & a portable gun In press type machine the job can be clamped on the Knee table

Resistance Seam Welding

Continuous type of spot welding wherein spot welds overlap each other. Circular welding electrodes. Coalescence at the faying surfaces is produced by heat obtained from the resistance to current under pressure. Air tight, continuous overlapping chain the spot welds Current applied is intermittent

Resistance Projection Welding

Two or more than two spot welds made simultaneously by making projection of w/p. Weld formation is localized & predetermined with the projection formation Electrodes are flat Projections help increase current density at the desired point Specially used for thicker welds & selective welding More electrode life Forming precise projections is added cost. Welding of a nut on the automotive chasis.

Resistance Upset/Butt Welding

Used for joining metal pieces end to end. Pressure is applied & maintained throughout the welding cycle Heat is obtained due to resistance to current at contact/abutting surfaces Pressure force is later on increased to induce forging effect after the current is cut off Pieces to be joined are clamped & fed in axially to meet & start the welding current Used in wire drawing industries

 Resistance Flash Butt Welding

One clamp is movable, other fixed Once the pieces to be joined are in light contact, the current is switched on to initiate a flash, while incandescent metal particles being expelled from the metal pieces, movable piece is fed at a controlled but accelerated rate Flashing continues & the pieces attain the welding temperature wherein the pressure increased to the peak value to forge the mating parts & get a sound weld Fins of the expelled molten metal can be later on removed

Metal Joining

Solid state welding

Base materials to be joined are heated to a temperature below or just up to the solidus temperature and then continuous pressure is applied to form the weld.

Cold Welding
Only mechanical pressure No application of heat At least one of the metals to be joined needs to be ductile with no extreme work hardening A metals surface adsorbs moisture & forms an oxide layer below it, the beneath lies the metal With the application of pressure, the oxide layer fragments to allow the base metal deform plastically & get welded at molecular level. Its a controlled deformation process This welding is characterized by a deep indention & significant reduction in the base metal thickness at the joint Suitable Al, Pb, Ag, Cu, Ni, Zn, Cd like ductile metals Not a feasible choice for high strength ferrous metals as it requires enormous pressure

 Cold Welding
Surface cleaning is critical
Base metal must be free of all the contaminants such as oil, grease, dirt etc. Degreasing & motor driven wire brushing is advisable Welding must take place within next half an hour or before

Joints
Butt joints is popular in wire drawing industry Lap joints are used in packaging industry

Equipments
Punch presses Rollers Static loads

Applications
Cladding & joining of many similar or dissimilar metals Especially for welding metals in the explosive areas To join miniature electrical/electronic parts e.g. small transistors Wire joining in the drawing process

Diffusion (Bonding) Welding

Transmigration of atoms Application of pressure at an elevated temperatures Faying surfaces actually grow together with atomic diffusion with no macroscopic deformation with no relative motion between the parts. Heating below 1100C fastens the diffusion process Individual peaks & valleys i.e. surface roughness are deformed at the microscopic level for surfaces to mate at the cohesive force level At an elevated temperatures thermodynamic instability causes movement/migrations at atomic level & helps diffusion. Base metals with different temperature gradients diffuse easily Gas pressure bonding Parts to be joined are held in contact to an elevated temperature of about 815C & an inert gas pressure is built up around simultaneously Vacuum fusion bonding In vacuum parts are pressed mechanically at an elevated temperature. Used for ferrous metals wherein the pressure & temperature required are more. Eutectic fusion bonding The filler material with low melting point is kept in between the faying surfaces. (Ti, Ni, Ag) Low temperature diffusion bonding process wherein the filler metal forms the eutectic compound with the base metals to aid diffusion. Low strength, less stable welds Cleaning is critical: Mechanical abrasion/grinding, Chemical etching etc is used

 Diffusion Bonding
Autogenous welds possible Continuous leak-tight welding Well suited for ceramics Cleaning & removal of oxide layer is difficult Not for mass production Time consuming & control of pressure, temperature w.r.t. time is difficult for dissimilar metals Applied in atomic industry, aerospace. The B1 Bomber & Space shuttle construction are classic applications of diffusion bonding Fabrication of composite materials

Ultrasonic Welding
Local application of high frequency vibratory energy to the mating surfaces held together under clamping pressure Vibration induces oscillating shear stress parallel to the weld interface of the clamped job. The combination of pressure & vibrations causes movement of the metal molecules & brings about a sound union between the mating surfaces Very fast process under moderate pressures with no application of heat, filler rod. Ultrasonic frequency (@20Khz up to 170KHz) is capable of disintegrating the surface oxide layer & disperses the moisture hence only degreasing is required prior to the weld.

 Equipment
Frequency converter
Provides high frequency electrical power at the designed frequency

Transducer-coupling system
Converts electrical power into elastic vibratory power & a coupling system including sonotrode (Ni based super alloy, high fatigue) tip which conducts the vibratory power to the weld zone. Pieces to be welded are clamped between the sonotrode tip & an Anvil

Anvil
It is analogous to the table where the job is placed & provides the necessary reaction to the clamping force. To prevent energy loss, the anvil assembly is structurally isolated form the welder frame. Both sonotrode tip & the anvil are faced with the high speed steel to impart wear resistance

Force application device

Provides static clamping force normal to the plane of weld.

Timer
Controls the weld intervals in different types of welds.

 Welding Variables
Clamping force
Ensures the contact between the welding tip & welding surfaces Proper clamping force permit the shortest weld interval Too much of a clamping force damages the surface in contact with the workpiece.

Power requirements
Higher for thicker/harder materials & less for thinner/soft materials Power means high frequency electrical watts delivered to the transducer.

Time
High power short weld time produces superior welds to low power longer weld time welds. Heavy sections require more welding time than thinner sections An ultrasonic weld usually takes few seconds to complete.

 Types of Ultrasonic welds

Spot welding
Individually spaced or overlapping spots

Ring Welding
Circular welds in the diameter ranging from 3mm to 50mm Also oval, square or rectangular shaped closed welds

Line Welding
Sonotrode tip instead of a spherical radius has elongated geometry so as to produce a narrow line welds

Continuous Seam Welding

Work-pieces are clamped between a rotating circular sonotrode tip & a traversing table. Continuous seam welds may overlap & produce total bonding over the extended surface area.

 Advantages
Surface preparation is not critical Not hazardous Dissimilar metals with vast difference in melting points can be joined Both thin & thick sections can be welded Virtually no HAZ & hence no micro-structural changes Welding of glass is possible

Disadvantages
High initial cost, not economical Possibility of cold welding of base metal with the tip or anvil Fatigue loading shortens the equipment life

Applications
For thinner work-pieces in lap joints Welding of glass Welding of electrical & electronic components Bi-metallic junctions In refrigeration & Air conditioning industry

Explosive Welding
During the 1st world war, steel shells of the exploded bombs occasionally stuck to the metallic objects in the vicinity, triggered this welding method Welding is induced with a high velocity movement triggered by a controlled detonation Workpieces to be welded are two plates, one is flyer, propelled by an explosive charge & the other plate is stationary, called parent plate. Explosive detonation velocity must be less than the sonic velocity of the flyer & parent plate material. There is a buffer plate may be of rubber above the flyer plate to avoid damage to its top surface. The explosive charge is kept above the buffer plate Parent plate rests on an anvil to limit the distortion of the final weld Once the explosive is ignited & detonated, the explosion wave-front travels over the flyer surface & introduces extremely high normal pressure & slight shear pressure between the flyer & the parent plate for the weld to happen. Slight melting takes place which very negligible hence this is a solid state welding process only. Explosives used: PETN, RDX, TNT, Datasheet (DU Pont)

 Advantages
No microstructural effects, no HAZ Very large surfaces can be bonded Good explosive weld is stronger than the weaker of the materials to be joined

Disadvantages
Noise & ground level vibrations Regulations relating the storage of explosives Thicker welds require high explosive charges Hard & brittle materials can not be processed

Applications
Welding, joining & cladding of metals Dissimilar metals can be joined with a strong metallurgical bonds Tantalum can be explosive welded to steel though its melting point is higher than the vapourization temperature of steel. Heat exchanger tubes & pressure vessels

Friction Welding & Inertia Welding

Heat obtained by mechanically induced sliding motion between rubbing surfaces. The workpieces are held together under pressure Temperatures created are high enough to aid the plastic flow & intermolecular bonding
Friction Welding Components are held in axial alignment. One component is held in the chuck & rotated, the non-rotating component is clamped & fed in axially to form a pressure contact with each other. This continues till the time sufficient heat is developed at the mating with an increased axial pressure to ensure sound weld. Inertia Welding One of the components is clamped in a stationary chuck or fixture, the other one is coupled with a flywheel & rotated until gains enough kinetic energy to initiate the welding process, once attained the drive to flywheel is cut off & both the workpieces are instantly brought in contact under pressure. The kinetic energy of the flywheel is converted into the heat & the forging action at the welding interface.

 Advantages
Simple, low power requirements High speed & low cost Not hazardous, no extra material cost

Disadvantages
Only butt joint is possible Molten metal expulsion i.e. flash needs to be removed Very rigid machine is required

Applications
Combinations of metals can be welded Production of shafts, gears & valves Production of cutting tools & their bodies Welding together the small forgings

Thermo-chemical Welding
Thermit welding
Heating produced by the superheated liquid metal & slag resulting from the chemical reaction between a metal (Iron) oxide & Aluminium or magnesium with or without the application of pressure. This is non-explosive, exothermic reaction. Temperature ranges form 2000C to 3000C. The mixture is ignited with a magnesium wire. The thermit mixture also serves the filler material, fusion weld. Else only suffices with the heat & aid the plastic metal flow, later the mating surfaces are forge welded with applied pressure, pressure weld. Thermit mixture is ignited in a crucible & poured into the mold cavity which houses the workpieces to be welded.

Thermit Welding

 Advantages
No costly power supply, on site repairs/welding is possible

Disadvantages
Economical for heavier sections & that too for ferrous metals only.

Applications
Rail-road repairs Repairing or welding of large crankshafts, machine frames Welding for cast pieces together For replacing broken teeth on large gears

Radiant Energy Welding

Electron beam welding
Heat source is a concentrated beam composed of high velocity electrons. The avalanche after hitting the workpiece surface looses the kinetic energy to generate heat. With or without filler metal. Butt joint can have a gap of 50 to 75. Most of the welds are continuous lines or circles, intermittent joints are possible though. Workpieces are cleaned, clamped & demagnetized prior welding to prevent deflection of the electron beam. Demagnetized by passing through induction coil at 50Hz. The process is carried out in a vacuum chamber. The weld progresses with the electron beam over the joint.

Electron beam welding

 Equipment
Electron beam gun
Tungsten filament when heated electrically at 2000C emits electrons, cathode repels the electron so formed, the repelled electrons get attracted towards the ring shaped anode & get accelerated because of the tremendous potential difference between anode & cathode. The beam thus formed is directed & concentrated through an electromagnetic focusing coil & the avalanche of electrons impinges on the joint.

Vacuum pumping system

Rectangular in shape, glass window to allow for in-process observation, evacuates the electron gun & work chamber of air & other suspended particles. Prevents scattering of the beam & allows the emission at lower temperature.

 Advantages
High quality & speed Narrow HAZ Can weld highly reactive metals Ti, Zr in vacuum Precise small welds possible Free of filler, flux, gas High initial cost Safety as emits X rays Highly skilled labour required Cost of vacuum is an ad-on

Disadvantages

Applications
Beam distance to weld can be varied without compromising with the quality of the weld, inaccessible parts can be welded. In space, aviation & automobile industry for welding reactive & refractory metals To assemble cams, gear clusters & driven shafts From thin foils to 50mm thick plates can be welded in one pass with more precision than TIG

Laser beam welding

Concentrated coherent light (light waves are identical & parallel) beam impinging on the surfaces to be joined. Laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. LASER is a device for concentrating light waves into a narrowly defined highly intense beam that can impart tremendous energy on a small area to produce fusion weld. Man made ruby crystal which is nothing but Aluminium Oxide doped with Chromium serves the purpose. The ends of the crystal are coated with silver serve as mirrors. The crystal has got an aperture for the beam to exit. The crystal is surrounded by a flash tube/gun filled with inert gas Xenon, the tube can convert the electrical energy into light. The flash tube is energized by the capacitors through electrical discharge. Once energized the Xenon converts the electrical energy into white light flashes. The ruby crystal gets exposed to these intense light flashes. The chromium atoms with the light energy raised to the peak energy level & immediately drop back to an intermediate energy level releasing heat. Eventually drop back to the original energy level with the evolution of discrete quantity of radiation in the form of red fluorescent light.

 The first such emission triggers it for the neighbouring atoms & the effect amplifies. Amplification increases manifolds with the multiple reflection from the silver coated ends of the crystal. Thus the chain reaction follows with continuous light flashes falling on the ruby crystal & the red fluorescent light beam wandering inside the crystal along the length. Finally the amplified beam bursts over a threshold & emerges out through the crystal aperture as a LASER beam. An optical focusing lens produces a small intense spot of LASER (light) on the workpiece surface This saturated optical energy is converted into heat on impingement on the workpiece surface A minute puddle is melted & frozen in microseconds hence no protection needed such as flux, gas, vacuum etc.

 Advantages
Welds can be made inside transparent glass or plastic housings Wide variety of materials can be welded There is no electrode, no contamination Inaccessible joints can be welded Narrow HAZ, no microstructural changes Light can be focused, controlled well, clean & needs no conduction

Disadvantages
High energy losses demand water cooling of the apparatus Depths achieved are limited

Applications
High energy light beam that can both weld & cut Electronics industry for integrated circuits welding To join hard high melting point metal alloys Welding of microminiaturized components. Joins wire-wire, sheet-sheet, wire-sheet, tube-sheet

Brazing
Metallic parts are heated above 427C & the joint is filled with a non-ferrous filler metal. The filler metal is distributed between the closely fitted surfaces of the joint by capillary action with no penetration into the base metal. The filler wets the joining surfaces, adheres & solidifies to form a brazed joint. The melting point of filler metal is above 427C but well below the melting point of the base metals. Closer the fitment between the joining surfaces better is the capillary action of filler. The filler metal can be placed on one side of the joint & can be pulled through the joint by capillary action. Surface cleaning i.e. degreasing & wire-brush cleaning is done prior to brazing. Lap, butt, scarf & Tee joints possible Flux if used has the melting point below that of filler, melts & cleans the joining surfaces by removing the oxide layer.

 Brazing fluxes & atmospheres

Flux
Dissolves the oxide & removes it to the top surface molten filler Spread ahead of the filler metal to protect the base metal Promote capillarity of filler by wetting the base metal surface Must not decompose & contaminate itself With low melting point than that of filler Sufficient surface tension to hold a film onto the base metal The above film must be ably displaced by the filler film on introduction Fused borax & Na, K, Li compounds with Bo & Fluorine. Chlorides & hydroxides with the addition of wetting agents serve as flux. Flux removal is as important; washing in hot water or in a chemical bath. Mechanical methods like wire-brushing, chipping

Atmospheres
Surrounds the brazed joint to prevent atmospheric contamination Could be a vacuum, Hydrogen gas or an inert gas atmosphere

 Advantages
Variety of dissimilar metals can be joined Pressure joints can be produced Workpieces of different thicknesses can be joined together Very thin materials can be brazed but cant be welded. Can join cast material to wrought material Good appearance.

Disadvantages
Larger surface areas can not be welded as difficult to preheat Requires tightly mating parts hence machining required for a close fit Brazing fluxes & fumes are toxic

Applications
To join cast iron to wrought iron, non metals to metals, porous metal components and fiber & dispersion strengthened materials

Types of brazing processes

Torch Brazing Oxy-fuel gas welding kit provides the heat for brazing. The job is cleaned & joint is spread with flux after preheating to brazing temperature, the filler metal is hand fed to the joint later. Simple & cheap. Relatively slow process. Flame application is limited. Joint must be accessible. Furnace Brazing For a number of like/similar joints to be brazed simultaneously. Components are preassembled & the filler is pre-placed over the joint. Hydrogen atmosphere is employed in the furnace to avoid contamination. The furnace is either gas fired or electrically heated. Precise temperature control is possible & uniform heating takes place. High initial cost. Castings & forgings up to 1.5Kg with similar joints design can be brazed. Vacuum Brazing Furnace atmosphere is evacuated i.e. vacuum instead of hydrogen. More precise & clean. Good for brazing reactive metals. Induction Brazing Very rapid heating, high production rate. Components are fluxed, filler is pre-placed & placed near an induction coil, heat transfer by induction. Eddy currents & hysteresis losses help increase the temperature. Frequency of the AC employed decides the depth of brazing joint possible. Higher the frequency, shallower the heating. Larger assemblies not possible Dip Brazing Components to be brazed are fluxed & dipped into the molten metal bath of filler held at brazing temperature by electrical heating in a graphite crucible. Fixtures needed to hold the assembly in the bath. Wet parts if dipped cause explosion. Oxidation is prevented. Resistance Brazing Brazing with standard spot welding machine. W & Mo electrodes are used. Rapid process. Joint must be accessible.

 Infrared Brazing
Radiant heat obtained below the red rays is utilized for brazing. Ring of high powered lamps is the source heat placed in a chamber around the parts/assemblies to be brazed. The chamber is evacuated or inert gas atmosphere is employed.

Carbon Arc Brazing

Carbon arc welding setup of one or twin electrodes is used.

Flow Brazing
Molten filler metals is poured into the pre-fluxed joints to be brazed.

Silver Brazing
Known as silver soldering/dry soldering. Silver alloy filler is used for brazing. Was confined to the ornaments industry, now used in joining tool bits to shank, making condensers & evaporators, making tractor fuel tanks. 45% Ag, 15% Cu, 16% Zn & 24% Cd with M.P. 607C is used. Flux can be applied in powder or paste form by dipping the filler rod or spraying or brushing. The removal of flux residues post-brazing is as critical to avoid corrosion. Ag alloy being extremely fluid, penetrates into the joint readily, leak-proof & strong. Very costly though.

Soldering
Melting point of the filler metal is less than 427C. Diffusion is secondary in contrast to brazing. The strength at elevated temperatures & corrosion resistance of the joint is poorer to brazed joint. Filler metals distributed into the joint by capillary action. Flux is used. Soldered joint is not meant for carrying loads, joint design should make the load act on base metal hence. Butt, lap, scarf joints possible. Solder is a non ferrous alloy of Zn, Al, Sn, Pb, Cd, Ag in combinations.

Soldering Methods
Soldering Iron
Soldering iron with a copper tip is electrically heated. Solder can be in wire form. Used in electronics applications. Portable.

Torch method
Gas torch. For larger part where iron wont do.

Dipping
Assembled & pre-fluxed parts dipped into molten solder bath. Used for electrical motor armatures, cans of all types, radiators

 Soldering Methods
Wave method
Assembled parts are carried over a conveyor touching the wave of molten solder, pumped out from the bath through a narrow slot.

Induction
Assembled & pre-fluxed parts with pre-placed solder are placed on conveyors or rotating tables & made to pass through high frequency induction coil. Current induced by coil into parts heats them up.

Resistance method
Parts with pre-placed flux & solder are sandwiched between electrodes.

Furnace/Hot Plate
Prepared joints are either heated in a protective furnace atmosphere or by placing on a flame or electrically heated plate.

Spraying
Solder is applied to the pre-fluxed part by a spraying gun. Used in automotive & electronics industry.

Ultrasonic
High frequency vibrations break the oxide layer & exposes the fresh base metal surface to wetting by solder. Flux is eliminated.

Condensation
A vessel open to atmosphere contains a boiling fluid heated by immersion heaters, forms a cloud of saturated vapour above the boiling liquid. The cool pre-fluxed & solder pre-placed joint suspended into the vessel, the vapour condenses on the joint loosing the latent heat of vapourization provides soldering temperature

 Soldering fluxes
Any solid, liquid or gaseous compound which when heated promotes/accelerates wetting of base metal surfaces to be joined. It helps in removing & excluding the surface oxide by reacting with those & forming a lighter slag which floats on the surface of the weld puddle & can be skimmed. Pre-cleaning of the joint surfaces of oxides, dirt etc. is utmost necessary for a good functioning of a flux. Post joining after cooling the joint needs to be cleaned again of flux residues.
Inorganic/Acid/Corrosive Flux Zn, N, K & Nh4 chlorides. Its an eutectic with very low melting point less than 200C. Either dissolves the oxide or loosens the layer to help float over the weld. Flux residue is corrosive & needs to be chipped off post brazing. Mild Fluxes Organic acids, less corrosive. Lactic, stearic, benzoic & glutamic acids. Residues should be removed post brazing. The fumes are toxic Non corrosive fluxes Rosin based flux, dont react with the base metals. Residue is non-corrosive. Gum exude from pine trees. Applied by splashing.

Defects in Welding
Cracks
Residual stresses induced during welding due to application of heat & pressure lead to cracking. Stress relieving heat treatment post welding is an option to reduce crack formation.

Lamellar tearing
Cracks running parallel to the workpiece surface due to very high residual stresses & poor ductility of the base metal.

Distortion
Amount of temperature difference at various points along the weld joint leads to uneven expansion/contraction of the base metals i.e. distortion of the joint. Using welding fixtures to clamp the base metals can limit the distortion effect.

Incomplete penetration
It is the distance from the weld top surface to the extent/root of the weld bead/nugget formed. Penetration decides the strength of the weld. Poor joint design, less arc currents, faster arc travel speeds

Inclusion
Slag or any other foreign material which does not get the chance to reach & float over the weld top surface, gets entrapped into the weld & lowers the strength of the weld. Too long arcs. Insufficient slag-cleaning of previous pass weld in the multi-pass welding.

 Porosity/Blow Holes/Gas Pockets Porosity is a group of small voids while blow holes/gas pockets are larger holes or cavities formed inside the weld. Occur mainly due to the entrapped gases. Gases form with atmospheric contamination of the weld & gets diffused into the molten weld pool. Gas solubility decreases with the cooling of weld pool thus entrapped gases exit the molten metal during cooling, if the cooling rate is too high for the gases to escape, they get entrapped & leave a void inside. Poor fusion The filler metal may not fuse properly with the base metal surfaces due to low arc current, faster arc travel speeds or due to poor weaving technique. Also if the base metal surfaces to be welded are not cleaned properly would not allow the filler to adhere. Incorrect joint design may also lead to poor fusion at the weld. Poor weld bead appearance If the weld bead is not deposited straight & the bead thickness varies from place to place due to poor skilled labour or due to an arc blow (wandering of arc due to the magnetic field around) Spatter The metal particles being thrown out of the flux shielded metal electrode & deposited on the base metals due to improper coating of flux, too high arc current or due to damp electrodes Undercutting A groove gets formed along sides of the weld bead due to improper welding technique & or too much of electrode weaving. Overlapping The weld metals flows form electrode over the parent metal surface stays there without getting properly fused or united with the surface.

Non-Destructive Testing(NDT)

Dye Penetrant Testing

Penetrant solution is applied to the surface of a precleaned component. The liquid is pulled into surface-breaking defects by capillary action. Excess penetrant material is carefully cleaned from the surface. A developer is applied to pull the trapped penetrant back to the surface where it is spread out and forms an indication. The indication is much easier to see than the actual defect.

Applications
To locate cracks, porosity, and other defects that break the surface of a material and have enough volume to trap and hold the penetrant material. To inspect large areas very efficiently and will work on most nonporous materials.

Main Advantages Large surface areas or large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly and at low cost. Parts with complex geometry are routinely inspected. Indications are produced directly on surface of the part providing a visual image of the discontinuity. Equipment investment is minimal. Disadvantages Detects only surface breaking defects. Surface preparation is critical as contaminants can mask defects. Requires a relatively smooth and nonporous surface. Post cleaning is necessary to remove chemicals. Requires multiple operations under controlled conditions. Chemical handling precautions are necessary (toxicity, fire, waste).

Magnetic Particle Testing

A magnetic field is established in a component made from ferromagnetic material. The magnetic lines of force travel through the material, and exit and reenter the material at the poles. Defects such as crack or voids cannot support as much flux, and force some of the flux outside of the part. Magnetic particles distributed over the component will be attracted to areas of flux leakage and produce a visible indication.

Applications
To inspect ferromagnetic materials (those that can be magnetized) for defects that result in a transition in the magnetic permeability of a material. Magnetic particle inspection can detect surface and near surface defects

Advantages Large surface areas of complex parts can be inspected rapidly. Can detect surface and subsurface flaws. Surface preparation is less critical than it is in penetrant inspection. Magnetic particle indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and form an image of the discontinuity. Equipment costs are relatively low. Disadvantages Only ferromagnetic materials can be inspected. Proper alignment of magnetic field and defect is critical. Large currents are needed for very large parts. Requires relatively smooth surface. Paint or other nonmagnetic coverings adversely affect sensitivity. Demagnetization and post cleaning is usually necessary.

Ultrasonic Testing
High frequency sound waves are sent into a material by use of a transducer. The sound waves travel through the material and are received by the same transducer or a second transducer. The amount of energy transmitted or received and the time the energy is received are analyzed to determine the presence of flaws. Changes in material thickness, and changes in material properties can also be measured.

Applications
To locate surface and subsurface defects in many materials including metals, plastics, and wood. To measure the thickness of materials and otherwise characterize properties of material based on sound velocity and attenuation measurements.

Advantages Depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other methods. Only single sided access is required. Provides distance information. Minimum part preparation is required. Method can be used for much more than just flaw detection. Disadvantages Surface must be accessible to probe and couplant. Skill and training required is more extensive than other technique. Surface finish and roughness can interfere with inspection. Thin parts may be difficult to inspect. Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam can go undetected. Reference standards are often needed.

Eddy Current Testing

Alternating electrical current is passed through a coil producing a magnetic field. When the coil is placed near a conductive material, the changing magnetic field induces current flow in the material. These currents travel in closed loops and are called eddy currents. Eddy currents produce their own magnetic field that can be measured and used to find flaws and characterize conductivity, permeability, and dimensional features.

Applications
To detect surface and near-surface flaws in conductive materials, such as the metals. Eddy current inspection is also used to sort materials based on electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability, and measures the thickness of thin sheets of metal and nonconductive coatings such as paint.

Advantages Detects surface and near surface defects. Test probe does not need to contact the part. Method can be used for more than flaw detection. Minimum part preparation is required. Disadvantages Only conductive materials can be inspected. Ferromagnetic materials require special treatment to address magnetic permeability. Depth of penetration is limited. Flaws that lie parallel to the inspection probe coil winding direction can go undetected. Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques. Surface finish and roughness may interfere. Reference standards are needed for setup.

Radiographic Testing
X-rays are used to produce images of objects using film or other detector that is sensitive to radiation. The test object is placed between the radiation source and detector. The thickness and the density of the material that X-rays must penetrate affects the amount of radiation reaching the detector. This variation in radiation produces an image on the detector that often shows internal features of the test object.

Applications
To inspect almost any material for surface and subsurface defects. X-rays can also be used to locates and measures internal features, confirm the location of hidden parts in an assembly, and to measure thickness of materials.

Advantages Can be used to inspect virtually all materials. Detects surface and subsurface defects. Ability to inspect complex shapes and multi-layered structures without disassembly. Minimum part preparation is required. Disadvantages Extensive operator training and skill required. Access to both sides of the structure is usually required. Orientation of the radiation beam to non-volumetric defects is critical. Field inspection of thick section can be time consuming. Relatively expensive equipment investment is required. Possible radiation hazard for personnel.