RSA Algorithm

Cryptography and Network Security Chapter 9
Private-Key Cryptography
traditional
private/secret/single key cryptography uses one key shared by both sender and receiver if this key is disclosed communications are compromised also is symmetric, parties are equal hence does not protect sender from receiver forging a message & claiming is sent by sender
Public-Key Cryptography
probably
most significant advance in the 3000 year history of cryptography uses two keys a public & a private key asymmetric since parties are not equal uses clever application of number theoretic concepts to function complements rather than replaces private key crypto
Why Public-Key Cryptography?

developed
to address two key issues:
key distribution how to have secure communications in general without having to trust a KDC with your key digital signatures how to verify a message comes intact from the claimed sender
public
invention due to Whitfield Diffie & Martin Hellman at Stanford Uni in 1976
known earlier in classified community
public-key/two-key/asymmetric cryptography involves the use of two keys:
a public-key, which may be known by anybody, and can be used to encrypt messages, and verify signatures a private-key, known only to the recipient, used to decrypt messages, and sign (create) signatures those who encrypt messages or verify signatures cannot decrypt messages or create signatures
is asymmetric because
Public-Key Characteristics
Public-Key algorithms rely on two keys where:
it is computationally infeasible to find decryption key knowing only algorithm & encryption key it is computationally easy to en/decrypt messages when the relevant (en/decrypt) key is known either of the two related keys can be used for encryption, with the other used for decryption (for some algorithms)
Public-Key Cryptosystems
Public-Key Applications
can

classify uses into 3 categories:
encryption/decryption (provide secrecy) digital signatures (provide authentication) key exchange (of session keys)
some
algorithms are suitable for all uses, others are specific to one
Security of Public Key Schemes
like private key schemes brute force exhaustive search attack is always theoretically possible but keys used are too large (>512bits) security relies on a large enough difference in difficulty between easy (en/decrypt) and hard (cryptanalyse) problems more generally the hard problem is known, but is made hard enough to be impractical to break requires the use of very large numbers hence is slow compared to private key schemes
RSA
by Rivest, Shamir & Adleman of MIT in 1977 best known & widely used public-key scheme based on exponentiation in a finite (Galois) field over integers modulo a prime
nb. exponentiation takes O((log n)3) operations (easy)
uses large integers (eg. 1024 bits) security due to cost of factoring large numbers
nb. factorization takes O(e log n log log n) operations (hard)
RSA Key Setup
each user generates a public/private key pair by: selecting two large primes at random - p, q computing their system modulus n=p.q
note (n)=(p-1)(q-1)
where 1<e<(n), gcd(e,(n))=1
selecting at random the encryption key e

solve following equation to find decryption key d
e.d=1 mod (n) and 0dn
publish their public encryption key: PU={e,n} keep secret private decryption key: PR={d,n}
RSA Use
to

encrypt a message M the sender:

obtains public key of recipient PU={e,n} computes: C = Me mod n, where 0M<n
to

decrypt the ciphertext C the owner:

uses their private key PR={d,n} computes: M = Cd mod n
note
that the message M must be smaller than the modulus n (block if needed)
Why RSA Works

because of Euler's Theorem:
a(n)mod n = 1 where gcd(a,n)=1

n=p.q (n)=(p-1)(q-1) carefully chose e & d to be inverses mod (n) hence e.d=1+k.(n) for some k
in RSA have:

hence : Cd = Me.d = M1+k.(n) = M1.(M(n))k = M1.(1)k = M1 = M mod n
RSA Example - Key Setup

1.
2.
3. 4.
5.
6.
7.
Select primes: p=17 & q=11 Compute n = pq =17 x 11=187 Compute (n)=(p1)(q-1)=16 x 10=160 Select e: gcd(e,160)=1; choose e=7 Determine d: de=1 mod 160 and d < 160 Value is d=23 since 23x7=161= 10x160+1 Publish public key PU={7,187} Keep secret private key PR={23,187}
RSA Example - En/Decryption

sample
RSA encryption/decryption is: given message M = 88 (nb. 88<187)

encryption:
C = 887 mod 187 = 11

decryption:
M = 1123 mod 187 = 88
Exponentiation

can use the Square and Multiply Algorithm a fast, efficient algorithm for exponentiation concept is based on repeatedly squaring base and multiplying in the ones that are needed to compute the result look at binary representation of exponent only takes O(log2 n) multiples for number n

eg. 75 = 74.71 = 3.7 = 10 mod 11 eg. 3129 = 3128.31 = 5.3 = 4 mod 11
Exponentiation
c = 0; f = 1 for i = k downto 0 do c = 2 x c f = (f x f) mod n if bi == 1 then c=c+1 f = (f x a) mod n return f
Efficient Encryption
encryption

uses exponentiation to power e hence if e small, this will be faster

often choose e=65537 (216-1) also see choices of e=3 or e=17
but
if e too small (eg e=3) can attack
using Chinese remainder theorem & 3 messages with different modulii
if
e fixed must ensure gcd(e,(n))=1

ie reject any p or q not relatively prime to e
Efficient Decryption
decryption
uses exponentiation to power d
this is likely large, insecure if not
can
use the Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT) to compute mod p & q separately. then combine to get desired answer
approx 4 times faster than doing directly
only
owner of private key who knows values of p & q can use this technique
RSA Key Generation

users

of RSA must:
determine two primes at random - p, q select either e or d and compute the other
primes

p,q must not be easily derived from modulus n=p.q

means must be sufficiently large typically guess and use probabilistic test
exponents
e, d are inverses, so use Inverse algorithm to compute the other
RSA Security
possible
approaches to attacking RSA are:
brute force key search (infeasible given size of numbers) mathematical attacks (based on difficulty of computing (n), by factoring modulus n) timing attacks (on running of decryption) chosen ciphertext attacks (given properties of RSA)
Factoring Problem
mathematical approach takes 3 forms:
factor n=p.q, hence compute (n) and then d determine (n) directly and compute d find d directly
have seen slow improvements over the years
as of May-05 best is 200 decimal digits (663) bit with LS
currently believe all equivalent to factoring
biggest improvement comes from improved algorithm

cf QS to GHFS to LS
currently assume 1024-2048 bit RSA is secure

ensure p, q of similar size and matching other constraints
Timing Attacks
developed by Paul Kocher in mid-1990s exploit timing variations in operations
eg. multiplying by small vs large number or IF's varying which instructions executed
infer operand size based on time taken RSA exploits time taken in exponentiation countermeasures

use constant exponentiation time add random delays blind values used in calculations
Chosen Ciphertext Attacks

RSA is vulnerable to a Chosen Ciphertext Attack (CCA) attackers chooses ciphertexts & gets decrypted plaintext back choose ciphertext to exploit properties of RSA to provide info to help cryptanalysis can counter with random pad of plaintext or use Optimal Asymmetric Encryption Padding (OASP)
Summary
have

considered:
principles of public-key cryptography RSA algorithm, implementation, security

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Cryptography and Network Security Chapter 9

Why Public-Key Cryptography?

to address two key issues:

public-key/two-key/asymmetric cryptography involves the use of two keys:

Public-Key algorithms rely on two keys where:

classify uses into 3 categories:

Security of Public Key Schemes

nb. exponentiation takes O((log n)3) operations (easy)

nb. factorization takes O(e log n log log n) operations (hard)

RSA Key Setup

selecting at random the encryption key e

e.d=1 mod (n) and 0dn

encrypt a message M the sender:

decrypt the ciphertext C the owner:

Why RSA Works

because of Euler's Theorem:

a(n)mod n = 1 where gcd(a,n)=1

hence : Cd = Me.d = M1+k.(n) = M1.(M(n))k = M1.(1)k = M1 = M mod n

RSA Example - Key Setup

RSA Example - En/Decryption

RSA encryption/decryption is: given message M = 88 (nb. 88<187)

C = 887 mod 187 = 11

M = 1123 mod 187 = 88

eg. 75 = 74.71 = 3.7 = 10 mod 11 eg. 3129 = 3128.31 = 5.3 = 4 mod 11

uses exponentiation to power e hence if e small, this will be faster

if e too small (eg e=3) can attack

using Chinese remainder theorem & 3 messages with different modulii

e fixed must ensure gcd(e,(n))=1

uses exponentiation to power d

this is likely large, insecure if not

approx 4 times faster than doing directly

RSA Key Generation

p,q must not be easily derived from modulus n=p.q

e, d are inverses, so use Inverse algorithm to compute the other

approaches to attacking RSA are:

mathematical approach takes 3 forms:

currently believe all equivalent to factoring

biggest improvement comes from improved algorithm

currently assume 1024-2048 bit RSA is secure

Chosen Ciphertext Attacks

principles of public-key cryptography RSA algorithm, implementation, security

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