ENERGY CONVERSION

DC GENERATOR
General Voltage Equation of DC Generator:

let E instantaneous voltage per conductor voltage
Ec are value of the DC generated EMF per conductor, volt
are effective flux per pole, weber
N speed in rev. per min (rpm)
P pole

T
- total flux count in one revolution per conductor
e
c
d/dt

T
weber /rev
Ec =
r
/t = weber /rev x N rev/min x 1 min/60sec
Ec = PN/ 60 volt
Let a =number of parallel path in the armature winding
= total of number of conductor to the generator
E = are DC generated conductor per parallel path = /a x PN/ 60
Weber/sec = Vdt E= x PN/ 60a

Note : number of parallel path, a= number of group of coils
Low voltages for lap winding a=mP
High voltages for wave winding a= 2m
M-plex of the winding
Example:A 6 pole DC generator has an armature winding with504
conductors connected in 6 parallel path. Calculate the generated
voltage in the machine if each pole produces 1.65 x 10
6
maxwells and
the armature speed is 1800 rpm.

Solution:

= (1.65 x 10
6
Maxwells) * (1 Wb/10
8
lines) = 1.65 x 10
-2
Wb


E = PN/ 60a
= [(504 cond) *(6 poles)*( 1.65 x 10
-2
Wb)*(1800rpm)]/(60*a)
= 249.5 Volts
DYNAMO a rotating electrical machine which an energy
transformation takes place

2 types of Dynamo:
Generator Converts mechanical energy to electrical energy
Motor Converts electrical energy to mechanical energy


*1 Volt = 1 Wb/sec
*1 Wb = 10
8
Maxwells
2 types of Producing EMF by Electromagnetic action:

By changing or varying the magnitudeof the flux acting n a coil or
conductor.
Faradays law of Electromagnetic Induction
-the EMF induced in the terminal of a coil is directly
proportional to the rate of change in flux.
e = -N (d/dt)
where: e = induced or transformed emf
N = number of turns
(d/dt) = change in flux per unit time (Wb/sec)

By relative movement between the magnetic field and the
conductor or coil.
e = Lv
where: e = generated emf
= flux density (Wb/m
2
)
L = eff. Length of the cord (m)
v = component velocity having a direction L to
the direction of flux

2 ways of Producing Relative Motion between the Conductor and
Magnetic field:
1.Field Stationary and Conductor moving DC generator
2.Conductor stationary and Magnetic moving (AC Gen)


Example: If a single conductor is arranged such that 34.29 cm of its
length passes through a form magnetic field of 8106 lines/cm
2
and
moves at the rate of 139.7cm in 1sec. Determine the generated or
induced emf at any instant.

Solution:
e = Lv ; lines=maxwell
where:
= (8106 lines/cm
2
) * (1Wb/10
8
lines)
e = (8106 Wb/cm
2
) * (34.29 cm) * (139.7cm/sec)
e = 38.83 x 10
-3
Wb/sec or Volt
TYPES OF DC GENERATORS:

1. Series DC Generator - it has a field winding
called series field winding connected in series
with the armature.
Formulas:
I
a
= I
L

E
b
= V
t
+ I
a
(R
a
+R
bc
+R
s
)
V
bc
= I
a
R
bc

P
g
= E
g
I
a

P
i
= P
a
+ SPL
P
i
= P
g
+ total losses
P
o
= V
t
I
L

%= (P
o
/P
i
) * 100%
where:
I
a
= armature current
I
f
= field current
I
L
= load current
R
f
= shunt resistance
R
bc
= brush contact resistance
R
s
= series field resistance
P
i
= input power
P
o
= output power
P
g
= generated power
SPL = stray power loss
E
g
= generated voltage
V
t
= terminal voltage
2. Self-excited Shunt DC Generator - it has a field winding
called shunt field winding which is connected across the
armature use for constant voltage application.
Formulas:
I
a
= I
L
+ I
f
E
g
= V
t
+ I
a
(R
a
+R
bc
)
V
t
= I
f
R
f
V
bc
= I
a
R
bc

P
g
= E
g
I
a

P
i
= P
g
+ SPL = P
o
+ total losses
P
o
= V
t
I
L

I
L
= P/(V
t
)
%= (P
o
/P
i
) * 100%
where:
I
a
= armature current
I
f
= field current
I
L
= load current
R
f
= shunt resistance
R
bc
= brush contact resistance
R
s
= series field resistance
P
i
= input power
P
o
= output power
P
g
= generated power
SPL = stray power loss
E
g
= generated voltage
V
t
= terminal voltage
Example Problem:
A 20kW 220V DC shunt generator has a brush
resistance of 0.005 ohms, an armature resistance
of 0.065 ohms and a shunt field resistance of 200
ohms. What power is develop in thee armature
when it delivers its rated load.

I
f
= V
t/
R
f
= 220V/(200 ohms) = 1.1 A

I
L
= P/(V
t
) = 20kW/220V = 90.9091 A

I
a
= I
L
+ I
f
= 90.9091A + 1.1A = 92 A

E
g
= V
t
+ I
a
(R
a
+R
bc
) = 220V + 92A(0.005 ohms + 0.065
ohms) = 226.44 V

P
g
= E
g
I
a
= 226.44V(92 A) = 20.8325 kW
3. Compound DC Generator - it has a shunt field
and series field winding either connected long
shunt or short shunt.
a. Short Shunt Compound DC Generator

Formulas:
I
a
= I
L
+ I
f

E
b
= V
t
+ I
a
(R
a
+R
bc
+R
s
)
V
t
= I
f
R
f
- I
L
R
f

V
bc
= I
a
R
bc

P
g
= E
g
I
a

P
i
= P
a
+ SPL
P
i
= P
g
+ total losses
P
o
= V
t
I
L

%= (P
o
/P
i
) * 100%

b. Long Shunt Compound DC Generator
Formulas:
I
a
= I
L
+ I
f

E
b
= V
t
+ I
a
(R
a
+R
bc
+R
s
)
V
t
= I
f
R
f

V
bc
= I
a
R
bc

P
g
= E
g
I
a

P
i
= P
a
+ SPL
P
i
= P
g
+ total losses
P
o
= V
t
I
L

%= (P
o
/P
i
) * 100%
Example Problem:
A 5kW 120v compound generator has an armature resistance of
0.23ohms, a series resistance of 0.04ohms and a short shunt resistance
of 57.50ohms. Assuming a long shunt connection and a voltage drop at
the brushes of 2v, Calculate the genereated EMF at full load.

Solution:

I
L =
P
o
/V
t
= 5000w/120v = 41.67A

I
f =
V
t
/R
f
= 120v/57.5ohms = 2.1A

I
a
= I
L
+ I
f
= 41.67A + 2.1A = 43.77A

E
b
= V
t
+ I
a
(R
a
+R
bc
+R
s
)

= V
t
+ I
a
R
a
+ I
a
R
bc
+ I
a
R
s


= 120v + 43.77A(0.23ohms) + 2v + 43.77A(0.04ohms)
Eb = 134v
TRANSFORMER
Exact Circuit Diagram of Transformer:
Formulas:
I
N
2
= I
E
2
+ I
o
2

core loss = E
P
I
E


where in:
I
N
= no load current
I
o
= magnetizing current
= current that will produce mutual flux
I
E
= no load energy current
= current that will supply core loss
G
U
= conductance
B
0
= susceptance
1) Equivalent Circuit Referred to the Primary
Schematic:
(no load when In is neglected)
Schematic:
Formulas:
R
e-p
= r
p
+ a
2
r
s

X
e-p
= x
p
+ a
2
x
s

Z
e-p
= sqrt(R
e-p
2
+ X
e-p
2
)
2) Equivalent Circuit Referred to the Secondary
(no load current is neglected)
Schematic:
Formulas:
R
e-s
= r
s
+ r
p /
a
2

X
e-s
= x
s
+ x
p/
a
2

Z
e-s
= sqrt(R
e-s
2
+ X
e-s
2
)
Example:
1.)A 100kVA 2400v/240v 60Hz transformer has the following constants:
r
p
= 0.42ohms r
s
= 0.0038ohms
x
p
= 0.72ohms x
s
= 0.0068ohms
Calculate the following:
R
e-p
and R
e-s

X
e-p
and X
e-s

Z
e-p
and Z
e-s

Solution:
a = V
p
/V
s
= 2400/240 = 10

a. R
e-p
= r
p
+ a
2
r
s
= 0.42ohms +10
2
(0.0038ohms) = 0.8ohms
R
e-s
= r
s
+ r
p /
a
2

= 0.0038ohms + 0.42ohms/(10
2
) = 0.008ohms
b. X
e-p
= x
p
+ a
2
x
s
= 0.72ohms + 10
2
(0.0068ohms) = 1.4ohms
X
e-s
= x
s
+ x
p/
a
2
= 0.0068ohms + 0.72ohms/(10
2
) = 0.014ohms
c. Z
e-p
= sqrt(R
e-p
2
+ X
e-p
2
) = 1.61ohms
Z
e-s
= sqrt(R
e-s
2
+ X
e-s
2
) = 0.0161ohms
2) Using the same data obtain, calculate the ff. voltage drop in primary
and secondary turns.

Solution:

I
p
= (kVA)/V
p
= (100kVA)/2400V = 41.67A

I
s
= (kVA)/V
s
= (100kVA)/240V = 416.7A

I
p
R
e-p
= (41.67A)(0.8 ohms) = 33.336V

I
s
R
e-s
= (416.7A)(0.008 ohms) = 3.3336V

I
p
X
e-p
= (41.67A)(1.4 ohms) = 58.338V

I
s
X
e-s
= (416.7A)(0.014 ohms) = 5.8338V
TEST FOR TRANSFORMER
1) Open Circuit Test
Schematic:
Formulas:
VMR = V
s-rated

WMR = rated core loss
2) Short Circuit Test
Schematic:
Formulas:
AMR = I
p-rated

WMR = rated copper loss
Example problem:
1) A 5kVA 2300/230 60Hz transformer.
short circuit test open circuit test
VMR = 142V VMR = 230V
AMR = 2.17A AMR = 1.01A
WMR = 110 Watts WMR = 40 Watts
Established the parameters, use the short circuit test data.

solution:

R
e-p
= WMR/AMR
2
= (110 Watts)/(2.17A)
2
= 23.36 ohms
Z
e-p
= VMR/AMR = (142V)/(2.17A) = 65.44 ohms
X
e-p
= sqrt.[(65.44)
2
-(23.36)
2
] = 61.13 ohms
R
e-s
= R
e-p
/ a
2
= 0.2336 ohms
Z
e-s
= Z
e-p
/ a
2
= 0.6544 ohms
X
e-s
= X
e-p
/ a
2
= 0.6113 ohms
TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY
ALL DAY EFFICIENCY - if the transformer primary is
connected to the source, whether loaded or not loaded,
there is core loss in the transformer.
- if the transformer is loaded, there is
copper loss in the transformer. at no load,
copper is negligible.


%d = (output energy/day * 100%)/(output energy/day +
energy losses)
Ex. Given 100kVA transformer connected 24 hrs. a day, daily load cycle:
6 hours 90kW load 0.9 p.f.
4 hours 25kW load 0.5 p.f.
14 hours 0kW load --
Core loss at rated voltage = 1000 Watts
Copper loss with full load current = 1680 Watts
Det. the all day efficiency.

Solution:

(90kW/0.9) = 100 kVA

(25kW/0.5) = 50 kVA

Energy output/day = (90*1000*6) + (25*1000*4) = 640,000 Watt-hours

Energy losses/day = (1000*24 ) + (1680*6) + [(0.5)
2
* (1680*4)] = 35,760
Watt-hours

%d = [640,000/(640,000+35,760)] * 100% = 94.71%
>>> f = IL ; f
Ib
= ( IL
in
)/11,300,000 <in lbs>
Where:
f = force acting upon the conductor (Newton)
= the flux density of electromagnetic field (W
b
/m
2
)
I = Current supplied by the conductor (Ampere)
L = eff. length of the conductor (meter)
>>> T = f * r
Where:
T = Torque produced in the armature per conductor (N-m)
f = force produced (N)
r = torque arm or radius of armature (m)
>>> T = * (I
a
/a) * z * r
Where:
I
a
= Armature current
a = Number of parallel paths
Types of DC Motor:
I. According to Main Field Winding
1) Series Motor
Formulas:
I
L
= I
a

V
t
= E
b
+ I
a
(R
a
+R
b
+R
s
)
V
bc
= I
a
R
bc

P
a
= E
a
I
a


P
o
= P
a
- SPL
P
o
= P
i
- total access
P
i
= V
t
I
L

%= (P
o
/P
i
) * 100%

SPEED CHARACTERISTICS - Variable Speed

TOURQUE CHARACTERISTICS - High Stating Torque

To reverse the direction of the rotation of this motor position of
the brush must be interchanged.
CAUTION! - Never operate this motor
without load for it will race a runway.
2) Shunt Motor
Formulas:
I
L
= I
a
+ I
f

V
t
= E
b
+ I
a
(R
a
+R
bc
)
V
t
= I
f
R
f

V
bc
= I
a
R
bc

P
a
= E
b
I
a


P
o
= P
a
- SPL
P
o
= P
i
- total access
P
i
= V
t
I
L

%= (P
o
/P
i
) * 100%

SPEED CHARACTERISTICS - Adjustable Speed

TOURQUE CHARACTERISTICS - Medium Stating Torque

To reverse the direction of the rotation of this motor
position of the brush must be interchanged or the connection of the
field winding must be reversed but not doing both.
CAUTION! - Never open the field det of
this motor while running for it will race
or runaway.
3) Compound Motor
>Types of Self-Excited Compound DC
Motor:
DC Motor according to electrical
connection of the series and shunt field
windings with the armature.

a) Short Shunt Compound Motor

b) Long Shunt Compound Motor
Example: A 250 V series DC motor with compensating windings has a total series
resistance R
A
+ R
S
of 0.08 O. The series field consists of 25 turns per pole and the
magnetization curve is
a) Find the speed and induced
torque of this motor when its
armature current is 50 A.
b) Calculate and plot its torque-
speed characteristic.
a) To analyze the behavior of a series
motor with saturation, we pick points
along the operating curve and find the
torque and speed for each point. Since
the magnetization curve is given in
units of mmf (ampere-turns) vs. E
A
for
a speed of 1200 rpm, calculated
values of E
A
must be compared to
equivalent values at 1200 rpm.
For I
A
= 50 A
( ) 250 50 0.08 246
A T A A S
E V I R R V = + = =
Since for a series motor I
A
= I
F
= 50 A, the mmf is
25 50 1250 NI A turns = = = F
From the magnetization curve, at this mmf, the internal generated voltage is
E
A0
= 80 V. Since the motor has compensating windings, the correct speed of the
motor will be
0
0
246
1200 3690
80
A
A
E
n n rpm
E
= = =
The resulting torque:
246 50
31.8
3690 2 60
A A
ind
E I
N m t
e t

= = =

-
Example 5.5: A 100 hp, 250 V compounded DC motor with compensating windings
has an internal resistance, including the series winding of 0.04 O. There are 1000
turns per pole on the shunt field and 3 turns per pole on the series windings. The
magnetization curve is shown below.
The field resistor has been adjusted for the
motor speed of 1200 rpm. The mechanical,
core, and stray losses may be neglected.
a) Find the no-load shunt field current.
Find the speed at I
A
= 200 A if the motor is b)
cumulatively; c) differentially compounded
a) At no load, the armature current is zero; therefore, the internal generated voltage
equals V
T
= 250 V. From the magnetization curve, a field current of 5 A will produce
a voltage E
A
= 250 V at 1200 rpm. Therefore, the shunt field current is 5 A.

b) When the armature current is 200 A, the internal generated voltage is
( ) 250 200 0.04 242
A T A A S
E V I R R V = + = =
The effective field current of a cumulatively compounded motor will be
*
3
5 200 5.6
1000
SE AR
F F A
F F
N
I I I A
N N
= + = + =
F
From the magnetization curve, E
A0
= 262 V at speed n
0
= 1200 rpm. The actual
motor speed is
0
0
242
1200 1108
262
A
A
E
n n rpm
E
= = =
c) The effective field current of a differentially compounded motor will be
*
3
5 200 4.4
1000
SE AR
F F A
F F
N
I I I A
N N
= = =
F
From the magnetization curve, E
A0
= 236 V at speed n
0
= 1200 rpm. The actual
motor speed is
0
0
242
1200 1230
236
A
A
E
n n rpm
E
= = =
II. According to Source of Excitation Current for the Field Winding

1) Self-Excited DC Motor
- The source of excitation current for the field winding
is from the supplied armature voltage.
2) Separately Excited DC Motor
- The source of excitation current for the field winding
is an independent external emf source.
Some Motor Applications:
a) Pumps
b) Fanblocks
c) Grinders
d) Elevators
e) Food Mixers
f) Conveyors
MOTOR COUNTER EMF
E
c
- emf generated in the armature
conductors whose direction or polarity is
opposite to that of the applied emf or
current to the armature conductors.
Formulas:
E
c
= (PNZ)/60a
V
a
= E
c
+ I
a
R
a

V
a
' = V
a
+ V
b
= E
c
+ I
a
R
a
+ V
b

V
b
= I
b
R
b

P
d
= E
c
I
a
= [(PNZ)/60a] * I
a

Example 5-1
The armature of a permanent-magnet dc generator has a
resistance of 1 and generates a voltage of 50 V when the speed
is 500 r/min. If the armature is connected to a source of 150 V,
calculate the following:

a. The starting current
b. The counter-emf when the motor runs at 1000 r/min. At 1460
r/min.
c. The armature current at 1000 r/min. At 1460 r/min.
Figure 5.3 See Example 5.1.
Solution
a. At the moment of start-up, the armature is stationary, so E
o
= 0 V (Fig. 5.3a). The starting
current is limited only by the armature resistance:

/ = E
s
/R = 150 V/1 = 150 A

b. Because the generator voltage is 50 V at 500 r/min, the cemf of the motor will be 100 V at
1000 r/min and 146 V at 1460 r/min.

c. The net voltage in the armature circuit at 1000 r/min is

E
s
- E
o
= 150 - 100 = 50 V

The corresponding armature current is

I = (E
s
- E
o
)/R
= 50/1 = 50 A (Fig.5.3b)

When the motor speed reaches 1460 r/min, the cemf will be 146 V, almost equal to the
source voltage. Under these conditions, the armature current is only


/ = (E
s
- E
o
)/R = (150 - 146)/1
= 4A

and the corresponding motor torque is much smaller than before (Fig. 5.3c).