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    This document discusses the endocrine system and hormones. It begins by defining a hormone as a substance secreted by specialized cells and released into the bloodstream to cause a response in target cells. It then discusses: - How the endocrine and nervous systems work together to maintain homeostasis. - The classification of hormones by origin, site of action, and molecular structure. Lipid-soluble hormones can pass through cell membranes while lipid-insoluble hormones bind to surface receptors. - The mechanisms of action for different hormone types. Peptide hormones use second messengers while steroid hormones directly enter cells and alter gene expression. - How hormone levels are controlled through negative feedback loops and responses to other hormones

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    Click To Edit Master Text Styles: - Second Level

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    25 views37 pages
    This document discusses the endocrine system and hormones. It begins by defining a hormone as a substance secreted by specialized cells and released into the bloodstream to cause a response in target cells. It then discusses: - How the endocrine and nervous systems work together to maintain homeostasis. - The classification of hormones by origin, site of action, and molecular structure. Lipid-soluble hormones can pass through cell membranes while lipid-insoluble hormones bind to surface receptors. - The mechanisms of action for different hormone types. Peptide hormones use second messengers while steroid hormones directly enter cells and alter gene expression. - How hormone levels are controlled through negative feedback loops and responses to other hormones

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    K-35 BakulEndoIntroGenFunc.ppt

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    This document discusses the endocrine system and hormones. It begins by defining a hormone as a substance secreted by specialized cells and released into the bloodstream to cause a response in target cells. It then discusses: - How the endocrine and nervous systems work together to maintain homeostasis. - The classification of hormones by origin, site of action, and molecular structure. Lipid-soluble hormones can pass through cell membranes while lipid-insoluble hormones bind to surface receptors. - The mechanisms of action for different hormone types. Peptide hormones use second messengers while steroid hormones directly enter cells and alter gene expression. - How hormone levels are controlled through negative feedback loops and responses to other hormones

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    25 views37 pages

    Click To Edit Master Text Styles: - Second Level

    Uploaded by

    jamaliganteng88
    This document discusses the endocrine system and hormones. It begins by defining a hormone as a substance secreted by specialized cells and released into the bloodstream to cause a response in target cells. It then discusses: - How the endocrine and nervous systems work together to maintain homeostasis. - The classification of hormones by origin, site of action, and molecular structure. Lipid-soluble hormones can pass through cell membranes while lipid-insoluble hormones bind to surface receptors. - The mechanisms of action for different hormone types. Peptide hormones use second messengers while steroid hormones directly enter cells and alter gene expression. - How hormone levels are controlled through negative feedback loops and responses to other hormones

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    Second level
    Third level
    Fourth level
    Fifth level

    Physiology Department
    Medical School, University of Sumatera Utara

    Click to edit Master text styles

    Body function
    controlled
    by
    endocrine
    and
    Second level
    nervous system
    Third level
    Fourth level
    Both maintain
    the internal environment in a
    Fifth level
    state of homeostasis
    It enable to alter in response to changes in
    the external environment

    Endocrine
    Click to edit Master text styles

    Endocrine
    system
    does
    this
    by
    means
    of
    Second level
    glands that
    chemicals or hormones.
    Thirdsecrete
    level
    Fourth level
    Endocrinerefers
    to a gland that releases the
    Fifth level
    chemicals directly into the celluler
    compartment and thence into blood stream

    Hormones :
    Definition
    Classification
    By origin
    By site of action
    By structure
    Mechanisms of action
    Lipid soluble hormones (cytoplasmic receptors)
    Lipid insoluble hormones (cell-surface receptors)
    Endocrine systems :
    Control of secretion
    Feedback
    Long-loop, short-loop

    Definition
    Hormone - a substance secreted by specialized cells,
    released in to the bloodstream, causing a response in
    target cells elsewhere in the body.
    Response is mediated by receptors that are specific to
    the hormone.

    Functions of Hormone

    Controlled behaviour and sexual function


    Controlled salt and water balance
    Maintain blood glucose
    Reproductive function
    Involve and influence metabolic system
    Lactation
    Body respons to stress
    Growth function
    etc

    Endocrine glands

    Classification
    Hormones can be classified by several properties
    1. Classification by site of action.
    Autocrine secretion - substance released by cell that
    affects the secreting cell itself
    (e.g. norepinephrine is released by a neurosecretory cell in
    the adrenal medulla, and norepinephrine itself inhibits
    further release by that cell - this is also an example of
    direct negative feedback)

    Paracrine secretion - substance released by cell that affects


    neighboring cells. Not released into bloodstream
    (e.g. histamine released at site of injury to constrict blood
    vessel walls and stop bleeding)
    Endocrine secretion - substance released by cell into
    bloodstream that affects distant cells.
    (e.g. testosterone is secreted by Leydig cells in testis, makes
    hair grow on your back)
    Though hormones may also have autocrine or paracrine
    actions, we're mainly concerned with endocrine actions

    Exocrine secretion - substance released by cell into a duct


    that leads to epithelial surface
    (onto skin or into gut). Action doesnt depend on receptors in
    target tissue. (e.g. sweat, saliva)
    Endocrine and exocrine secretions are glandular
    secretions; they come from specialized secretory cells that
    are clumped together to form a gland. Endocrine glands are
    sometimes called ductless glands.
    Note that a secretion may have several sites of action
    simultaneously.
    Example of norepinephrine above - autocrine action causes
    negative feedback on secretion. Simultaneously, endocrine
    action causes respiration rate to , peripheral blood vessels
    to contract, etc.

    Circulating & Local Hormones


    Circulating
    hormones
    act on distant targets
    travel in blood

    Local hormones
    act on neighboring
    cells or same cell
    that secreted them

    2. Classification by origin.
    Another set of terms, related to those just discussed, is
    commonly used to classify secretions, based both on
    origin and site of action
    Neurohormones - endocrine, source = nerve
    Glandular hormones - endocrine, source = gland
    Local Hormones - paracrine (source may not be gland)
    Pheromones - exocrine

    Chemical signaling by hormones: (a) Endocrine hormones are produced by cells of


    endocrine glands and transported by the blood to target cells. (b) Some hormones are
    released by neurosecretory cells, which function in both the nervous and endocrine
    systems. (c) A few hormones are secreted over short distances through tissue fluid.

    3. Classification by molecular structure.


    Amines- small molecules derived from amino acids. The
    catecholamines are epinephrine and norepinephrine,
    secreted by the adrenal medulla. Lipid insoluble
    Prostaglandins - fatty acids. Lipid soluble.

    Steroids - cyclic hydrocarbons derived from cholesterol. Lipid


    soluble
    Peptides and proteins - large, complex, structure can differ
    among species due to amino acid substitutions. Lipid
    insoluble.

    Steroids are fat soluble, so they bind to receptors in the


    cytoplasm, either in the cytosol or directly in the nucleus.

    When the steroid binds to the receptor, it disinhibits a


    DNA binding site on the receptor.
    The steroid-receptor complex then moves into the nucleus
    and activates or suppresses specific genes. By altering
    gene expression, steroids produce long-lasting effects.

    Action of Lipid-Soluble Hormones


    Hormone diffuses
    through phospholipid
    bilayer & into cell
    Binds to receptor
    turning on/off specific
    genes
    Gene copies are
    formed & direct
    synthesis of new
    proteins
    New protein alters
    cells activity

    Action of Lipidinsoluble Hormones

    The mechanism of peptide hormones


    (1) Peptide hormones are produced by an endocrine gland and carried by the blood. (2)
    Receptors on the plasma membrane of a target cell bind with the hormone. The hormone
    itself does not enter the cell. (3) An enzyme in the plasma membrane changes ATP to cyclic
    AMP (cAMP). The cAMP molecule is the second messenger, carrying the hormones signal
    through the cell. (4) Enzymes are activated, triggering a series of reactions. (5) These
    reactions bring about the changes controlled by the hormone.

    The mechanism of steroid hormones


    (1) Steroid hormones are released by endocrine cells and carried by the blood. (2)
    Because of their size and structure, steroid hormones enter the cell. (3) The hormones
    enter the nucleus, where they bind to receptor molecules. The hormone-receptor complex
    binds to DNA and regulates gene expression. (4) If the gene is switched on it will be
    transcribed and translated to protein. (5) The protein made in this way is the effect of the
    hormones release.

    Effects of hormones:
    mechanisms of hormone action on target tissue
    What does a hormone do when it arrives somewhere
    via the blood?

    1. First level controlling action: target/non-target.


    Hormones have their effects only on target tissues. Cells in
    target

    tissue

    have

    receptors,

    molecules

    that

    bind

    specifically to that hormone. In non-target tissue, cells have


    no receptors and are not affected by the hormone no matter
    how much of it is present.

    Hormone Receptors

    Hormones only affect target cells with specific


    membrane proteins called receptors

    2. Second level controlling action: receptor density.


    Target cells vary in the number of receptors they hold. A cell
    with many receptors is more strongly affected than one with
    few receptors, when exposed to the same amount of
    hormone.
    Receptor density for a given tissue changes through time.
    Down-regulation is a decrease in receptor density.
    Up-regulation is an increase in receptor density.
    Down and up-regulation commonly respond to the amount of
    hormone in circulation over the long-term, as a damping
    mechanism. If blood concentration of cortisol (a stress
    hormone from the cortex of the adrenal gland) is high for a
    long time, receptor densities will decrease to modulate the
    response.

    3. Third level of control: cellular mechanisms of action.


    Once they arrive at a target cell, peptide and steroid
    hormones have different mechanisms of action. The
    difference is based on fat-solubility, which determines
    whether or not the hormone can penetrate the target cell's
    plasma membrane (which is a lipid bilayer).
    Peptides are not fat soluble, so they bind to receptors on the
    target cell's surface, and act via a 'second messenger' in
    the cell. Second messenger is cyclic adenosine
    monophosphate. CAMP activates an enzyme (a protein
    kinase), which activates other proteins that produce the final
    'effect' once secreted from the cell. Peptides don't directly
    alter gene expression, so the effects are generally short-term.

    Mechanisms of Activation
    Hormones can alter the rate of cellular activity
    They do not alter the activity of the cell
    Cellular activity is controlled by:

    changes in PM permeability
    synthesis of regulatory molecules
    enzyme activity/de-activity
    induction of secretion
    stimulation of mitosis cell division

    Hormonal Activation
    Once bound to the cell will hormone affect the
    cell by one of two mechanisms
    Amino Acid based hormones and a second
    messenger system, the second messenger then
    brings about the desired affect
    Steroids diffuse into the cell and bind to
    receptors this then activates protein synthesis

    Time Scale of Activation


    The level of a given hormone in the blood
    reflects the balance between release and
    removal
    The persistence of a given hormone in the blood
    is called the Half Life
    Unlike the nervous system which has a rapid
    response which is short lived the endocrine
    system takes longer to have an effect but the
    effect last longer

    Hormone Release
    Negative feed back loops
    Endocrine gland stimulation
    Humoral - Ca+ levels and PTH/calcitonin
    - Glucose and Insulin
    Neural - Fight or Flight
    Hormonal - release is triggered by other hormones

    Nervous system regulation

    Endocrine systems.
    Up to now have just described hormones themselves,
    nothing about the ways they are integrated into systems that
    regulate physiology and behavior.
    Initiation of an endocrine response.
    Hormones generally secreted at some (non-zero) resting
    rate or baseline. Secretion regulated up or down by some
    signal.
    A chain of endocrine responses is usually initiated by
    neurohormone. Nerve cells are stimulated by neural
    activity, release a neurohormone that then alters secretion of
    second hormone. Neurohormones transduce a neural
    signal into an endocrine signal.

    Pulsatility in
    GnRH & LH release
    14
    12

    GnRH (pg/10 min)


    LH (ng/ml)

    10
    8
    6
    4
    2
    0
    12:00

    14:00

    Time of day

    16:00

    Modulation of an endocrine response.


    Sets of endocrine glands are usually organized into
    hierarchical loops that allow feedback to regulate responses.
    1. Feedforward circuit or open loop.
    2. Feedback or closed loops
    Short loop - hormone A affects secretion of hormone
    B, and hormone B affects secretion of A. No
    intervening steps.
    Long loop - hormone A affects secretion of B,
    hormone B affects secretion of C, and hormone C
    affects secretion of A. Intermediate steps.

    Feedback is usually negative, so that endocrine response


    is self-limiting; secretion modulates itself and does not 'run
    away'.
    Feedback is sometimes positive, when a quick, large
    response is necessary. When a system shows positive
    feedback, it will run away (like a microphone held near an
    amplifier) unless something changes to stop the positive
    feedback.

    Feedback loops
    Positive Feedback:
    Hormones stimulate each
    other, product of target cell
    increases production of
    initial hormone which
    causes even more
    secretion of the target cell
    product
    Tend to be rare and
    shortlived because they
    can quickly get out of
    control!
    Negative feedback:
    Short- and long-loops.
    Product inhibits further
    production of self and of
    stimulating hormone.
    NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

    Can operate on multiple


    levels.

    Negative
    feed
    back
    control

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