Introduction To Electrical Machines

Introduction to
Electrical
Machines
Erkan Mee
Coulombs Law
Remember
Like charges repel one another

Opposite charges attract one
another
The force of repulsion/attraction get
weaker as the charges are farther
apart.
Charges and Forces
Qa
Qb
Fa
Fb
Fa =-QaQb
Fb =+QbQa
4r2
In air8.85 x 10-12 Fm-1
|| = 1, Fa = -Fb
4r2
Unit vector r?
1 unit
4
2
These are all unit vectors, |i| = 1

They have a direction, and a magnitude of 1
adds direction to a quantity without changing its magnitude
e.g.... speed = 100m/s is a speed S
100(1/2, 1/2, 0)m/s is a velocity v =S , 100m/s, North-East ()
= (1/2, 1/2, 0) in this case.
Charges and Fields

Fa =-QaQb
Fb =+QbQa
4r2
Fa =+QaEb
4r2
Fb =+QbEa
Where Eb =-Qb
Where Ea = +Qa
4r2
4r2
Eb(r)
is the electric field set

Ea(r) is the electric field se
up by charge b at distance rup by charge a at distance r

(point a)
(point b)
Charges and Fields

d
+q
F
E
Voltage V
+
+
+
+
+
+
V
E = -V/d
F = +q(-V/d)
F = qE again
Where E is the
field set up
inside the
capacitor
Charges and Fields

V
0
|E|
0
E = -V/d
Several Charges?
+Qc
+Qd
-Qe
+Qa
-Qb
Ea
Eb
Ec
Ed
Ee
Several Charges?
+Qc
+Qd
-Qe
+Qa
-Qb
ETOT
Ea
Eb
Ec
Ed
Ee
ETOT
Charge Density : 3D
3D
(r) in C/mm3
1mm3 = C
1mm3
(ra) > (rb)
Charge Density : 2D
(ra) > (rb)
2D
(r) in C/mm2
1mm2 = C
1mm2
Charge Density : 1D
(ra) > (rb)
1D
(r) in C/mm
1mm = C
1mm
Gausss Law
Gausss Law : Crude

Analogy
Try to measure the rain on a rainy day
Method 1 : count the raindrops as they fall,

and add them up
cf Coulombs Law
Method 2 : Hold up an umbrella (a surface)

and see how wet it gets.
cf Gausss Law
Method 1 is a divide and-conquer or
microscopic approach
Method 2 is a more gross or macroscopic
approach
They must give the same answer.
Electric Field Lines
1C
1C
These are all correct as E-field lines are simply cartoons

For now, adopt a drawing scheme such that 1C = 1 E-line.
1C
Lines of Electric Field

How many field lines
cross out of the circle?
8C 8 lines
16C 16 lines
32C
16C
8C
32C 32 lines
Gausss Law : Cartoon

Version
The number of electric field lines
leaving a closed surface is equal to

the charge enclosed by that surface
(E-field-lines) Charge Enclosed
N Coulombs N lines
Gausss Law Proper ( )
(E-lines) proportional to (Charge Enclosed)

D = E
D.ds
= (r)dv
= (r)dxdydz
D.ds = charge enclosed
= 0 = 8.85 x 10-12 in a vacuum
Digression/Revision
Area Integrals
This area gets

wetter!
Area Integrals whats

happening?
Rainfall
ds
Rainfall
ds
This area gets

wetter!

happening?
ds
Rainfall
ds
Rainfall
Clearly, as the areas are the same, the angle between the
area and the rainfall matters

happening?
Rainfall, R
ds
Rainfall, R
ds
Extreme cases
at 180 - maximum rainfall
at 90, no rainfall
Flux of rain (rainfall)

through an area ds
Fluxrain = R.ds
|R||ds|cos()
Rds cos()
Fluxrain = 0 for 90 cos() = 0

Fluxrain = -Rds for 180 cos() = -1
Generally, Fluxrain = Rds cos()
-1 < cos() < +1
Potential
Potential Start Simply
V
V
Remember the capacitor
0
|E|
0
E = -V/d
E=-(rate of change
of V with distance)
E = -V/d
Should really be E = -dV/dx
And if V = Mx+c, dV/dx = M = constant

Then E = -M as shown
In 3D, dV/dx becomes

(dV/dx, dV/dy, dV/dz) = V, so
E = - V = -(dV/dx, dV/dy, dV/dz)
E = - V
Potential : Analogy
100M
150M
250M
200M
300M
These contour lines are lines of equal gravitational potential energy mgh
Where they are close together, the effect of the gravitational field is strong
The field acts in a direction perpendicular to the countours
and it points in a negative direction (i.e. thats the way you will fall!)
Potential - comments
Walking around a contour expends

no energy
In a perfect world
i.e. no-one moves the hill as you walk!
Walking to the top of the hill and

back again expends no energy
In a perfect world
i.e. the hill stays still and you recoup the

energy you expend while climbing as you
descend (using your internal generator!)
Electric Fields and

Potentials are the Same
5V
Me
ta
l el
ect
ro d
e
5V
1V
2V
0V
ge rs
lta ou
Vo nt
co
Me
tal
ele
ctr
od
e
3V
E-Field lines
4V
Potential Difference :
Formal Definition ( )
The Potential Difference (Voltage)

between a and b is the the work
done to move a 1C charge
from a to b
5V
Me
ta
bx
Me
tal
ele
ctr
od
e
l el
ect
ro d
e
5V
E-Field lines
0V
a x 1C
Formal Definition ( )
The Potential Difference (Voltage)

between a and b is the the work
done to move a 1C charge
from a to b
In 1D, Work = -Fd
In 3D, Work = -F.dl
Force = F = QE =+1E = E
Work done = -E.dl
Total Work done = -abE.dl
Line integral revision
dl
dl
dl
dl
dl
dl
E
E
E
E
dl
dl
dl
dl
dl
dl
dl
Potential Difference =
- abE.dl
abis
a line integral
In general mathematics, the value of

a line integral depends upon the
path dl takes from a to b
In this potential calculation, the path
does not matter
So : choose a convenient path
Worked Example Point
charge Q
(b)
Place a 1C charge at (a)
Move it to (b)
Work done in this movement
is the potential difference
(voltage) between (a) and (b)
(a)
1C
Q
Capacitance
Some Capacitors
conductor
insulator
Capacitance : Definition
Take two chunks of

conductor
Separated by insulator
Apply a potential V
between them
Charge will appear on the
conductors, with Q+ = +CV
on the higher-potential
and Q- = -CV on the lower
potential conductor
C depends upon both the
geometry and the nature
of the material that is the
insulator
Q+ = +CV
+++++++++++
+++++++++++
+++++++++++
V
- --- -------0--------
V
C
=
Q-
Magnetic Fields
The Story so Far

Maxwells 1st Equation
D.ds charge enclosed v dv
or .D v
Maxwells 2nd Equation
B.ds 0
or .B 0
What creates a magnetic

field?
B = H
What else creates a

magnetic field B?
B
Stationary charge
no B-field
Moving charge
non-zero B-field
Stationary charge
no B-field
Current = Moving
Charges
B
Direction of B, H fields?
Right hand : thumb =
current,
fingers = B-field
Magnitude of B, H fields?
Take an
(infinitesimally small)
piece of wire
Pass a current I
through it
The magnitude of the
ring of field directly
around it is given by
dB = oIdl
4r2
So, for example,
B1>B2>B3
r3
r2
dl
r1
B1
B2
B3
If only it were that

simple
Unfortunately,
dB = oIdl
4r2
is a special case
The element Idl
creates B-fields
elsewhere (i.e.
everywhere) as shown
and, for example,
B4<B1, B5<B2, B6<B3
as the Idl B
distance increases
r3
r6
r2
dl
r1
r5
r4
B4
B1
B5
B2
B3
B6
The Biot-Savart Law

0I dl a$r
dB
4 r 2
dB
r
r
I
dl
Worked Example of BiotSavart Law : Infinite Line of

Current
$
0I dl a r
dB
4 r 2
r
r
I
dl
dB B
Worked Example of BiotSavart Law : Infinite Line of

Current
0I dl a$r
dB
4 r 2
dB
.
R r sin
r
dl
dl
rd
I
rd
rd
sin
, dl
dl
sin
Amperes Law
Try this
Create a contour for integration (a circle seems to make sense here!)

I $
B
a from the Biot-Savart law (a$ is tangential to circle)
2 R
I $
Calculate
B.dl
a.dl note : B and dl are parallel
2
B.dl
Bdl B
dl , ( B = constant)
I
I
B
.
dl
dl
2 R I
2 R
2 R
dl
B
B
B.dl I
B.dl I
H.dl I
B
dl
dl
B
H.dl = Current Ienclosed
This is, as it turns out, Amperes Law

and is the magnetic-field equivalent
of Gausss law
If we define H=B, B=H, then
H.dl = Current enclosed = J.ds
I4
I1
I3
I2
I6
I5
Take a closed contour

These currents are enclosed
And these currents are not!
H.dl = Current Ienclosed

I4
I1
I3
I2
Faradays Law
Changing Magnetic Field

Current and Voltage
B, H
N
Current
Faradays Law
B, H
N
magnetic = total magnetic flux = B.ds

VLOOP = -E.dl
Faradays Law : Rate of change of magnetic flux through a loop
= emf (voltage) around the loop
E.dl
loop
d mag
dt
dB

.ds
surface dt
Lenzs Law
B, H
N
Iinduced
V-, V+
Lenzs Law emf appears and current flows that creates a

magnetic field that opposes the change in this case an
increase hence the negative sign in Faradays Law.
Lenzs Law
B, H
Iinduced
V+, V-
Lenzs Law emf appears and current flows that creates a

magnetic field that opposes the change in this case an
decrease hence the negative sign in Faradays Law.
Faradays Law
Rate of change of magnetic flux through a loop = emf around the loop
dB
.ds
E.dl
loop
surface dt
dB
or ... E
in differential form
dt
Maxwell so far
Integral form
Differential form
Maxwell#1 : D.ds dV
Maxwell#2 : B.ds 0
.D
Maxwell#3 :
.
H.dl Jds
dB
Maxwell#4 :
.ds
E.dl
dt
H J
.B 0
dB
E
dt
Note :
Maxwell#1, Maxwell#2 and Maxwell#4 are complete
Maxwell#3 is still incomplete (just!)
Whats the point of

Faraday?
Take a circuit
Pass a current through it
Magnetic field is created (Ampere)
Put another circuit nearby
If the induced magnetic field
changes in time, Faradays Law
causes an emf and current to appear
This is Magnetic Inductance and the
Mutual Inductance between two
circuits expresses the strength with
which they couple inductively.
It can be used to signal to/from
(and provide power for) remote
circuits, or circuits embedded in
(say) the body.
Inductance
Take a circuit
Pass a current through it
Magnetic field is created (Ampere)
This field passes through the circuit
that created it
If the magnetic field is time-varying,
it induces an emf and thus
a current in the circuit.
This emf opposes the change in
magnetic field that caused it and
thus induces a current in the opposite
direction from the current that caused
the magnetic field in the first place!
inductance
This is (self-)
It depends upon the geometry of the
circuit and what it contains (bits of
iron?).
SON

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Introduction to

Like charges repel one another

Charges and Forces

These are all unit vectors, |i| = 1

Charges and Fields

is the electric field set

up by charge b at distance rup by charge a at distance r

Charges and Fields

Charges and Fields

(ra) > (rb)

Gausss Law : Crude

Try to measure the rain on a rainy day

Method 1 : count the raindrops as they fall,

Method 2 : Hold up an umbrella (a surface)

Electric Field Lines

These are all correct as E-field lines are simply cartoons

Lines of Electric Field

Gausss Law : Cartoon

leaving a closed surface is equal to

Gausss Law Proper ( )

(E-lines) proportional to (Charge Enclosed)

This area gets

Area Integrals whats

This area gets

Area Integrals whats

Area Integrals whats

Flux of rain (rainfall)

Fluxrain = 0 for 90 cos() = 0

-1 < cos() < +1

Potential Start Simply

Should really be E = -dV/dx

And if V = Mx+c, dV/dx = M = constant

In 3D, dV/dx becomes

Walking around a contour expends

i.e. no-one moves the hill as you walk!

Walking to the top of the hill and

i.e. the hill stays still and you recoup the

Electric Fields and

The Potential Difference (Voltage)

The Potential Difference (Voltage)

Line integral revision

In general mathematics, the value of

Take two chunks of

The Story so Far

What creates a magnetic

What else creates a

If only it were that

The Biot-Savart Law

Worked Example of BiotSavart Law : Infinite Line of

Worked Example of BiotSavart Law : Infinite Line of

Create a contour for integration (a circle seems to make sense here!)

H.dl = Current Ienclosed

This is, as it turns out, Amperes Law

Take a closed contour

H.dl = Current Ienclosed

Changing Magnetic Field

magnetic = total magnetic flux = B.ds

Lenzs Law emf appears and current flows that creates a