I.

Rome’s Government (pages 427–429)

A. Patricians and plebeians were the two classes
of people in Rome. Patricians were wealthy
landowners. Plebeians were artisans,
shopkeepers, and owners of small farms.
B. The top two government officials were called
consuls. They headed the army and ran the
government. They had the power to veto, or
reject, the other’s decision. Another
important group of officials were the
praetors, who interpreted laws. The Senate
was the most important lawmaking body.
Another important legislative body was the
Assembly of Centuries.
I. Rome’s Government (pages 427–429)
C. Plebeians challenged the class system by
going on strike. The Romans then allowed
the plebeians to set up their own legislative
group called the Council of the Plebes.
D. Today, a dictator is an oppressive ruler. In
the Roman Republic, a dictator was a
person who served the people and ruled
temporarily during emergencies.
E. Cincinnatus, the best-known early Roman
dictator, led an army of men to defeat a
powerful enemy.
I. Rome’s Government (pages 427–429)

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I. Rome’s Government (pages 427–429)

How are modern dictators different

from the Roman dictators?
Roman dictators were appointed by the Senate
in times of great danger. When the danger was
over, the dictators gave up their power. Modern
dictators often seize power, frequently using
military force. They do not often give up their
power voluntarily, instead ruling until they are
removed from office by force.
II. Roman Law (page 431)
A. One of Rome’s major gifts to the world was
its system of law.
B. Rome’s first code of laws was the Twelve
Tables, adopted about 451 B.C.
C. The Twelve Tables became the foundation
for all future Roman laws. They set the idea
that all free Roman citizens had the right to
be treated equally by the legal system.
II. Roman Law (page 431)
D. The Romans also wrote a group of laws
called the Law of Nations. These laws
were for everyone—non-Romans as well
as Romans.
E. Roman justice included the idea that a
person was seen as innocent until proven
guilty. In addition, people accused of crimes
could defend themselves before a judge.
F. The Romans also began the new concept of
the “rule of law.”
II. Roman Law (page 431)

What was the “rule of law,” and why

was it important?
The rule of law stated that the law applied to
everyone equally and that all people—the poor,
the rich, and government leaders—had to follow
the laws and would be treated the same way by
the legal system.
III. Rome Expands (page 432–434)
A. Carthage, a state on the coast of North
Africa, was a powerful enemy of Rome.
B. The First Punic War began as a dispute
between Rome and Carthage over the island
of Sicily. The war continued for 20 years
before Rome won.
III. Rome Expands (page 432–434)
C. The Second Punic War began after
Carthage expanded into Spain. Rome
helped the people of Spain rebel.
D. Hannibal was a great Carthaginian general
who fought in the Second Punic War.
E. At the Battle of Cannae, Hannibal’s forces
overpowered the Romans.
III. Rome Expands (page 432–434)
III. Rome Expands (page 432–434)
F. The Roman general Scipio led his forces
to defeat the Carthaginians at the Battle
of Zama.
G. Rome destroyed Carthage in the Third
Punic War.
H. Rome also took all of Greece and
Macedonia and parts of Africa during the
Punic Wars.
III. Rome Expands (page 432–434)

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III. Rome Expands (page 432–434)

Why did Rome create a navy?

Carthage was a great sea power. To beat the
Carthaginians, the Romans had to build a great
naval fleet.
• During the Roman Republic, the government
changed as the plebeians, or lower classes,
and the patricians, or ruling class, struggled
for power.
• Rome introduced the idea of the rule of law
treating all citizens equally in court.
• Beginning in 264 B.C., Rome fought and won a
series of wars with Carthage and other powers
and gained control of the Mediterranean region.
1. Who were the top government
officials in the Roman Republic,
and what were their duties?
The top government officials included consuls,
praetors, and tribunes. The consuls headed the
army and ran the government. The praetors
were the judges who interpreted laws. The
tribunes represented the plebeians.
2. What does mare nostrum mean, and
why did the Romans use the term?
Mare nostrum means “our sea.” The Romans
used the term to indicate their control of the
Mediterranean Sea.
 (3) CA CS1.

3. Sequencing Information Draw a

diagram to describe the sequence of
events from the start of the First
Punic War to the start of the Second
Punic War.

Rome builds fleet; defeats Carthage at sea in

241 B.C.; encourages people in Spain to rebel.
 (4) CA 6RC2.0; CA CS3. (5) CA 6RC2.4

4. Geography Skills Where was

Carthage located, and why did it
compete with Rome?
Carthage was located on the coast of North
Africa. It competed with Rome because both
shared the Mediterranean Sea and used it to
trade with other peoples.
5. Summarize What other conquests did
Rome carry out during the period of
the Punic Wars?
Rome conquered Macedonia, Greece, and
Asia Minor.
 (6) CA HI2.

6. The Big Ideas How did the creation of

the Twelve Tables change the legal
system in Rome?
The creation of the Twelve Tables led to the
principles that law protects citizens’ rights, that a
person is innocent until proven guilty, and that a
judge must look at evidence before ruling.
End Of Section 2 Slide
 By the end of the Third Punic War, Rome ruled
the Mediterranean world. All was not well, however.
Closer to home, the republic faced increasing
dangers that would soon lead to its end.
• The use of enslaved labor hurt farmers,
increased poverty and corruption, and brought
the army into politics. (page 436)
• Military hero Julius Caesar seized power and
made reforms. (page 438)
• The Roman Republic, weakened by civil wars,
became an empire under Augustus. (page 440)
Julius Caesar latifundia
Octavian triumvirate
Antony
Cicero despite
Augustus estate
sole
Rubicon foundation
Actium
Julius Caesar was born to a patrician family.
According to myth, Julius’s ancestor was the
goddess Venus.
I. Trouble in the Republic (pages 436–437)
A. The gap between the rich patricians and
the poor plebeians grew, and farmers
especially suffered.
B. Latifundia were large farming estates
created when wealthy Romans bought
small farms.
C. Farmers whose land had been bought
traveled to cities to try to find jobs.
I. Trouble in the Republic (pages 436–437)
D. Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus were two
wealthy brothers who tried to reform
government. They were killed by senators
who opposed their reforms.
E. Marius, a former military leader, was
appointed counsel and promised land to
poor men if they became soldiers.
F. In 82 B.C., Sulla drove his enemies out of
Rome and declared himself dictator. He
weakened the Council of the Plebes and
strengthened the Senate.
I. Trouble in the Republic (pages 436–437)

What happened after Sulla stepped

down from office?
Men who saw Sulla gain power by using an
army decided to follow the same path, and civil
wars broke out.
II. Julius Caesar (pages 438–439)
A. A triumvirate is a political alliance of three
people. Julius Caesar, Crassus, and
Pompey formed a triumvirate after Sulla
left office.
B. Julius Caesar marched on Rome and
defeated Pompey’s forces after Crassus
died in battle.
II. Julius Caesar (pages 438–439)
C. Caesar declared himself dictator of Rome for
life and made many changes to Rome.
D. The Julian calendar was created during
Caesar’s rule. This calendar was changed
slightly in A.D. 1582 but is basically still in use
today.
E. Caesar had many enemies as well as
supporters. His enemies plotted to kill him
and succeeded on March 15, called the “Ides
of March.”
II. Julius Caesar (pages 438–439)
II. Julius Caesar (pages 438–439)

What is the origin of the phrase

“crossing the Rubicon” and what
does it mean?
The phrase refers to Caesar’s return to Italy. By
crossing the Rubicon, Caesar knew he would
begin a civil war and that he would either be
victorious or be destroyed. Today it means
passing a point of no return.
III. Rome Becomes an Empire (pages 440–441)
A. Octavian was Caesar’s grandnephew, who
had inherited Caesar’s wealth.
B. Antony and Lepidus were two of Caesar’s
top generals.
C. Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed the
Second Triumvirate, although the triumvirate
began to quarrel immediately.
D. Antony fell in love with Cleopatra VII and
formed an alliance with her. Octavian
declared war on Antony to keep him from
taking over the republic.
III. Rome Becomes an Empire (pages 440–441)
E. Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra’s
forces at the Battle of Actium.
F. Cicero was a political leader, writer, and
public speaker who favored representative
government and supported Octavian.
G. Octavian took the title Augustus, meaning
“revered one.” This began the Roman
Empire.
III. Rome Becomes an Empire (pages 440–441)

How was Octavian like Caesar? How

was he different?
Like Caesar, Octavian declared himself ruler for
life. However, he also knew that many people
favored a republic. Octavian reformed
government so that a Senate with limited power
existed while he remained in charge.
• As the gap between the ruling class and the poor
in Rome increased, a number of reforms failed,
and generals began to gather power.
• Julius Caesar became dictator and carried out
reforms to aid Rome’s poor. Later he was
assassinated by members of the Senate.
• Caesar’s grandnephew Octavian defeated
Antony and Cleopatra and became Augustus,
the first Roman emperor.
1. What is a triumvirate?
A triumvirate is a political alliance of three.
2. Who was Cicero, and how did he
influence the writers of the United
States Constitution?
Cicero was a political leader whose ideas on
representative government with limited powers
influenced the writers of the U.S. Constitution.
 (3) CA CS2.

3. Understanding Cause and Effect

Draw a diagram like the one below.
Fill in the chain of events that led to
Julius Caesar taking power.

Your list should include Caesar’s military

victories and social programs.
 (4) CA 6RC2.4 (5) CA HR5; HI3.

4. Summarize What reforms did the

Gracchus brothers suggest?
The Gracchus brothers wanted to give public
land to landless farmers and taxes to farmers.

5. The Big Ideas How did failures in

leadership help bring about the fall of
the republic? What new leaders took
power as a result?
Leaders did not address problems in the
republic. As a result, military leaders took power.
 (6) CA 6RC2.0

6. Analyze What reforms did Julius

Caesar put in place that increased
his popularity with poor and
working-class Romans?
Julius Caesar provided land for the poor,
created new jobs, and ordered landholders to
hire free workers.
End of Section 3
 You learned in Section 3 that when Octavian
became Augustus, the Roman world began to
change. The republic gave way to an empire, and
peace and prosperity spread throughout the
Mediterranean.
• By expanding the empire and reorganizing the
military and government, Augustus created a
new era of prosperity. (page 445)
• Rome’s system of roads, aqueducts, ports, and
common currency made the empire rich and
prosperous. (page 446)
Rhine River Pax Romana
Danube River aqueduct
Puteoli currency
Ostia

successor
Caligula commit
Nero capable
Hadrian
The first fire brigade, or fire department, was
created by Augustus.
I. The Emperor Augustus (pages 445–446)
A. The Pax Romana is the long era of peace
that began with Augustus.
B. Augustus built a permanent, professional
army and created a special unit, called
the Praetorian Guard, which guarded him.
C. Augustus restored Rome’s splendor and
fed the hungry poor of Rome with
imported grain.
I. The Emperor Augustus (pages 445–446)
D. Augustus appointed a proconsul, or
governor, for each province.
E. Augustus reformed the tax system by
making tax collectors permanent workers,
and he reformed the legal system by
creating a set of laws for people who were
not citizens.
F. The Julio-Claudian emperors were the rulers
who followed Augustus: Tiberius, Caligula,
Claudius, and Nero. Caligula and Nero were
cruel leaders, and Tiberius and Claudius
were competent rulers.
I. The Emperor Augustus (pages 445–446)

What lands did Augustus conquer

during his reign?
Augustus’s army conquered Spain, Gaul, and
lands today known as Austria, Hungary,
Romania, and Bulgaria.
II. Unity and Prosperity (pages 446–451)
A. Vespasian restored order to Rome after the
chaos following Nero’s death.
B. The Jewish temple in Jerusalem was
destroyed by Vespasian’s armies in the
effort to put down a Jewish rebellion.
C. The rulers known as the good emperors
were Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus
Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. The Roman
Empire flourished under their rule.
II. Unity and Prosperity (pages 446–451)
II. Unity and Prosperity (pages 446–451)
D. Aqueducts are human-made water
channels for carrying water long distances.
They were created during the prosperous
times of the good emperors.
E. The Roman Empire became one of the
largest empires in history during the reign of
the good emperors. The different people of
the Roman Empire were united by Roman
law, Roman rule, and their shared identity
as Romans.
II. Unity and Prosperity (pages 446–451)
II. Unity and Prosperity (pages 446–451)
F. Most people were farmers who grew olives,
grapes, and grains. Other people were
artisans who traded with others inside and
outside the Roman Empire.
G. Roads and currency—a system of money—
were important to the prosperous trade
that developed.
H. An economic gap existed between rich
merchants, shopkeepers, and skilled
workers and poor farmers and city dwellers.
II. Unity and Prosperity (pages 446–451)

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II. Unity and Prosperity (pages 446–451)

Why were aqueducts important?

The aqueducts were the source of water for
most people in Rome.
• Augustus conquered new lands and created a
professional military and a system of proconsuls.
He improved the tax system and the legal
system, ushering in the Pax Romana.
• Under Vespasian, his sons, and the five good
emperors, Romans continued to be prosperous.
They built an elaborate system of roads and
developed a common currency that promoted
trade and economic growth.