Topic 6…

T&D
Training and Development
Programme

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 Training and Development
Programme
The use of formal training and development
programmes has a number of advantages.
1. It commits management to support the training
and development function both in terms of
funding and actual involvement.
2. It is a sign of transparency.

3. It strengthens career development.

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 A good T&D programme comprises 3
phases:
Planning Implementation Evaluation
training focus conducting appraising or
training needs assessment
coordinating evaluating
setting programme
providing
objectives and content
 controlling and
selecting training methods monitoring the feedback
identifying trainees programme
identifying trainers

timing

budgeting

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(1) The Planning Phase
Training Focus
It is needed because the organization cannot
possibly train every employee that wishes
to be trained, otherwise it d be a costly and
un useful investment.
The focus may be;
 on the priority functions on each year or

 on the skills that may be lacking in an

organization.

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Training Needs Assessment (TNA)
Is a diagnostic step
A TNA establishes the current and potential
difference between the abilities, which employees
should possess, and the abilities, which they
possess in order to perform their jobs effectively
and efficiently.
The difference between the two positions indicates
that the employee is whether
 adequately qualified,

 over-qualified,

 lacks certain skills. These skill deficiencies

become the basis of the training efforts.
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Training Needs Assessment (TNA)

Employee Ability Ability

Training employee employee
= should possess - currently
Needs
possesses

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Training Needs Assessment (TNA)
There are two main types of assessing training
needs:

(i) Organisation-wide TNA

(ii) The Job-related TNA

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(1) Organisation-wide TNA - (Macro TNA)
It is aimed at establishing broad-based
objectives such as the investigation of the
training requirements of all categories of
employees in the whole organisation, or the
investigation of a single category of
employees in the whole organisation.
An organization-wide training needs
assessment can be conducted by performing
the inclusive tasks in the following three
steps: preparation, data collection and
assessment, and recommendations

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Step One: Preparation
The training officer performs the following tasks:
 Establishing the objectives of the TNA,

 Establishing the time period covered by the TNA, when

to submit the TNA, and to whom.
 Contacting all parties involved in the exercise, ask for
their co-operation, and arrange out a suitable time table
with them.
 Determining the sources and the kinds of information he
or she will use. The likely sources of information for a
TNA include the organisation structure, job
specifications, company policies, production plans,
marketing plans, performance appraisal records, training
reports, etc.

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Step Two: Data Collection and
Analysis
At this step, the training officer, gathers
information that establishes the current level
of employee abilities, and the required level
of abilities after considering the following
factors:
 The external influences
 The organisation’s strategy
 The internal influences

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Step Three: Recommendations
Training officer ranks the needs on the
following bases:
 Strikingly critical skill deficiencies.

 Relevance of skill needs to

organizational performance and

survival.
Afterwards a report that requests the
training needs assessment is written and
submitted to the authority.
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(2) The Job-Related TNA- (MicroTNA)
It is aimed at the investigation of the training
requirements of specific jobs in the
organisation.
There are three main approaches to analyzing
jobs for training purposes:
 the comprehensive,

 the key task, and

 the problem-centered approaches.

The results of a job related TNA are usually

presented in the form of a job specification.

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(2) The Job-Related TNA- (MicroTNA)
Comprehensive Assessment
(i)

Under the comprehensive approach, all

aspects of the job are examined. Every
task of the job, such as task objectives,
skill requirements, performance
standards, and procedures, are carefully
analysed in order to come up with the
training needs of each job that assist in
the choice of the type of training and the
appropriate training method.

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 (ii) Key Task Assessment
The key task approach aims to identify and
analyse just the key tasks in a job - not the
whole job.
The key tasks in a job are those duties in which
careful and adequate performance is essential
to the success of the job. It is suitable for such
jobs as managerial jobs where the job
comprises a large number of different tasks, not
all of which are critical to effective performance
of the job.
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(iii) Problem-Centred Assessment
Under this approach, the identified problem
tasks in a job are analysed so as to help
design a suitable training programme to solve
the problems.
For instance, a company may identify that its
accountants have performance difficulties with
mathematical skills. The training officer, then
concentrates his or her assessment on this aspect
of the accountant’s work in order to come up with a
sharper description of the difficulty being faced and
which would help in tailor-designing a suitable
training programme to alleviate this difficulty.

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Setting Programme Objectives
Training objectives are clear aims that the
training programme intends to achieve.
They should state clearly the desired
behaviour expected from the training
programme. In effect, training objectives
indicate the type of learning expected out
of the training programme, and are as a
result used eventually as benchmarks for
evaluating the training programme.

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Identifying Programme Content
The contents of a training programme refer to its items
or constituent themes, courses, or subjects, which
are aimed at enabling the programme to achieve the
desired training objectives.
The contents should determine the success of the
programme, and thus justify the organisation’s
investment in the programme. Suitable programme
contents appeal to the trainees: they convince them
to find the programme relevant to their needs and
motivate them to learn as planned. Obviously, the
contents of a programme influence the trainer in the
choice of the training methods.

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Selecting the Training Method
In selecting a suitable T&D method, the HR
department should be guided by the following
criteria;
(i) Cost of the Method
(ii) Programme Content.
(iii) Number of Trainees involved
(iv) Training venue and facilities.
(v) Trainee capabilities.
(vi) Trainer’s capabilities and preference.
(vii) Learning principles.

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Identifying the Trainees
The following are the main guidelines that govern the
selection of employees for training:
(i) Basic Education
(ii) Tenure of Service
(iii) Employee’s Loyalty and Commitment
(iv) Government Regulations
(v) Availability of Employees
(vi) Employee Preference
(vii) Career Development Programme
(viii) Union Regulations

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 Identifying the Trainer
The following are criteria for selecting the right trainer;
 Qualifications of his team members, experience,

up-to-date training materials, degree of

commitment, ability to create conducive learning
environment etc.
 Price of training programme

 Content of training programme

 Time (the duration of the training programme

quoted by the trainer will influence the client’s

choice)

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Timing

it involves;
 setting the convenient date when the

programme should begin,

 timetabling of the programme contents

 determination of the duration of the training

programme,

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Budgeting
The following items are normally included in the budget
of a training programme:
 Outfit Allowances, training fees

 Transport and Travelling

 Insurance

 Subsistence allowances

 Accommodation

 Incidental Allowances

 Book Allowances

 Equipment e.g. television sets, VCR, overhead

projectors, video&photo cameras, photocopiers,
computers, flip chart stands etc.
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(2) Implementation Phase
In the implementation phase two main functions
are performed:
1. conducting the programme,

2. co-ordination, monitoring and control.

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(3) Evaluation and Feedback
A comprehensive questionnaire is usually
administered on the participants at the end of
the programme to assess the reaction of the
participants.

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 Methods of Training
ON-THE-JOB TRAINING OFF-THE-JOB TRAINING
METHODS METHODS
 Lecturing
 Job instruction
 Video presentations
 Job rotation
 Vestibules
 Apprenticeship  Role-playing
 Coaching  Behaviour modelling
 Case study
 Simulation
 Self-study
 Programmed learning
 Committee assignments
 Study tours

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(1) Job Instruction OJT

Job instruction is training that is conducted

directly on the job, i.e. the trainer and the
trainee are both on the job
 The trainer could be either a professional

trainer, but very often, the supervisor or a

selected fellow employee.
 Job instruction is the most commonly used

method in the training of non-managerial

employees in most industrial organisations.
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(2) Job Rotation
It involves training employees to master a large
variety of jobs, the trainees are moved from one job
to another before they are finally fixed on a
particular job.
 it makes the employee versatile

 It improves transferability and promotability

 it enables employees to get a wide view of the

organisation’s performance processes

 It reduces employee turnover, by giving the

trainees consistent anticipation for promotion and

transfer.
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However job rotation method has the
following disadvantages;
 It is costly and time-consuming to the organisation.
 Trainees spend a short time on each job during the
rotation period, under conditions of expecting to
move on, such that they do not feel sufficient sense
of commitment and accountability for their actions,
which is a risk to the quality of goods and or
services, which the organisation produces
 It probably ends up making them "masters of none".
 This method has been heavily criticized by college
graduates that it frustrates them by subjecting them
to junior tasks

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(3) Apprenticeship

Apprenticeship is a training method, which

involves learning from an expert employee or
employees.
This method may be supplemented by
classroom training away from the job, where
the trainees attend formal training
programmes in or outside their organisation.

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It has the following advantages;
 It involves high learner participation therefore
accelerates the apprentice's learning speed.
 It exposes the learner to real job experience,
which accords him transferability of knowledge
between theory and practice.
 It gives the learner ample opportunities to repeat
the tasks he is taught.
 The close interaction between the apprentice
and the master enables the apprentice to
receive prompt feedback, which he may use to
reinforce correct job behaviour as well as rectify
incorrect job behaviour if any.

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(4) Coaching
Coaching is usually less formal than apprenticeship in
that it is provided when required rather than being
part of a formally drawn programme. It is carried
out by the trainee’s supervisor.
 Because coaching is rather informal it usually
carries the disadvantages of interruptions from the
coach's substantive business, and lack of
seriousness from the trainee.
(Coaching as discussed here should be distinguished
from football team coaching which is in fact job
instruction learning).

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(5) Lecturing
Lecturing involves a presentation of learning
materials where the presenter speaks, makes
limited use of visual and audio aids, allows
limited interaction with the participants, and
the participants listen and make notes.
It is mainly one-way communication from the
speaker to the listeners. It relies on
communication to impact the learning
process.

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The advantages;
 The presenter can communicate everything
he wishes to communicate within the shortest
time.
 The trainer can organize his presentation in

the desired logical sequence.

However, it has the disadvantages of being
less effective as a learning method as a
result of low participation, transference,
feedback, and repetition.

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(6) Audio-Visual Presentations
Video, television, and slide presentations as
methods of learning, have great similarities
with lecturing.
The advantages of using this method include;
 Time economy

 Logical organisation of what is to be

presented
 Amusement and enjoyment (Participants are

said to prefer video presentation to lectures).

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(7) Vestibules
This is a method where facilities, tools and
equipment similar to those that trainees
would find at their jobs are set up in the
training venue for their training.
 Because of their similarity with the real
working environment, vestibules have the
advantages of high transference, repetition,
and participation.
 However, vestibules are expensive to set up.

 Are very common in hotel training

programmes.
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(8) Role Plays
It is a technique of asking trainees to assume a
desired identity and role. (eg a supervisor and a
manager may be asked to switch roles. Then
both would be given a typical work problem and
asked to respond as each would expect the
other to do).
 Role-plays have the advantages of high

participation, relevance, feedback, and

transference. Role-plays are a useful method in
attitude changing and interpersonal skills
development programmes.

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(9) Behaviour Modelling
It means imitating, matching or copying behaviour
through the process of observing an ideal
person.
 It could be videotaped and watched and receive

critics. During the playback, the trainee is able to

see the positive and negative consequences that
face the person who does not master and use
the model behaviour. In this way the trainee gets
the benefit of feedback.
 It has the advantages of high relevance,

transference, repetition and feedback.

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(10)Case Studies
It involves analysing a real or hypothetical
phenomenal situation where trainees learn the
actions that other people have taken under the
circumstances of the case.
The trainees get opportunities to employ their
technical analytical principles, and thus develop
their decision-making skills.
Their advantages are as follows;
 They draw high participation from the trainees

 Are very useful for management training

 They provide feedback and repetition.

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 (11)Simulation
It is available in two forms: mechanical simulation,
and computer games.
 A mechanical simulator is a facility that replicates
the major features of the trainee’s actual work
situation. (eg a driving simulator, which is used
in the training of drivers).
 Games are commonly used to train managers
and other levels of business personnel. (Eg the
trainee and the computer may then bargain on
such items as salaries and benefits).
 Business and management games can be
bought from the software markets

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(12)Self-Study
it involves a trainee's independent learning from
carefully prepared instructional material. This
method is particularly useful where employees are
geographically dispersed, but also where the
learning requires little interaction either among the
trainees or between the trainees and the trainers.
It provides learners with advantages of high
participation, repetition, relevance and feedback.
However it has low transference and the likelihood of
dishonest trainees looking up for provided answers
instead of working them out by themselves.

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(13)Committee Assignments
Under this method an employee is assigned to
serve on an important committee in order to
broaden his or her experience.
The employee is given direct access to
experience and contribute to the planning and
decision making processes of the
organisation.
Unless the committees comprise carefully
selected members, it could be a poor learning
method.
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(14)Study Tours
In a study tour the trainees are able to
relate concepts learnt earlier (probably
theoretically) with practical processes.
Study tours are common to the training
of college students. They accord the
trainee the advantages of relevance,
repetition, participation, and feedback.

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 Problems Facing Training and
Development
1. Poor data bank.
2. Poor choice of trainers
3. Shortage of funds
4. Shortage of training institutions and programmes
5. Poor top management support
6. Poorly conducted training needs assessments
7. Untrainable employees
8. Training vs. Production
9. Employee Turnover
10. Poor evaluation of the training programmes
11. Shortage of HRM experts

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