ENGINEERING

ELECTROMAGNETICS
UNIT - 1
ELECTROSTATIC
FIELD - I
 ELECTROMAGNETISM
• Electromagnetism is one of the fundamental
event for almost all the phenomena in our daily
life.
• Electromagnetism spans both electric fields
and magnetic fields.
• When observed individually, electricity and
magnetism behave differently.
• When unified, both are interdependent on each
other and cannot be separated from each
other.
 ELECTRIC & MAGNETIC
FIELDS
ELECTRIC FIELD MAGNETIC FIELD

Magnetic fields arise from

Electric fields arise from voltage.
current flows.
Their strength is measured in Their strength is measured in
Volts per meter (V/m) amperes per meter (A/m).
An electric field can be present
Magnetic fields exist as soon
even when a device is switched
as a device is switched on and
off.
current flows.

Field strength decreases with Field strength decreases with

distance from the source. distance from the source.
Most building materials shield Magnetic fields are not
electric fields to some extent. attenuated by most materials.
 APPLICATIONS OF
ELECTROMAGNETS
• An electric bell – uses an electromagnet to rapidly
pull the hammer over to the gong then release it.
• For sorting scrap – an electromagnet can be used
to pick up and put down magnetic materials,
sorting them from non-magnetic scrap.
• In switches – a small current can be used to
operate an electromagnet, which in turn can
control another circuit in which a much larger
current might be flowing. This isolates the large
current from the person operating the switch,
making it safer.
 Orthogonal Coordinate Systems:
1. Cartesian Coordinates z
P(x,y,z)
Or
y
Rectangular Coordinates
P (x, y, z) x

z
z
P(r, Φ, z)
2. Cylindrical Coordinates
P (r, Φ, z) r y
x Φ
X=r cos Φ,
Y=r sin Φ,
Z=z z
3. Spherical Coordinates P(r, θ, Φ)
θ r
P (r, θ, Φ)
X=r sin θ cos Φ, y
x Φ
Y=r sin θ sin Φ,
Z=z cos θ
 z z
P(r, θ, Φ)
Cartesian Coordinates P(x,y,z)
θ r P(x, y, z) y

y x
x Φ

Spherical Coordinates Cylindrical Coordinates

P(r, θ, Φ) z P(r, Φ, z)

z
P(r, Φ, z)

r y
x Φ
Cartesian coordinate system
• dx, dy, dz are infinitesimal
dz displacements along X,Y,Z.
Z
dy • Volume element is given by
dx dv = dx dy dz
P(x,y,z)
• Area element is
Y da = dx dy or dy dz or dxdz
• Line element is
X dx or dy or dz
Ex: Show that volume of a cube of
edge a is a3.
a a a
V   dv   dx  dy  dz  a 3
v 0 0 0
 Cartesian Coordinates

Differential quantities:

Length:

dl  xˆdx  yˆdy  zˆdz
Area:

ds x  xˆdydz

ds y  yˆdxdz

ds z  zˆdxdy
Volume:

dv  dxdydz
 AREA INTEGRALS

• integration over 2 “delta” distances dy

dx
Example:
y
7 6

6
AREA =   dy dx
3 2
= 16

2 Note that: z = constant

3 7 x
Cylindrical coordinate system (r,φ,z)

Y
r
φ

X
 Cylindrical coordinate system (r,φ,z)

Z
• dr is infinitesimal displacement
along r, r dφ is along φ and dz
dz r dφ
is along z direction.
dr • Volume element is given by
dv = dr r dφ dz
• Limits of integration of r, θ, φ are
dφ Y 0<r<∞ , 0<z <∞ , o<φ <2π
φ r Ex: Show that Volume of a Cylinder of
dr r dφ radius ‘R’ and height ‘H’ is π R2H .
X

φ is azimuth angle
Volume of a Cylinder of radius ‘R’ and
Height ‘H’
V   dv   r dr d dz
v
R 2 H
  rdr  d  dz
0 0 0

  R2H

Try yourself:
1) Surface Area of Cylinder = 2πRH .
2) Base Area of Cylinder (Disc)=πR2.
Cylindrical Coordinates: Visualization of Volume element

Differential quantities:

Length element:

dl  aˆr dr  aˆ rd  aˆ z dz
Area element:

dsr  aˆ r rddz

ds  aˆ drdz

ds z  aˆ z rdrd
Volume element:

dv  r dr d dz

Limits of integration of r, θ, φ are 0<r<∞ , 0<z <∞ , o<φ <2π

Spherically Symmetric problem
(r,θ,φ)
Z

θ
r
Y
φ

X
 Spherical polar coordinate system (r,θ,φ)

• dr is infinitesimal displacement
along r, r dθ is along θ and r
sinθ dφ is along φ direction.
Z P(r, θ, φ) • Volume element is given by
P
dr dv = dr r dθ r sinθ dφ
r cos θ
θ r dθ • Limits of integration of r, θ, φ are
r
0<r<∞ , 0<θ <π , o<φ <2π
Y
Ex: Show that Volume of a sphere of
radius R is 4/3 π R3 .
φ r sinθ r sinθ dφ

X
θ is zenith angle( starts from +Z reaches up to –Z) ,
φ is azimuth angle (starts from +X direction and lies in x-y plane only)
Volume of a sphere of radius ‘R’

V   dv   r dr sin  d d
2

v
R  2
  r dr  sin  d  d
2

0 0 0
3
R 4
 . 2 . 2   R 3
3 3
Try Yourself:
1)Surface area of the sphere= 4πR2 .
Spherical Coordinates: Volume element in space
 Points to remember
System Coordinates dl1 dl2 dl3
Cartesian x,y,z dx dy dz
Cylindrical r, φ,z dr rdφ dz
Spherical r,θ, φ dr rdθ r sinθdφ

• Volume element : dv = dl1 dl2 dl3

• If Volume charge density ‘ρ’ depends only on ‘r’:
Q   dv    4r dr 2

v l
Ex: For Circular plate: NOTE
Area element da=r dr dφ in both the
coordinate systems (because θ=900)
 Vector Analysis
• What about A.B=?, AxB=? and AB=?
• Scalar and Vector product:
A.B=ABcosθ Scalar or
(Axi+Ayj+Azk).(Bxi+Byj+Bzk)=AxBx+AyBy+AzBz

AxB=ABSinθ n Vector n
(Result of cross product is always
perpendicular(normal) to the plane
B
of A and B
A
 Gradient, Divergence and Curl

The Del Operator

• Gradient of a scalar function is a

vector quantity.
f Vector

• Divergence of a vector is a scalar

quantity.
. A
• Curl of a vector is a vector quantity.
xA
Fundamental theorem for divergence and
curl
• Gauss divergence
theorem:

 (.V )dv   V .da

v s
Conversion of volume integral to surface integral and vice verse.

• Stokes curl theorem

 ( x V ).da   V .dl
s l
Conversion of surface integral to line integral and vice verse.
 Visualization of curl

• Consider placing a small “paddle wheel” in a flowing stream of water, as

shown below. The wheel axis points into the screen, and the water velocity
decreases with increasing depth.
• The wheel will rotate clockwise, and give a curl component that points into
the screen (right-hand rule).
• Positioning the wheel at all three orthogonal orientations will yield
measurements of all three components of the curl. Note that the curl is
directed normal to both the field and the direction of its variation.
 Operator in Cartesian Coordinate System

T ˆ T ˆ T ˆ
Gradient: T  i j k as
x y z
gradT: points the direction of maximum increase of the
function T.

Divergence: Vx Vy Vz where

 V    V  Vxiˆ  Vy ˆj  Vz kˆ
x y z
Curl:   Vz Vy   Vx Vz   Vy Vx 
 V    iˆ     ˆj    kˆ
 y z   z x   x y 
 Operator in Cylindrical Coordinate System

Volume Element: dv  rdrddz

T 1 T ˆ T
Gradient:
T  r̂   ẑ
r r  z

1 1 V Vz V  V rˆ  V ˆ  V zˆ
Divergence:  V   rVr    r  z
r r r  z

  1 Vz V   Vr Vz  1   Vr 

Curl:   V     r̂       rV    ẑ
ˆ
 r  z   z r  r  r  
 Operator In Spherical Coordinate System

Gradient : T 1 T ˆ 1 T ˆ
T  r̂   
r r  r sin  

1  Vr 
 1   sin V  1 V
2
r
Divergence:  V  2  
r r r sin   r sin  

   V  1  1 Vr  
Curl:  V 
1

r sin 
sin V    r̂    rV ˆ
    r  sin   r 
1 Vr  ˆ
  rV  
 
r  r   V  Vr rˆ Vˆ  Vˆ
 BasicVector Calculus
  (F  G )  G    F  F    G
    0,     F  0
  (  F )   (  F )   F2

Divergence or Gauss’ Theorem

The divergence theorem states that the total outward flux of a

vector field F through the closed surface S is the same as the
volume integral of the divergence of F.
Closed surface S, volume V,
  
   F dV   F  dS outward pointing normal
V S
 Stokes’ Theorem

Stokes’s theorem states that the circulation of a vector field F around a

closed path L is equal to the surface integral of the curl of F over the
open surface S bounded by L

   
   F  dS   F  d l
S L

 

dS  n dS
n
Oriented boundary L
Coulomb’s Law – Gives the electric force
between two point charges.
q1q2
F k 2 Inverse Square
Law
r
k = Coulomb’s Constant = 9.0x109 Nm2/C2
q1 = charge on mass 1
q2 = charge on mass 2
r = the distance between the two charges

The electric force is much stronger than the

gravitational force.
 Electric Field
q1  q2 q1  
F21  k 2 E1  k 2
F21  q2 E1
r r
• Unit for E: N/C
• Again, only applies to point charges
• What is field?
– A “field” is any physical quantity that has a value at every location in space.
Its value can scalar (scalar field) or a vector (vector field).

Scalar Field: Temperature T(x,y,z)

Vector Field: Air flow in a room V(x,y,z)
 Electric Field: cont.
q1  q2 q1  
F21  k 2 E1  k 2
F21  q2 E1
r r
• E field is a vector
•Measure an E field. Using a test charge q2 and
measure the force acting on q2。
• Superposition principle is valid.
 Field of Continuous Charge Distribution

1. Evaluate the contribution from a small charge

element: dq, dE

Don’t choose a special point

Don’t perform detailed calculation

Do decompose the dE into components: ||
and  to the symmetric axis. (coordinate)

2. Exploit symmetry: if one component is zero, do not calculate it.

 Gauss’ Law
Quantitative relationship between electric field (direction and magnitude) on a
CLOSED SURFACE (Gaussian surface) and total charges inside the Gaussian
surface.

 
 0  E  dA  qenl
 Flux of Electric Field
Measures how much field through a surface

 
   E  dA   E cosdA

• Direction of surface (dA): normal to the surface

• Flux is a function of E, A, and .

• Therefore, =0 does not necessarily mean E=0.

  
Apply Gauss’s law  0  E  dA  qenl
 0 E cos   dA  qenl
r
Two types of Gaussian Surfaces:
L

 dA   dA side   dAt b
t b

side
dA  4r 2

 2r  4rL
2
  
Apply Gauss’s law  0  E  dA  qenl
 0 E cos   dA  qenl
1. Point of interest has to be on Gaussian surface
2. Choose Gaussian surface so that E can be taken out of integration: explore the
symmetry of E

• E are the same everywhere on surface (sphere), often =0 or 180

so that cos0=1 or cos180=-1

• E  surface (align on the surface): cos90=0

• Combination (cylinder)

Symmetry of E Gaussian Surface

Spherical (point & spherical charges) Sphere
Cylindrical (line charge) Cylinder
Planar (sheet of charge) Box or cylinder
  
Apply Gauss’s law  0  E  dA  qenl
 0 EAr    qenl
3. Add all charges inside Gaussian Surface: algebraic sum

+qoutside
1<0 2 >0

 
 outside   E  dA 1   2  0
4. Calculate E.
 Gauss’ Law: Important Properties of Metals
• In a static (no charge motion) condition, there cannot be
excess charges in the interior of a metal, all excess charges
must be on the surface
• An equivalent statement: Ein=0
 Integral form of Gauss’ Law
• Factors of r2 (area element) and 1/r2 (inverse square law) cancel in
element of flux E.dS q1  q2
• E.dS depends only on solid angle dW E.d S  dW
4 o

q i
n
 E.dS  i
o
da2 S

da1 Point charges: qi enclosed by S


q1   (r )dv
  E.d S  V
o
q2 S

  (r )dv  total charge within v

V

Charge distribution (r) enclosed by S

 Differential form of Gauss’ Law
  (r )dr
• Integral form

S
E.d S  V
o
• Divergence theorem applied to field V, volume v bounded by surface
S  V.n dS   V.dS   .V dv
S S
V

V.n dS .V dv

• Divergence theorem applied to electric field E

 E.dS   .E dv
V .E(r ) 
 (r )
S o
1
 .E dv   
V V
 (r )dv Differential form of Gauss’ Law
o
(Poisson’s Equation)
 Apply Gauss’ Law to charge sheet
•  (C m-3) is the 3D charge density, many applications make use of the
2D density s (C m-2):

• Uniform sheet of charge density s  Q/A

• By symmetry, E is perp. to sheet dA E
• Same everywhere, outwards on both sides
• Surface: cylinder sides + faces
• perp. to sheet, end faces of area dA + + + + + +
+ + + + + +
• Only end faces contribute to integral + + + + + +
+ + + + + +

Qencl s .dA s
 E.dS 
S
o
 E.2dA 
o
E 
2 o
E
 Apply Gauss’ Law to charged plate
• s’ = Q/2A surface charge density Cm-2 (c.f. Q/A for sheet)
• E 2dA = s’ dA/o
• E = s’/2o (outside left surface shown)
E = 0 (inside metal plate)

+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
why??
E

+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
Outside E = s’/2o + s’/2o = s’/o = s/2o
Inside fields from opposite faces cancel
dA
+

+
+

+
+

+
+