 Profile levelling

 Cross sectioning
 Errors in levelling
 Contouring
 It is an art of determining the relative heights of
different points on or below the surface of the
earth…
 Terminologies/Definitions (Prerequisite)…
 Uses (Prerequisite)…
1) Peg
2) Plumb bob
3) Tripod stand
4) Dumpy level
5) Levelling staff
 Definition
5

 Line of collimation : It is an imaginary line passing

through the intersection of the cross hairs at the
diaphragm and the optical centre of object glass and
its continuation. It is also known as line of sight.

 Axis of telescope : This axis is an imaginary line

passing through the optical centre of object glass and
the optical centre of the eye piece.

 Axis of bubble tube : It is an imaginary line tangential

to the longitudinal curve of the bubble tube it its
middle point.
6
Bench mark
Types
 GTS : Established by SOI

 Permanent : Established with reference to GTS by

PWD, Railway, Irrigation etc.
 Arbitrary : R.L of some fixed point is assumed.

 Temporary : Established temporary at the end of

day’s work
1) Simple levelling
2) Differential levelling
3) Fly levelling
4) Profile / Longitudinal levelling
5) Cross-sectional levelling
6) Check levelling
 Temporary adjustment of a dumpy level may
include the following points;
1) Fixing instrument on tripod
2) Approximate levelling of tripod over the station
point (i.e. over the peg)
3) Levelling by foot screws
4) Focussing;
(a) by eye piece
(b) by object glass
  There are basically TWO methods exists for
levelling, they are;

(1) Height of instrument method;

(2) Rise and Fall method;

1) Simple levelling
2) Differential levelling
3) Fly levelling
4) Profile / Longitudinal levelling
5) Cross-sectional levelling
6) Check levelling
 It can be also named as “Longitudinal Levelling”.

 The operation of taking levels along the centre line

of any alignment (road, railway, canal, etc.) at
regular intervals is known as profile levelling.

 In this operation, the back-sight (BS), intermediate-

sight (IS) & fore-sight (FS) readings are taken at
regular intervals (chainages).
 Procedure:
 Suppose we have to construct a road between stations
‘A’ to ‘G’, we have to conduct levelling between
these two stations.
 Mark other stations as shown in fig.
A B
L2
L4
D
L1 E
C
F
L3 G
III. Then levelling instruments are places at suitable
positions (L1, L2, L3, etc.).
IV. Do temporary adjustments.
V. Then place the staff at different locations and start
taking readings.
VI. The first reading is taken on BM, and entry of the

same can be made in BS column of the level book.

VII. Similarly last readings in FS column and others in IS
column.
VIII. Along with these, FB & BB of each lines are
entered in the level book.
IX. Temporary bench-marks should be placed at some
chainage (≈ 1000 m), on the roots of trees or some
permanent points.
X. At the end of the day, TBM is placed at some
suitable point.
XI. The next days work is started from the TBM placed
on the previous day.
  After finishing the project the records of
the levelling is checked & verified by;

A B

PLAN
B
A

CROSS-SECTION
 It can be carried out simultaneously with the profile
levelling.
 The cross-sections are taken at some regular
intervals (≈ 20 m or 40 m, etc.).
 The purpose of the cross-sectioning is to know the
undulations along the transverse direction to the
centre-line of road.
 The length of cross-section depends upon the nature
of the work.
 The length may vary from 20 m to 40 m on each
side of the centre-line.
 The levels are taken at every 5 m distances.
 Additional levels may be taken if the nature of the
ground surface suddenly changes.
 The method of entering staff readings are explained
in the table in following slide;
 Distances
BS IS FS RISE FALL RL REM
Left Centre Right
0 0.760 245.915 BM
5 1.875 1.115 244.800
10 2.360 0.485 244.315
15 0985 1.375 245.690
20 0.375 0.610 246.300
5 2.015 1.640 244.660
10 1.550 0.465 245.125
15 0.790 0.760 245.885
20 1.525 0.735 245.150
0.760 1.525 3.210 3.975

CHECK : -0.765
 There are basically THREE sources of errors
in levelling can be possible;
(1) Instrumental errors
(2) Personal errors
(3) Errors due to natural causes
 The permanent adjustment of the instrument may
not be perfect. That is the line of collimation may
not be parallel to the axis of the bubble tube.
 The internal arrangement of the focussing tube is
not perfect.
 The graduations of the levelling staff may not be
perfect.
 The instrument may not be levelled perfectly.
 The focussing of the eye-piece and object glass
may not be perfect and the parallax may not be
eliminated entirely.
 The position of the staff may be displaced at the
change point at the time of taking FS and BS
readings.
 The reading of stadia hair rather than central
collimation hair may be taken by mistake.
 The wrong entry may be made in the level book.
 Staff may not be properly and fully extended.
 When the distance of the sight is long, the
curvature of earth may affect the staff reading.

 The effect of the refraction may cause a wrong

staff reading to be taken.

 The effect of high winds and a shining sun may

result in a wrong staff reading.
Contour An imaginary line on the ground surface
joining the points of equal elevation is known as
contour.

In other words, contour is a line in which the

ground surface is intersected by a level surface
obtained by joining points of equal elevation.
This line on the map represents a contour and is
called contour line.

CONTOURING 22
Contour Map
A map showing contour lines is known as
Contour map.
A contour map gives an idea of the altitudes of
the surface features as well as their relative
positions in plan serves the purpose of both, a
plan and a section.

CONTOURING 33
 Contouring
The process of tracing contour lines on
the surface of the earth is called
Contouring.

25
CONTOURING 34
PURPOSE OF CONTOURING

Contour survey is carried out at the starting of any

engineering project such as a road, a railway, a
canal, a dam, a building etc.
i) For preparing contour maps in order to select the
most economical or suitable site.
ii) To locate the alignment of a canal so that it
should follow a ridge line.
iii) To mark the alignment of roads and railways so
that the quantity of earthwork both in cutting
and filling should be minimum.
CONTOURING 45
 PURPOSE OF CONTOURING (contd.)
iv) For getting information about the ground
whether it is flat, undulating or mountainous.
v) To find the capacity of a reservoir and volume
of earthwork especially in a mountainous
region.
vi) To trace out the given grade of a particular
route.
vii)To locate the physical features of the ground
such as a pond depression, hill, steep or small
slopes.

CONTOURING 6
CONTOUR INTERVAL
The constant vertical distance between two
consecutive contours is called the contour interval.

HORIZONTAL EQUIVALENT
The horizontal distance between any two
adjacent contours is called as horizontal
equivalent.
The contour interval is constant between the
consecutive contours while the horizontal
equivalent is variable and depends upon the slope
of the ground.
CONTOURING 7
FACTORS ON WHICH CONTOUR -INTERVAL
DEPENDS
The contour interval depends upon the following
factors:-
i) The Nature of the Ground In flat and uniformly
sloping country, the contour interval is small ,
but in broken and mountainous region the
contour interval should be large otherwise the
contours will come too close to each other.

CONTOURING 8
FACTORS ON WHICH CONTOUR -INTERVAL
DEPENDS

ii) The Purpose and extent of the survey. Contour

interval is small if the area to be surveyed is
small and the maps are required to be used for
the design work or for determining the
quantities of earth work etc. while wider
interval shall have to be kept for large areas and
comparatively less important works.

CONTOURING 9
FACTORS ON WHICH CONTOUR -INTERVAL
DEPENDS

iii) The Scale of the Map. The contour interval

should be in the inverse ratio to the scale of the
map i.e. the smaller the scale, the greater is the
contour interval.

iv) Time and Expense of Field and Office work.

The smaller the interval, the greater is the
amount of field-work and plotting work.

CONTOURING 10
COMMON VALUES OF THE CONTOUR -
INTERVAL
The following are the common values of the contour
interval adopted for various purposes:-
i) For large scale maps of flat country, for
building sites, for detailed design work and for
calculation of quantities of earth work;
0.2 to 0.5 m.

CONTOURING 11
COMMON VALUES OF THE CONTOUR -
INTERVAL
ii) For reservoirs and town planning schemes;
0.5 to 2m.

iii) For location surveys. 2 to 3m.

iv) For small scale maps of broken country and

general topographic work; 3m,5m,10m,or 25m.

CONTOURING 12
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

i) All points in a contour line have the same

elevation.
ii) Flat ground is indicated where the
…contours are widely separated and steep-
slope where they run close together.
iii) A uniform slope is indicated when the
contour lines are uniformly spaced and
iv) A plane surface when they are straight,
parallel and equally spaced.

CONTOURING 13
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

v) A series of 80
closed contour 75
lines on the 70
map represent a 65
HILL
hill , if the 60
60
higher values 65
are inside 70
75
80

A HILL
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
80

75
vi) A series of
DEPRESSION
closed contour 70

lines on the 65

map indicate a 60
depression if
the higher
values are 70
60
outside 65
70
75
80

A DEPRESSION
CONTOURING 15
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
vii) Contour line cross ridge or valley line at
right angles.
100
If the higher
90
values are inside
80 the bend or loop
70
in the contour, it
60
50
indicates a
Ridge.

RIDGE LINE

CONTOURING 16
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
vii) Contour line cross ridge or valley line at
right angles.
If the higher
100
values are
90
outside the
80 bend, it
70 represents a
60 Valley
50

VALLEY LINE

CONTOURING 17
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

viii).
Contours cannot end anywhere but close on
themselves either within or outside the limits of
the map.

CONTOURING 18
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
ix).
Contour lines cannot 40

merge or cross one 30

another on map 20
except in the case of 10
an overhanging cliff.

40 30 20 10

OVERHANGING CLIFF

CONTOURING 19
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
x) Contour lines
50
never run into one
40
another except in
30 VERTICAL
the case of a vertical CLIFF

cliff. In this case 20

,several contours 10

coincide and the

horizontal
10 20 30 40 5050
equivalent becomes
zero.
OVERHANGING CLIFF

CONTOURING 20
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
X Depressions
between summits is
called a saddle. It is
represented by four
110
sets of contours as 110 SADDLE
100
100
shown. It represents a 90 90
90
dip in a ridge or the 100
junction of two ridges. 110

And in the case of a

mountain range ,it Line passing through the
takes the form of a saddles and summits gives
pass . water shed line.
CONTOURING 21
METHODS OF CONTOURING
There are mainly two methods of locating contours:-
(1)Direct Method and (2) Indirect Method.
Direct Method:
In this method, the contours to be
50
located are directly traced out in B.M
48
the field by locating and marking a
46
number of points on each contour.
These points are then surveyed and
plotted on plan and the contours
DIRECT METHOD OF
drawn through them. CONTOURING

CONTOURING 22
METHODS OF CONTOURING

Direct Method:
•This method is most accurate but very slow and
tedious as a lot of time is wasted in searching
points of the same elevation for a contour.
•This is suitable for small area and where great
accuracy is required

CONTOURING 23
Procedure: To start with, a temporary B.M is
established near the area to be surveyed with
reference to a permanent B.M by fly leveling. The
level is then set up in such a position so that the
maximum number of points can be commanded
from the instrument station. The height of
instrument is determined by taking a back sight on
the B.M. and adding it to the R.L. of bench mark.
The staff reading required to fix points on the
various contours is determined by subtracting the
R.L. of each of the contours from the height of
instrument.
CONTOURING 24
Example:
If the height of instrument is 82.48m.,
then the staff readings required to locate 82, 81
and 80m contours are 0.48, 1.48 and 2.48m
respectively. The staff is held on an approximate
position of point and then moved up and down
the slope until the desired reading is obtained.
The point is marked with a peg.

CONTOURING 25
Example(contd.):

Similarly various other points are marked on

each contour. The line joining all these points
give the required contour. It may be noted that
one contour is located at a time. Having fixed
the contours within the range of the
instrument, the level is shifted and set up in a
new position.

47
CONTOURING 26
 Procedure (Contd…..)
The new height of instrument and the
required staff readings are then calculated in a
similar manner and the process repeated till all the
contours are located. The positions of the contour
points are located suitably either simultaneous
with levelling or afterwards. A theodolite , a
compass or a plane table traversing is usually
adopted for locating these points. The points are
then plotted on the plan and the contours drawn by
joining the corresponding points by dotted curved
lines.
CONTOURING 27
Direct Method By Radial Lines Lines:

This method is suitable for

small areas, where a single
point in the centre can
command the whole area.
Radial lines are laid out 70
65

from the common centre 60

55
by theodolite or compass
Fig. RADIAL LINES
and their positions are METHOD OF CONTOURING
fixed up by horizontal
angles and bearings.

CONTOURING 28
Direct Method By Radial Lines Lines (contd.):
Temporary bench marks are first
established at the centre and near the ends of the
radial lines .The contour points are then located
and marked on these lines and their positions are
determined by measuring their distances along the
radial lines. They are then plotted on the plan and
the contours drawn by joining all the
corresponding points with the help of a plane
table instrument.

CONTOURING 29
2. Indirect Method:
In this method the points located and surveyed
are not necessarily on the contour lines but the spot
levels are taken along the series of lines laid out
over the area .The spot levels of the several
representative points representing hills, depressions,
ridge and valley lines and the changes in the slope
all over the area to be contoured are also observed.
Their positions are then plotted on the plan and the
contours drawn by interpolation. This method of
contouring is also known as contouring by spot
levels.
CONTOURING 30
SQUARE METHOD

CONTOURING 31
 This method is commonly employed in all
kinds of surveys as this is cheaper, quicker and
less tedious as compared to direct method. There
are mainly three method of contouring in
indirect method:
(i) By Squares. In this method, the whole area is
divided into number of squares, the side of
which may vary from 5m to 30m depending
upon the nature of the ground and the contour
interval. The square need not be of the same
size throughout.
CONTOURING 31
2. Indirect Method: (Square Method)
The corners of the squares are pegged out
and the reduced levels of these points are
determined with a level.
100.4 97.60 96.05 94.40

13 14 15 16
98.00 98.00
98,00
97.45 99.25 98.75 99.40
9 10 11 12

98.65 99.60 97.80 89.55

5 6 7 8 98.0
99.0 99.0

100.90 99.70 99.85 98.45

1 2 3 4
SQURES LAID ON GROUND CONTOURS INTERPOLATED
CONTOURING 32
 2. Indirect Method: (Square Method)
The important points
within the squares
may be taken when
required and located
by measurements 100.4 97.60 96.05 94.40

from the corners. The 98.00

98.00
squares are plotted 98,00
97.45 99.25 98.75 99.40
and the reduced levels
of the corners are
98.65 99.60 97.80 89.55
written on the plan. 98.0
99.0 99.0

100.90 99.70 99.85 98.45

SQUARE METHOD
55
CONTOURING 33
2. Indirect Method:
By Cross- Sections: This method is most suitable for the
survey of long narrow strips such as a road, railway or
canal etc.
70
69 69
RD 580 70.6 70 69.1 68.8 69.1 70.8

RD 560 70.8 70.2 69.1 70.4 70.5

71

RD 540
71.2 70.8 66.3 70.6 70.8
67 71
68
69

70
RD 520 71.6 71.2 70.6 72.4 71.7
71 71
Fig. X-Section Method

CONTOURING 34
2. Indirect Method:
By Cross- Sections: This method is most suitable for
the surveys of long narrow strips such as a road,
railway or canal etc. Cross sections are run
transverse to the centre line of the work and
representative points are marked along the lines of
cross-section. The cross-section lines need not
necessarily be at right angles to the centre line of
the work. This may be inclined at any angle to the
centre line if necessary. The spacing of the cross-
sections depends upon the topography of the
country and the nature of the survey.

CONTOURING 35
2. Indirect Method:

By Cross- Sections:

The common value is 20 to 30 m in

hilly country and 100m in flat country. The levels
of the points along the section lines are plotted on
the plan and the contours are then interpolated as
usual as shown in the fig.

CONTOURING 36
2. Indirect Method:

Fig. Stadia Wires at Diaphragm

(iii) By Tacheometric method:
A techeometer is a transit theodolite having a
diaphragm fitted with two stadia wires, one above and
other below the central wire. The horizontal distance
between the instrument and staff station may be
determined by multiplying the difference of the staff
readings of the upper and lower stadia wires with the
stadia constant of the instrument, which is usually
100.Thus the techeometer is used for both the vertical as
well as horizontal measurements.
CONTOURING 37
2. Indirect Method:
iii) By Tacheometric method (contd…):

This method is most suitable in hilly areas as the

number of stations which can be commanded by a
techeometer is far more than those by a level and thus the
number of instrument settings are considerably reduced. A
number of radial lines are laid out at a known angular
interval and representative points are marked by pegs
along these radial lines. Their elevations and distances are
then calculated and plotted on the plan and the contour
lines are then interpolated.

CONTOURING 38
INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS
The process of spacing the contours
proportionally between the plotted ground –
points is termed as interpolation of contours .

This becomes necessary in the case

of indirect contouring as only the spot levels
are taken in this method.
While interpolation of contours the ground
between any two points is assumed to be
uniformly sloping.

CONTOURING 39
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS
There are three main methods of interpolation:
i) By Estimation: The position of the contour
points between ground - points are estimated
roughly and the contours are then drawn
through these points. This is a rough method
and is suitable for small scale maps.
ii) By arithmetical calculation: This is very
tedious but accurate method and is used for
small areas where accurate results are
necessary. The contours are interpolated as
under:
CONTOURING 40
INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS

ii) By arithmetical calculation:

Suppose A and B are two points at a distance of
30 m and the reduced level of A and B are 25.45m and
27.54m respectively .Taking the contour interval as 1m, 26
and 27 m contours may be interpolated in between A and
B. The difference of level between A and B is 2.09m.the
difference of level between A and 26m,and A and 27m is
0.55mand 1.55 m respectively.
Therefore the horizontal distance between A and 26 m
contour =0.55/2.09 x 30m and
Between A and 27 m contour =1.55/2.09 x 30m.
These distances are then plotted to scale on the map.
CONTOURING 41
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS
Graphical method of (iii) By Graphical method:
interpolation is 65
simpler as compared B
62.5m
to arithmetical method
and also the results 60 2
60m

obtained are accurate.

Out of several
graphical methods, the 55 1
55m
most common is as
given below:
A 51.5m
50

CONTOURING 42
Graphical method:

As shown in the fig. suppose the contour

interval is 5m, then on a piece of tracing cloth, a
number of parallel lines spaced at 0.5 m (usually
1/10th of the contour interval) are drawn. Every
tenth line being made thick.
Suppose it is required to interpolate contours
between two points A and B of elevation 51.5m
and 62.5m respectively.

CONTOURING 43
INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS
(iii) By Graphical method:
If the bottom line represents an elevation
of 50m. Then the successive thick lines will
represent 55m, 60m and 65m, etc. Place the tracing
cloth so that the point A is on the third line from the
bottom, now move the tracing cloth until B is on the
fifth line above the 60m thick line. The intersection
of the thick lines 1 and 2 representing elevations of
55m and 60 m and the line AB give the position of
the points on the 55m and 60m contours respectively
and are pricked through on the plan with a pin.

CONTOURING 44
DRAWING THE CONTOUR LINES
Contour lines are drawn as fine and smooth free hand
curved lines. Sometimes they are represented by broken
lines .They are inked in either in black or brown colour. A
drawing pen gives a better line than a writing pen and
French curves should be used as much as possible .Every
fifth contour is made thicker than the rest.
The elevation of contours must be written in a uniform
manner, either on the higher side or in a gap left in the line
.When the contour lines are very long, their elevations are
written at two or three places along the contour .In the case
of small scale maps, it is sufficient to figure every fifth
contour.

CONTOURING 45
 USES OF CONTOUR MAP
(i) A contour map furnishes information regarding the features of
the ground , whether it is flat, undulating or mountainous.
(ii) From a contour map , sections may be easily drawn in any
direction
(iii) Intervisibility between two ground points plotted on map can be
ascertained
(iv) It enables an engineer to approximately select the most
economical or suitable site for an engineering project such as a
road, a railway, a canal or a pipe line etc.
(v) A route of a given grade can be traced on the map.
(vi) Catchment area and capacity of a reservoir may be determined
from the contour map.
(vii) Contour map may be used to determine the quantities of earth
work.

CONTOURING 45
HOME ASSIGNMENT
Q.No.1. (a) Define contour.
(b) What is a contour interval and on what factors does it depend?.
Q.No.2.(a) What is difference between a contour interval and horizontal
…………….equivalent?.
(b) Suggest contour intervals for following :-
(i) A hill Survey (ii) A city Survey (iii) survey of a dam site.
Q.No.3. Describe with neat sketches the characteristics of contours.
Q.No.4. Show contours to represent the following :-
(i) A Hill (ii) A Depression (iii) A valley (iv) A vertical cliff (v) A saddle.
Q.No.5. Describe various methods of interpolation of contours.

69
CONTOURING 46