Physics Magnetism Lecture Slide
Physics Magnetism Lecture Slide
Physics Magnetism Lecture Slide
1. Magnetic fields
2. Source of the Magnetic Field
3. Faraday’s Law
4. Inductance
5. Alternating-Current circuits
2 Section Introduction
Chapter 29
Magnetic Fields
Topics being covered in Chapter 29 – Magnetic Fields
• Magnetic fields
• Motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field
• Applications involving charged particles moving in a magnetic field
• Magnetic force acting on a current-carrying conductor
• The Hall effect
4 Introduction
Magnetism
Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena associated with magnetic forces
among permanent magnets and moving charges (i.e., currents).
Permanent magnets are usually made of a type of materials (called ferromagnetic
materials) and they can attract and repel each others by magnetic forces.
For example, magnetite (a mineral) can attract iron nails.
5 Introduction
Magnetic Poles
Every magnet has two poles, called north (N) and south (S) poles.
Poles exert forces on one another, similar to the way electric charges exert
forces on each other
Like poles repel each other & unlike poles attract each other.
Earth itself is a magnet. If a bar magnet is suspended on the Earth so that it can
move freely, it will rotate until it align with the Earth’s magnetic field.
The magnetic north pole points toward the Earth’s north geographic pole.
This means the Earth’s north geographic pole is a magnetic south pole.
Similarly, the Earth’s south geographic pole is a magnetic north pole.
A single magnetic pole has never been isolated.
In other words, magnetic poles are always found in pairs.
All attempts so far to detect an isolated magnetic pole has been unsuccessful.
6 Introduction
Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Field Lines, Bar Magnet Example
compass Magnetic field lines
Magnet
The compass (as a test Iron filings are used Magnetic field Magnetic field
magnet) can be used to to show the pattern pattern between pattern between like-
of the magnetic field opposite-poles poles (N-N) of two
trace the field lines, which
(N-S) of two bar bar magnets.
are outside the (source) lines. The direction of
magnets. Compare to the
magnet, pointing from the the field is the electric field
North pole to the South direction a north pole produced by like
pole. would point. charges.
7 Section 29.1
Earth’s Magnetic Poles and Fields
More proper terminology would be that a magnet has “north-seeking” (N) and
“south-seeking” (S) poles.
The north-seeking pole points to the north geographic pole.
This would correspond to the Earth’s south magnetic pole.
The south-seeking pole points to
the south geographic pole.
This would correspond to the
Earth’s north magnetic pole.
However, the magnetic axis of the earth
is not the same as the axis of rotation.
The magnetic axis is also change with time.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MYbelcvY34o
8 Section 29.1
Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge
The magnetic force 𝐅ԦB will be exerted on a charged particle moving with a velocity, 𝐯.
Assume (for now) there are no gravitational or electric fields present.
FB qv B
𝑞>0 𝑞<0
𝐅ԦB = 𝑞𝐯 × 𝐁
⇒ 𝐅ԦB ⊥ 𝐯 and 𝐅ԦB ⊥ 𝐁
The magnitude of the magnetic force is proportional to sin 𝜃, where 𝜃 is the angle
the particle’s velocity makes with the direction of the magnetic field.
The magnetic force acting on the particle is zero when a charged particle moves
parallel to the magnetic field vector
• because sin 𝜃 = 0 when 𝜃 = 0° or 180°
The magnetic force is a maximum when the field and velocity are perpendicular.
• because sin 𝜃 = 1 when 𝜃 = 90°
10 Section 29.1
Direction: Right-Hand Rule #1 and Rule #2
= 𝑞𝐯 × 𝐁
#1 Right-hand rule for the cross product: #2 Alternative to Rule #1: the force on a
your thumb is in the direction of the force positive charge extends outward from the
if q is positive and vice versa. palm and vice versa.
11 Section 29.1
Differences Between Electric and Magnetic Fields
•Direction of force
The electric force acts along the direction of the electric field.
The magnetic force acts perpendicular to the magnetic field.
•Motion
The electric force acts on a charged particle regardless of whether the
particle is moving.
The magnetic force acts on a charged particle only when the particle is in
motion.
•Work
The electric force does work in displacing a charged particle.
The magnetic force associated with a steady magnetic field does no work
when a particle is displaced.
This is because the force is perpendicular to the displacement of its point of
application.
12 Section 29.1
Units of Magnetic Field, Notation Notes
The SI unit of magnetic field is the tesla (T): 1 T = 1 N/C∙m/s = 1 N/A∙m (C/s = A)
A non-SI commonly used unit is a gauss (G): 1 T = 104 G.
𝑣⊥ = 𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑧2
15 Section 29.2
Bending of an Electron Beam
Electrons are accelerated from rest
through a potential difference.
Path of electron
The electrons then enter a uniform
magnetic field that is perpendicular to
the velocity vector.
The electrons travel in a curved path.
Conservation of energy will give v.
The lighting is caused by excitation of
gas atoms in a bulb.
Note that the electron is losing energy B
due to the excitation of gas atoms and
thus the radius of path is getting smaller
as it goes.
16 Section 29.2
Charged Particles Moving in Electric and Magnetic Fields
𝐅Ԧ = 𝑞𝐄 + 𝑞𝐯 × 𝐁
Example:
17 Section 29.3
Example 1: Velocity Selector
18 Section 29.3
Example 2: Mass Spectrometer
A mass spectrometer separates ions according to
their mass-to-charge ratio.
In one design, a beam of ions passes through a
velocity selector and enters a second magnetic field.
After entering the second magnetic field ( B 0,in), the
ions move in a semicircle of radius r before striking a
detector at P.
If the ions are positively charged, they deflect to the
left and vice versa.
19 Section 29.3
Example 3: Thomson’s e/m Experiment
To find the charge-to-mass ratio,
electrons are accelerated from
the cathode.
They are deflected by electric
and magnetic fields.
The beam of electrons strikes a
fluorescent screen.
The magnitudes of the two fields
are first adjusted to produce an
un-deflected beam. When the
magnetic field is turned off, the
electric field produces a
measurable deflection that’s F qE qvB and F ma
recorded on the fluorescent
m 1 2
screen. a E vB ( at h, vt s)
q 2
20 Section 29.3
Example 4: The Cyclotron (Optional)
22 Section 29.4
Force on a Wire, equation
The magnetic force is exerted on each moving
charge in the wire.
F qv d B
The total force is the product of the force on one
charge and the number of charges.
F N ( qv d B) volume AL
nAL ( qv d B) N n volume nAL
I nqvd A
nqvd A( Lvˆ d B) ˆ (unit vectors)
vˆ d L
I𝐼(𝐋
𝐅Ԧ = B
ԦL× 𝐁) L LL ˆ Lvˆ d
v̂ d is a unit vector of vd
L is a vector that points in the direction of
the current and its magnitude is the length
L of the segment.
23 Section 29.4
Example: Force on semicircular conductor
A wire bent into a semicircle of radius R forms a closed circuit and carries a
current I. The wire lies in the xy plane, and a uniform magnetic field is directed
along the positive y axis as in Figure 29.20. Find the magnitude and direction of
the magnetic force acting on the straight portion of the wire and on the curved
portion.
Note that ds is perpendicu lar to B everywhere on the
straight portion of the wire, so the force on this portion :
F1 IL B 2 IRB k
To find the magnetic force on the curved part, first
firstwrit e
write
an expression for the magnetic force dF2 on the element ds in
the figure, then do the integral along the whole curved portion, Portion 1
dF2 Ids B IB sin dsk and ds Rd
y
F2 IBR sin d k IBR sin d k IBR cos 0 k
x
0 0
k
IBR (cos cos 0)k 2 IRB k
Force on Each Side of a Current Loop
25 Section 29.5
Torque on a Current Loop (optional)
26 Section 29.5
Torque on a Current Loop, General (optional)
Assume the magnetic field makes an angle of
< 90o with a line perpendicular to the plane of the
loop.
The net torque about point O will be τ = IAB sin
b b
max F2 sin F4 sin IAB sin
2 2
A convenient vector expression for the torque
on a loop placed in a uniform magnetic
exerted
field B is
τ IA B
where A is perpendicular to the plane of the loop
and has a magnitude equal to the area of the loop.
28 Section 29.6
Hall Voltage, schematics
When the charge carriers are negative, they experience an upward magnetic force, they
are deflected upward, an excess of positive charge is left at the lower edge. This
accumulation of charge establishes an electric field in the conductor.
29 Section 29.6
Hall Voltage, mathematics
When the magnetic force exerted on the carriers qvdB is balanced by the electric
force qEH, qvdB = qEH , we have EH = vdB.
If d is the width of the conductor, the Hall voltage is VH = EHd = vdBd.
vd is the drift velocity, can be expressed as vd = I/nqA with A = td, where t is
the thickness of the conductor, then
𝐼 𝐼𝐵
𝛥𝑉H = 𝑣d 𝐵𝑑 = 𝐵𝑑 = 𝑅H
𝑛𝑞𝑡𝑑 𝑡
• Biot-Savart Law
• Magnetic force between two parallel currents
• Ampѐre’s Law
• Magnetic field of a Solenoid
32 Introduction
Origin of magnetic fields
The origin of the magnetic field is currents.
Biot-Savart law and Ampère’s law provide ways to calculate the magnetic
fields associated with distribution of currents.
Magnetic effects in matter can be explained on the basis of circulating currents
35 Section 30.1
Magnetic Field Compared to Electric Field
Distance
The magnitude of the magnetic field varies as the inverse square of the
distance from the source while the electric field due to a point charge also
varies as the inverse square of the distance from the charge.
Direction
The electric field created by a point charge is the radial direction
connecting the charge location and the position of interest, but the magnetic
field created
by a current element is perpendicular to both the length
element ds and the unit vector r̂ .
Source
An electric field is established by an isolated electric charge.
The current element that produces a magnetic field must be part of an
extended current distribution. Therefore you must integrate over the entire
current distribution to obtain the total magnetic field.
36 Section 30.1
Magnetic Field for a Curved Wire Segment
38 Section 30.1
Magnetic Field for a Circular Loop of wire 2 (Optional)
a
cos 2
(a x 2 )1/ 2 ds 2a
0 I ds a 0 I a 0 Ia 2
Bx
4 a x (a x )
2 2 2 2 1/ 2
4 (a x )
2 2 3/ 2
(2a)
2(a 2 x 2 ) 3 / 2
Two special cases:
(1) The magnetic field amplitude at the center of loop, set x = 0
I
Bx 0 (at x 0)
2a
(2) The magnetic field at axial points very far from the loop, x >> a,
0 Ia 2
Bx (for x a)
2 x3
39 Section 30.1
Magnetic Field Lines for a Loop
Figure (a) shows the magnetic field lines surrounding a current loop.
Figure (b) compares the field lines to that of a bar magnet.
Notice the similarities in the patterns.
40 Section 30.1
Magnetic Field for a Long, Straight Conductor (Optional)
a
( 2) r and x a tan
cos
ad
(3) dx a sec 2 d
cos2
0 I ad cos2 0 I y
( 4) dB cos cos d
4 cos2 a 2 4a x
k
41 Section 30.1
Magnetic Field for a Long, Straight Conductor 2
Integrate the equation over all length elements on the
wire, where the subtending angles range from θ1 to f θ2,
the total field at point P is
m0 I q2 m0 I
B=
4p a
òq
1
cosq dq =
4p a
(sinq 2 - sinq1 )
The force between two parallel wires can be used to define the unit of ampere.
When the magnitude of the force per unit length between two long, parallel wires
that carry identical currents and are separated by 1 m is 2 x 10-7 N/m, the current
in each wire is defined to be 1 A.
44 Section 30.2
Magnetic Field for a Long, Straight Conductor: Direction
45 Section 30.3
Magnetic Field of a Wire
A compass can be used to detect The compass needles deflect in The circular magnetic
the direction of magnetic fields. a direction tangent to the circle. field around the wire is
When there is no current in the This shows the direction of the
wire, the compass needles all magnetic field produced by the shown by the iron
point toward the Earth’s north pole. wire. If the current is reversed, filings.
the direction of the needles also
reverse.
46 Section 30.3 Active Figure 30.10.
Ampere’s Law
Because the compass needles point in the direction of B , we conclude that the
lines of B form circles around the wire. By symmetry, the field magnitude is the
same on a circular path centered on the wire and lying in a plane perpendicular
to the wire.
The product of B ds can be evaluated for small length elements ds on the
circular path defined by the compass needles for the long, straight wire.
Ampere’s law states that the line integral of B ds around any closed path = 0 I
where I is the total steady current passing through any surface bounded by the
closed path:
B ds 0 I
Ampere’s law describes the creation of magnetic fields by all continuous current
configurations.
Its use is similar to that of Gauss’s law in calculating the electric fields for highly
symmetric charge distributions.
47 Section 30.3
Example 1: Field Due to a Long Straight Wire
Calculate the magnetic field at a distance r
from the center of a wire carrying a steady
current I.
The current is uniformly distributed through
the cross section of the wire (i.e., the current
density is a constant)
Since the wire has a high degree of
symmetry, the problem can be categorized
as a Ampère’s Law problem.
Outside of the wire, r > R,
ර 𝐁 ∙ 𝑑𝐬Ԧ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
→ 𝐵=
𝐵(2𝜋𝑟) = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 2𝜋𝑟
48 Section 30.3
Example 1: Field Due to a Long Straight Wire 2
Inside the wire, r < R, we need to calculate I’, the current inside the amperian circle,
I ' r 2 r2
Find closed current I’: 2 I' 2 I
I R R
r2 0 I
Find magnetic field:
B d s B ( 2r ) 0 I ' 0 (
R 2
I ) B (
2R 2
)r
(Ampere’s law)
49 Section 30.3
Example 2: Magnetic Fields inside a Toroid
51 Section 30.4
Ampere’s Law Applied to a Solenoid
The total current through the rectangular path equals the current through each
turn multiplied by the number of turns, i.e. 𝑁𝐼.
The Ampere’s law gives B d s Bl 0 NI
𝑁
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼
ℓ
n = N / ℓ is the number of turns per unit length.
This is valid only at points near the center of a very long solenoid.
53 Section 30.4
Magnetic Flux
54
Gauss’s Law in Magnetism
ර𝐁 ⋅ 𝑑𝐀 = 0
This indicates that isolated magnetic poles (monopoles) have never been
detected.
Perhaps they do not exist.
Certain theories do suggest the possible existence of magnetic monopoles.
55 Section 30.5
Chapter 31
Faraday’s law
Topics being covered in Chapter 31 – Faraday’s Law
57 Introduction
Induced Fields
Magnetic fields may vary in time.
Experiments conducted in 1831 showed that a current can be produced by a
changing magnetic field.
Experiments were done by Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry.
The results of these experiments led to Faraday’s Law of Induction.
It was concluded that there must be an induced emf associated
with the induced current.
59 Section 31.1
EMF Produced by a Changing Magnetic Field, Summary
The ammeter deflects when the magnet is moving toward or away from the loop.
The ammeter also deflects when the loop is moved toward or away from the
magnet.
Therefore, the loop detects that the magnet is moving relative to it.
We relate this detection to a change in the magnetic field passing through
the loop.
This is the induced current that is produced by an induced emf.
60 Section 31.1
Faraday’s Experiment – Set Up
Faraday’s induction
iron ring made in 1831
61 Section 31.1
Faraday’s Experiment – Findings and Conclusions
At the instant the switch is closed, the ammeter changes from zero in one
direction and then returns to zero.
When the switch is opened, the ammeter changes in the opposite direction and
then returns to zero.
The ammeter reads zero when there is a steady current or when there is no
current in the primary circuit.
The induced current exists only while the magnetic field through the loop is
changing.
This is generally expressed as: an induced emf is produced in the loop by the
changing magnetic field.
62 Section 31.1
Faraday’s Law of Induction – Statements
The emf induced in a circuit is directly proportional to the changing rate of the
magnetic flux through the circuit.
Mathematically,
d B
ε
dt
Negative sign
Remember B is the magnetic flux through the circuit and is found by
B B dA
If the circuit consists of N closely wrapped loops, all of the same area, the total
emf induced in the N-loop coil becomes
d B
ε N where B is the flux through each loop
dt
63
Faraday’s Law – Example
64 Section 31.1
Applications of Faraday’s Law – GFCI (optional)
A GFCI (ground fault circuit interrupter)
protects users of electrical appliances
against electric shock.
When the currents in the wires are in
opposite directions and of equal
magnitude, the flux is zero because there
is no magnetic field surrounding the wires.
When the return current in wire 2 changes,
the flux is no longer zero.
The resulting induced emf in the sensing
coil can be used to trigger a circuit breaker.
65 Section 31.1
Applications of Faraday’s Law – Pickup Coil (optional)
66 Section 31.1
Example 1: Inducing an emf in a coil
A coil consists of 200 turns of wire. Each turn is a square of side d = 18 cm, and a
uniform magnetic field directed perpendicular to the plane of the coil is turned on.
If the field changes linearly from 0 to 0.50 T in 0.80 s, what is the magnitude of the
induced emf in the coil while the field is changing?
Solution:
a
Evaluate the emf using Faraday’s law and note that
the magnetic field changes linearly with time:
a
B ( BA) ( B ) 2 B f Bi
ε N N NA Nd
t t t t
(0.05T 0)
ε (200)( 0.18m) 2
4.0V
0.80s
67 Section 31.1
Example 2: An exponentially decaying magnetic field (Optional)
A loop of wire enclosing an area A is placed in a region where the magnetic field
is perpendicular to the plane of the loop. The magnitude of B varies according
at
to B Bmax e , where a is the some constant. That’s, at t = 0, the field is Bmax ,
and for t > 0, the field decreases exponentially. Find the induced emf in the loop
as a function of time.
Solution:
Evaluate the emf using Faraday’s law,
B Bmax e at
d B d
ε ( ABmax e at )
dt dt
d
ABmax e at aABmax e at
dt
68 Section 31.1
Motional emf
A motional emf is the emf induced in a conductor
moving through a constant magnetic field.
The electrons in the conductor experience a force 𝐅Ԧ =
𝑞𝐯 × 𝐁, that is directed along ℓ,
Under the influence of the force, the electrons move
to the lower end of the conductor and accumulate
there. Charge separation -> internal electric field.
When forces are balanced, 𝑞𝐸 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 or E = vB.
The electric field is related to the potential difference
across the ends of the conductor: V = Eℓ = Bℓv.
A potential difference is maintained between the ends
of the conductor as long as the conductor continues
to move through the uniform magnetic field.
If the direction of the motion is reversed, the polarity
of the potential difference is also reversed.
Section 31.2
Sliding Conducting Bar
A conducting bar moving through a uniform field and the
equivalent circuit diagram.
Assume the bar has zero resistance.
The stationary part of the circuit has a resistance 𝑅.
The induced emf is:
d B d
ε ( Blx )
dt dt
dx
Bl Blv
dt
ε Blv
I
R R
70
Example 1: Magnetic force acting on a sliding bar (Optional)
dv dv B 2l 2
Fx ma m IlB , I Blv / R m v
dt dt R
dv B 2l 2 v
dv B 2l 2
t
dt dt
v mR vi
v mR 0
v B 2l 2
ln t v vi e t / if mR / B 2l 2
vi mR
71 Section 31.2
Example 1: Magnetic force acting on a sliding bar (cont.)
d 1 2
Presistor Pbar I R ( mv )
2
dt 2
B 2l 2 v 2 dv dv B 2l 2
mv dt
R dt v mR
72 Section 31.2
Example 2: Motional emf induced in a rotating bar (Optional)
B
dε Bvdr v r
l l l 1
ε dε Bvdr B rdr Bl 2
0 0 0 2
73 Section 31.2
Lenz’s Law
Faraday’s law indicates that the induced emf and the change in flux have
opposite algebraic signs.
This has a physical interpretation that has come to be known as Lenz’s law.
Developed by German physicist Heinrich Lenz.
Lenz’s law: the induced current in a loop is in the direction that creates a
magnetic field that opposes the change in magnetic flux through the area
enclosed by the loop.
The induced current tends to keep the original magnetic flux through the circuit
from changing.
Lenz’s law is often used to determine the direction of induced current.
74 Section 31.3
Lenz’s Law, Example
The conducting bar slides on
the two fixed conducting rails.
The magnetic flux due to the
external magnetic field through
the enclosed area increases
with time.
The induced current must
produce a magnetic field out of
the page.
If the bar moves in the opposite
direction, the direction of the
induced current will also be
reversed.
75 Section 31.3
Induced Current Directions – Example
76 Section 31.3
Example: A loop moving through a magnetic field
B
(B)
(A) (C)
77
Induced emf and Electric Fields
A long solenoid of radius R has n turns of wire per unit length and carries a time-
varying current that varies sinusoidally as I I max cos t , where I max is the
maximum current and ω is the angular frequency of alternating current source.
Determine the magnitude of the induced electric
field outside the solenoid at a distance 𝑟 > 𝑅 from
its long central axis.
d B d dB
( BR 2 ) R 2
dt dt dt
B 0 nI 0 nI max cos t
d B d
R 2 0 nI max (cos t ) R 2 0 nI max sin t
dt dt
0 nI max sin t
2
E d s E ( 2 r ) R
0 nI max R 2
E sin t (for r R)
79 2r Section 31.4
Generators
Electric generators take in energy by work and transfer
it out by electrical transmission.
The AC generator consists of a loop of wire rotated by
some external means in a magnetic field.
As the loop rotates in the magnetic field, the magnetic
flux through the area enclosed by the loop changes
with time, and this change induces an emf and a
current in the loop according to Faraday’s Law.
The ends of the loop are connected to slip rings that
rotate with the loop. Connections from these slip rings
act as output terminals of the generator to the external
circuit.
Active Figure 31.17.
80 Section 31.5
Generators: Mathematical Description of a Rotating Loop
Assume a coil loop with N turns, all of the same
area A rotating in a magnetic field with a
constant angular speed ω.
If θ is angle between the magnetic field and
normal to the plane of the coil, the flux through
the loop at any time t is
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡, where 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡.
Hence,
d B d
ε N NAB (cos t )
dt dt
NAB sin t
This is a sinusoidal curve as shown in last slide.
Ɛmax = NAB occurs when 𝜔𝑡 = 90⁰ or 270⁰, when the magnetic field is in the plane of the coil
and the time rate of change of flux is a maximum.
Ɛ = 0 when 𝜔𝑡 = 0⁰ or 180⁰ , when the magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of the coil
and the time rate of change of flux is zero.
DC Generators (optional)
The DC (direct current) generator has essentially the
same components as the AC generator.
The main difference is that the contacts to the rotating
loop are made using a split ring called a commutator.
In this configuration, the output voltage always has the
same polarity.
It also oscillates with time.
To obtain a steady DC current, commercial generators
use many coils and commutators distributed so the
pulses are out of phase.
82 Section 31.5
Motors (optional)
Motors are devices into which energy is transferred by electrical transmission
while energy is transferred out by work, which is a generator operating in reverse.
A current is supplied to the coil by a battery and the torque acting on the current-
carrying coil causes it to rotate.
Useful mechanical work can be done by attaching the rotating coil to some
external device.
However, as the coil rotates in a magnetic field, an emf is induced.
This induced emf always acts to reduce the current in the coil.
The back emf increases in magnitude as the rotational speed of the coil
increases.
The current in the rotating coil is limited by the back emf.
The term back emf is commonly used to indicate an emf that tends to reduce
the supplied current.
83 Section 31.5
Eddy Currents (Optional)
• Circulating currents called eddy currents
are induced in bulk pieces of metal
moving through a magnetic field.
• The eddy currents are in opposite
directions as the plate enters or leaves
the field.
• This leads to a transformation of
mechanical energy into internal energy
and heat to the environment