Modern Control Engineering 5e - Katsuhiko Ogata

Modern Control
Engineering
Katsuhiko Ogata
Chapter 1 Introduction
21 century — information age, cybernetics(control theory), system
approach and information theory , three science theory mainstay(supports)
in 21 century.
1.1 Automatic control
A machine(or system) work by machine-self, not by manual operation.
1.2 Automatic control systems

1.2.1 examples
1) A water-level control system
* Operating principle……
* Feedback control…… Figure 1.1

Another example of the water-level
control is shown in figure 1.2. f l oat
* Operating l ever
principle……
* Feedback wat er
control…… ent r ance
2) A temperature Control system Wat er exi t
(shown in Fig.1.3) Fi gur e 1. 2
cont ai ner
t her mo
+ uf met er
ur
ampl i f i er
* Operating principle…
e
* Feedback
control(error)…
ua=k( ur - uf ) Gear
M assembl y
Fi gur e 1. 3
3) A DC-Motor control system
+
Uk=k( ur - uf ) DC
ur  ua
mot or
e M
r egul at or l oad
t r i gger
Uf ( Feedback) r ect i f i er -
M t echomet er
Fi g. 1. 4 +
* Principle…
* Feedback control(error)…
4) A servo (following) control system
ser vopot ent i omet er

I nput out put
l oad
T r T c
ser vomechani sm
-
M
+ ser vo mot or
Fig. 1.5 ser vomodul at or
* principle……
* feedback(error)……
5) A feedback control system model of the family planning
(similar to the social, economic, and political realm(sphere or field))
excess
procreat e
Desi re
popul at i on government + popul at i on
( Fami l y pl anni ng commi t t ee) soci et y
- Pol i cy or
st at ut es
census
Fig. 1.6
* principle……
* feedback(error)……
1.2.2 block diagram of control systems
The block diagram description for a control system : Convenience
x Si gnal xxx
Component s
( var i abl e) ( devi ces)
x3
x1 Adder s ( compar i son)
+ + e
e=x1+x3- x2
-
x2 Fig. 1.7
Example:
For the Fig.1.1, The

water level control
system:
Figure 1.1
resistance comparator
Actuator Actual
Desired
water level
water level Water
amplifier Motor Gearing Valve
Input Error container
Output
controller Process
Float
Feedback
signal measurement
Fig. 1.8 (Sensor)
For the Fig. 1.4, The DC-Motor control system
comparat or Act uat or

Desi red Act ual
rot at e speed n e uk a ua rot at e speed n
Regul at or Tri gger Rect i f i er DC
Ref erence Error mot or
Out put n
i nput ur
cont rol l er Process
Techomet er
Feedback si gnal uf
measurement ( Sensor)
Fi g. 1. 9
1.2.3 Fundamental structure of control systems
1) Open loop control systems

Di st ur bance
( Noi se)
I nput r ( t ) Out put c( t )

uk uact
( act ual out put )
Cont r ol l er Act uat or Pr ocess
Ref er ence Cont r ol Act uat i ng
desi r ed out put si gnal si gnal
Fi g. 1. 10
Features: Only there is a forward action from the input to the

output.
2) Closed loop (feedback) control systems
Di st ur bance
( Noi se)
e( t ) = Out put c( t )
I nput r ( t ) r ( t ) - b( t ) uk uact
+ Cont r ol l er Act uat or Pr ocess
( act ual out put )
Ref er ence - Cont r ol Act uat i ng
desi r ed out put si gnal si gnal
( +)
Feedback si gnal b( t )
measur ement
Fi g. 1. 11
Features:
not only there is a forward action , also a backward action
between the output and the input (measuring the output and
comparing it with the input).
1) measuring the output (controlled variable) . 2) Feedback.
Notes: 1) Positive feedback; 2) Negative feedback—Feedback.
1.3 types of control systems
1) linear systems versus Nonlinear systems.
2) Time-invariant systems vs. Time-varying systems.
3) Continuous systems vs. Discrete (data) systems.
4) Constant input modulation vs. Servo control systems.
1.4 Basic performance requirements of control systems

1) Stability.
2) Accuracy (steady state performance).
3) Rapidness (instantaneous characteristic).
1.5 An outline of this text
1) Three parts: mathematical modeling; performance analysis ;
compensation (design).
2) Three types of systems:
linear continuous; nonlinear continuous; linear discrete.
3) three performances: stability, accuracy, rapidness.
in all: to discuss the theoretical approaches of the control
system analysis and design.
1.6 Control system design process
shown in Fig.1.12
1. Establish control goals 6. Describe a controller and select
key parameters to be adjusted
2. Identify the variables to control

7. Optimize the parameters and
analyze the performance
3. Write the specifications
for the variables
Performance
Performance does not meet the
4. Establish the system configuration Meet the specifications specifications
Identify the actuator
Finalize the design
5. Obtain a model of the process,
the actuator and the sensor
Fig.1.12
1.7 Sequential design example: disk drive read system
A disk drive read system Shown in Fig.1.13
Rotation Spindle
Track a
of arm Disk
Actuator Track b
motor
◆ Configuration
◆ Principle
Arm
Head slider
Fig.1.13 A disk drive read system

Sequential design:
here we are concerned with the design steps 1,2,3, and 4 of Fig.1.12.
(1) Identify the control goal:

Position the reader head to read the date stored on a track on the disk.
(2) Identify the variables to control: the position of the read head.
(3) Write the initial specification for the variables:
The disk rotates at a speed of between 1800 and 7200 rpm and the read head
“flies” above the disk at a distance of less than 100 nm.
The initial specification for the position accuracy to be controlled:
≤ 1 μm (leas than 1 μm ) and to be able to move the head from track a to track b
within 50 ms, if possible.
(4) Establish an initial system configuration:
It is obvious : we should propose a closed loop system , not
a open loop system.
An initial system configuration can be shown as in Fig.1.13.
Desired error Actual

Control Actuator Read
head head
device motor arm
position position
sensor
Fig.1.13 system configuration for disk drive
We will consider the design of the disk drive further in the after-
mentioned chapters.
Exercise: E1.6, P1.3, P1.13
Chapter 2 mathematical models of systems
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Why？
1) Easy to discuss the full possible types of the control systems—in terms of the
system’s “mathematical characteristics”.
2) The basis — analyzing or designing the control systems.
For example, we design a temperature Control system :
Disturbance
e(t)=
r(t)-b(t) uk uac Output T(t)
Input r(t) + Controller Actuator Process
desired output (－) actual
- Control Actuating
temperature signal signal output
temperature
Feedback signalb(t) temperature
measurement
Fig. 2.1
The key — designing the controller → how produce uk.

Different characteristic of the process — different uk:
T(t) Ⅰ Ⅰ uk 11
T2
Ⅱ
For T1 
T1
Ⅱ uk 12
 Ⅰ uk 21
uk
uk11 uk12 For T1 
uk21
Ⅱ uk 22  
2.1.2 What is ？
Mathematical models of the control systems—— the mathematical
relationships between the system’s variables.
2.1.3 How get？
1) theoretical approaches 2) experimental approaches
3) discrimination learning
2.1.4 types
1) Differential equations
2) Transfer function
3) Block diagram、signal flow graph
4) State variables(modern control theory)
2.2 Input-output description of the physical systems — differential
equations
The input-output description—description of the mathematical
relationship between the output variable and the input variable of the
physical systems.
2.2.1 Examples
Example 2.1 : A passive circuit
define: input → ur output → uc。

R L
we have：
i di du
ur C uc Ri  L  uc  ur i  C c
dt dt

d 2uc duc
LC 2  RC  uc  ur
dt dt
L d 2uc duc
make : RC  T 1  T 2  T1T2 2  T1  uc  ur
R dt dt
Example 2.2 : A mechanism
Define: input → F ，output → y. We have:
dy d2y
F  ky  f m 2
F k dt d t

d2y dy
m m 2 f  ky  F
dt dt
y
f m
f If we make :  T1,  T2
k f
d2y dy 1
we have : T1T2 2
 T1 y F
dt dt k
Compare with example 2.1: uc→y; ur→F ─ analogous systems
Example 2.3 : An operational amplifier (Op-amp) circuit
R2 R3 Input →ur output →uc
C 1
i2
R4
i3 uc  R3i3 
C  (i3  i2 )dt  R4 (i3  i2 )......(1)
u
ur R1 i 1 i2  i1   r ...........................................(2)
R1
- uc
+ 1
i3  (uc  R2i2 ).....................................(3)
R1 R3
du R  R  R2 R3 dur 
(2)→(3); (2)→(1); (3)→(1)： R C
4
c  uc   R (
2 3
 R4 )C  ur 
dt 1
 R2  R3 dt 
R2  R3 R2  R3
make : R4C  T ;  k; (  R4 )C  
R1 R2  R3
duc dur
we have : T  uc  k (  ur )
dt dt
Example 2.4 : A DC motor
Ra La
( J1, f 1)
ia w1
( J2, f 2)
ua M w2 ( J3, f 3) Mf
w3
i1
Input → ua， output → ω1 i2
dia
La  Raia  Ea  ua ....(1) (4)→(2)→(1) and (3)→(1):
dt
M  Cmia .........................(2) La J  La f Ra J  R f
1  (  ) 1  ( a  1)1
CeCm CeCm CeCm CeCm
Ea  Ce1.........................(3)

d1 1 L R
 ua  a M  a M
M M J  f 1.....(4) Ce CeCm CeCm
dt
J J
J  J1  22  2 32 ......equivalent moment of inertia
i1 i1 i2
f f
here : f  f1  22  2 32 ......equivalent friction coefficient
i1 i1 i2
Mf
M ..........................equivalent torque
i1i2
(can be derived from : 1  i12  i1i23 )
Make: Te  La ............electric - magnetic time - constant

Ra
Ra J
Tm  .......mechanical - electric time - constant
CeCm
Ra f
Tf  ....... friction - electric time - constant
CeCm
The differential equation description of the DC motor is:
 
TeTm 1  (TeT f  Tm ) 1  (T f  1)1

1 1
 ua  (TeTm M  Tm M )
Ce J
Assume the motor idle: Mf = 0, and neglect the friction: f = 0,
we have:
d 2 d 1
TeTm 2
 Tm    ua
dt dt Ce
Example 2.5 : A DC-Motor control system
R2
R3
+ DC
ur R1 R3 mot or
- - ua M
uk w l oad
R1
t r i gger
Uf r ect i f i er -
M
t echomet er
+
Input → ur，Output → ω; neglect the friction:
R2
uk  (ur  u f )  k1(ur  u f )........................................(1)
R1
u f  .....................(2) ua  k2uk ......................(3)

d 2 d 1 1
TeTm 2
 Tm   ua  (TeTm M  Tm M )......(4)
dt dt Ce J
（2）→（1）→（3）→（4），we have：

d 2 d 1 Tm
TeTm 2  Tm  (1  k1k2 C )  k1k2 ur 
1 (Te M  M )
dt dt e Ce J
2.2.2 steps to obtain the input-output description (differential
equation) of control systems
1) Determine the output and input variables of the control systems.
2) Write the differential equations of each system’s components in

terms of the physical laws of the components.
* necessary assumption and neglect.
* proper approximation.
3) dispel the intermediate(across) variables to get the input-output
description which only contains the output and input variables.
4) Formalize the input-output equation to be the “standard” form:
Input variable —— on the right of the input-output equation .
Output variable —— on the left of the input-output equation.
Writing polynomial—— according to the falling-power order.
2.2.3 General form of the input-output equation of the linear
control systems—A nth-order differential equation:
Suppose: input → r ，output → y
y (n )  a1 y ( n 1)  a2 y ( n 2)      an 1 y (1)  an y
 b0r (m)  b1r ( m1)  b2r (m 2)      bm 1r (1)  bmr.........n  m
2.3 Linearization of the nonlinear components
2.3.1 what is nonlinearity？
The output is not linearly vary with the linear variation of the
system’s (or component’s) input → nonlinear systems (or
components).
2.3.2 How do the linearization？
Suppose: y = f(r)
The Taylor series expansion about the operating point r0 is:
(1) f ( 2) ( r0 ) 2 f ( 3) ( r0 )
f ( r )  f ( r0 )  f ( r0 )( r  r0 )  ( r  r0 )  ( r  r0 )3    
2! 3!
 f ( r0 )  f (1) ( r0 )( r  r0 )
make : y  f ( r )  f ( r0 ) and : r  r  r0
wehave : y  f ' ( r0 )r ............linearizat ion equation

Examples:
Example 2.6 : Elasticity equation F ( x)  kx
suppose : k  12.65;   1.1; operating point x0  0.25
F ' ( x )  kx 1  F ' ( x0 )  12.65  1.1  0.250.1  12.11
we have : F ( x )  F ( x0 )  12.11( x  x0 )
that is : ΔF  12.11x..............linearizat ion equation
Example 2.7 : Fluxograph equation

Q( p )  k p
Q —— Flux; p —— pressure difference
k
because : Q ' ( p ) 
2 p
k
thus : Q  p...........linearizat ion equation
2 p0
2.4 Transfer function

Another form of the input-output(external) description of control
systems, different from the differential equations.
2.4.1 definition
Transfer function: The ratio of the Laplace transform of the
output variable to the Laplace transform of the input variable,with
all initial condition assumed to be zero and for the linear systems,
that is:
C ( s)
G( s) 
R( s )
C(s) —— Laplace transform of the output variable
R(s) —— Laplace transform of the input variable
G(s) —— transfer function
Notes:
* Only for the linear and stationary(constant parameter) systems.
* Zero initial conditions.
* Dependent on the configuration and the coefficients of the
systems, independent on the input and output variables.
2.4.2 How to obtain the transfer function of a system
1) If the impulse response g(t) is known
We have: G( s)  Lg (t )
Because:
C ( s)
G( s)  , if r(t )   (t )  R( s)  1
R( s )
Then: G( s)  C( s)  Lg(t )
 2t 5 3 2( s  5)
Example 2.8 : g (t )  5  3e  G( s)   
s s  2 s ( s  2)
2) If the output response c(t) and the input r(t) are known
Lc(t )
We have:
G( s) 
Lr (t )
1
Example 2.9: r (t )  1(t )  R(s)  ........Unit step function
s
1 1 3
c(t )  1  e3t  C ( s )   
s s  3 s( s  3)
.........Unit step response
Then: C ( s ) 3 s( s  3) 3
G( s)   
R( s ) 1s s3
3) If the input-output differential equation is known

•Assume: zero initial conditions;
•Make: Laplace transform of the differential equation;
•Deduce: G(s)=C(s)/R(s).
Example 2.10:   
2 c ( t )  3 c ( t )  4c ( t )  5 r ( t )  6r ( t )

2 s 2C ( s )  3sC ( s )  4C ( s )  5sR ( s )  6 R( s )

C(s) 5s  6
G(s)   2
R(s) 2 s  3s  4
4) For a circuit
* Transform a circuit into a operator circuit.
* Deduce the C(s)/R(s) in terms of the circuits theory.
Example 2.11: For a electric circuit:
R1 R2 R1 R2
ur C1 C2 uc ur ( s) 1/ C1s 1/ C2s uc( s)
1 1 1
// ( R2  )
sC1 sC2 sC2
U c ( s)  U r ( s) 
1 1 1
R1  // ( R2  ) R2 
sC1 sC2 sC2
1
 2
U r ( s)
T1T2 s  (T1  T2  T12 ) s  1
U ( s) 1
G( s)  c 
U r ( s ) T1T2 s 2  (T1  T2  T12 ) s  1
here : T1  R1C1; T2  R2C2; T12  R1C2
Example 2.12: For a op-amp circuit
R2 C R2 1/ Cs
ur R1 ur R1
- uc - uc
+ +
R1 R1
1
R2 
G( s) 
U c ( s)
 sC   R2Cs  1
U r ( s) R1 R1Cs
1
 k (1  )..................PI-Controller
s
R
here : k  2 ;   R2C...... Integral t ime constant
R1
5) For a control system
• Write the differential equations of the control system, and Assume
zero initial conditions;
• Make Laplace transformation, transform the differential equations
into the relevant algebraic equations;
• Deduce: G(s)=C(s)/R(s).
Example 2.13 the DC-Motor control system in Example 2.5
R2
R3
+ DC
ur R1 R3 mot or
- - ua M
uk w l oad
R1
t r i gger
Uf r ect i f i er -
M
t echomet er
+
In Example 2.5, we have written down the differential equations
as: R2
uk  (ur  u f )  k1(ur  u f )..................................(1)
R1
u f  ....................(2) ua  k2uk ...................(3)

d 2
d 1 Tm
TeTm 2
 Tm    ua  (Te M  M )......(4)
dt dt Ce J
Make Laplace transformation, we have:
U k ( s )  k1[U r ( s )  U f ( s )]........ ...........................................(1)
U f ( s )  ( s )...............(2) U a ( s )  k2U k ( s )..............(3)
2 1 TeTm s  Tm
(TeTm s  Tm s  1)( s )  U a ( s)  M ( s )......(4)
Ce J
(2)→(1)→(3)→(4), we have:
1 1 TeTm s  Tm
[TeTm s  Tm s  (1  k1k2 )]( s )  k1k2 U r ( s ) 
2
M ( s)
Ce Ce J
k1k2 1
( s ) Ce
G( s)  
U r ( s ) T T s 2  T s  (1  k k  1 )
e m m 1 2
Ce
La
here : Te  ...........electric  magnetic time - constant
Ra
Ra J
Tm  ......mechanical  electric time - constant
CeCm
2.5 Transfer function of the typical elements of linear systems
A linear system can be regarded as the composing of several
typical elements, which are:
2.5.1 Proportioning element
Relationship between the input and output variables:
c(t )  kr(t )
C ( s)
Transfer function: G( s)  k
R( s )
Block diagram representation and unit step response:
R( s) C( s) Examples:
k
r( t ) C( t )
k amplifier, gear train,
1
tachometer…
t t
2.5.2 Integrating element
t
1
c(t )   r (t )dt..........TI : integral time constant
TI
0 C ( s) 1
Transfer function: G( s)  
R( s ) TI s
R( s) 1 C( s)
Examples:
r( t ) TI s C( t )
1 Integrating circuit, integrating
1
motor, integrating wheel…
t t
TI
2.5.3 Differentiating element
dr (t )
c(t )  TD
dt
C ( s)
Transfer function: G( s)   TD s
R( s )
TDs
r( t ) C( t ) differentiating amplifier, differential
1 TD valve, differential condenser…
t t
2.5.4 Inertial element
dc(t )
T  c(t )  kr(t )
dt
C ( s) k
R( s) Ts  1
R( s) k C( s)
Examples:
r( t ) Ts  1 C( t )
k inertia wheel, inertial load (such as
1 temperature system)…
t t
T
2.5.5 Oscillating element
2
d c(t ) dc(t )
T 2
2
 2T  c(t )  kr(t ) 0  1
dt dt
C ( s) k
Transfer function: G( s)   2 2 0  1
R( s) T s  2Ts  1
R( s) 1 C( s) Examples:
r( t ) T 2 s 2  2Ts  1 C( t )
oscillator, oscillating table,
1 k oscillating circuit…
t t
2.5.6 Delay element
c(t )  kr(t   )
 kes
C ( s)
Transfer function: G( s) 
R( s )
ke s gap effect of gear mechanism,
r( t ) C( t )
k threshold voltage of transistors…
1
t
t 
2.6 block diagram models (dynamic)
Portray the control systems by the block diagram models more
intuitively than the transfer function or differential equation models.
2.6.1 Block diagram representation of the control systems
Si gnal X( s) Component G( s)
( var i abl e) ( devi ce)
X3( s)
Adder ( compar i son) X1( s) + E( s)

E( s) =x1( s) +x3( s) - x2( s)
+
-
X2( s)
Examples:
Example 2.14 For the DC motor in Example 2.4
In Example 2.4, we have written down the differential equations as:
dia
La  Raia  Ea  ua ....(1) M  Cmia .........................( 2)
dt
d
Ea  Ce .........................(3) M  M  J  f  .....( 4)
dt
U a ( s )  Ea ( s )
La sI a ( s )  Ra I a ( s )  Ea ( s )  U a ( s )  I a ( s )  .............(5)
La s  Ra
M ( s )  Cm I a ( s )......................................................................................(6)
Ea ( s )  Ce( s ).......................................................................................(7)
1
M ( s )  M ( s )  J s( s )  f ( s )  ( s )  [ M ( s )  M ( s )]......(8)
Js  f
Draw block diagram in terms of the equations (5)～(8):
M (s )
Ua( s) 1 I a( s) M( s) - 1 (s )
Cm
- La s  Ra Js  f
Ea( s)
Ce
M (s )
Consider the Motor as a whole: 1
(TeTm s  Tm )
J
TeTm s 2  (Tm  TeT f ) s  T f  1
1
Ua( s) Ce - (s )
TeTm s 2  (Tm  TeT f ) s  T f  1
Example 2.15 The water level control system in Fig 1.8:
1
Ce s k3 k4
k2 e
k1 TeTm s 2  Tm s  1 T1s  1 T2 s  1
s
Desi r ed Act ual
wat er l evel wat er l evel
I nput hi e ua   Q Wat er Out put h
ampl i f i er Mot or Gear i ng Val ve cont ai ner
-
Feedback si gnal hf
Fl oat
Tm
(Te s  1)
 J
2
M ( s) 
TeTm s  Tm s  1
The block diagram model is:
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Why？
1) Easy to discuss the full possible types of the control
systems —only in terms of the system’s “mathematical
characteristics”.
2) The
2.1.2 basis
What of analyzing or designing the control systems.
is ？
Mathematical models of systems — the mathematical relation-
ships between the system’s variables.
2.1.3 How get？
1) theoretical approaches
2) experimental approaches
3) discrimination learning
2.1.4 types
1) Differential equations
2) Transfer function
3) Block diagram、signal flow graph
4) State variables
2.2 The input-output description of the physical systems —
differential equations
The input-output description—description of the mathematical
relationship between the output variable and the input variable
of physical systems.
2.2.1 Examples
Example 2.1 : A passive circuit
define: input → ur output → uc。

R L
we have：
i di duc
ur C uc Ri  L  uc  ur i  C
dt dt

d 2 uc duc
LC 2  RC  uc  ur
dt dt
L d 2 uc duc
make : RC  T 1  T 2  T1T2 2  T1  uc  ur
R dt dt
Example 2.2 : A mechanism
Define: input → F ，output → y. We have:

dy d2y
k F  ky  f m 2
F dt d t

m d2y dy
m 2  f  ky  F
y dt dt
f m
f If we make :  T1,  T2
k f
d2y dy 1
we have : T1T2  T1 y F
dt 2 dt k
Compare with example 2.1: uc→y, ur→F---analogous systems
Example 2.3 : An operational amplifier (Op-amp) circuit
R2 R3 Input →ur output →uc
C 1
i2 i3 uc  R3 i3 
C  ( i3  i2 )dt  R4 ( i3  i2 )......(1)
R4
u
ur R1 i 1 i2   i1   r ...........................................( 2)
R1
- uc
1
+ i3  ( uc  R2 i2 ).....................................( 3)
R1 R3
duc R2  R3  R2  R3 dur 
(2)→(3); (2)→(1); (3)→(1)： R4C  uc   R (  R4 )C  ur 
1  2 3 
dt R R dt 
R2  R3 R2  R3
make : R4C  T ;  k; (  R4 )C  
R1 R2  R3
duc dur
we have : T  uc   k (  ur )
dt dt
Example 2.4 : A DC motor
Ra La
( J1, f 1)
ia w1
( J2, f 2)
ua M w2 ( J3, f 3) Mf
w3
i1
Input → ua， output → ω1 i2
dia (4)→(2)→(1) and (3)→(1):
La  Ra ia  Ea  ua ....(1)
dt
M  C m ia .........................( 2) La J  La f Ra J  R f
1  (  ) 1  ( a  1)1
Ea  C e1 .........................( 3) C e C m CeC m CeC m CeC m

d1 1 La Ra
MM J  f 1 .....(4)  ua  M  M
dt Ce CeC m CeC m
J2 J3
J  J1   ......equivalent moment of inertia
i12 i12 i22
f2 f3
here : f  f1   ......equivalent friction coefficient
i12 i12 i22
Mf
M ..........................equivalent torque
i1i2
(can be derived from : 1  i1 2  i1i2 3 )
La
Make: Te  ............electric - magnetic time - constant
Ra
Ra J
Tm  .......mechanical - electric time - constant
CeC m
Ra f
Tf  ....... friction - electric time - constant
CeC m
the differential equation description of the DC motor is:
 
TeTm 1  (TeT f  Tm ) 1  (T f  1)1

1 1
 ua  (TeTm M  Tm M )
Ce J
Assume the motor idle: Mf = 0, and neglect the friction: f =
0, we have:
d 2 d 1
TeTm  Tm   ua
dt 2 dt Ce
Compare with example 2.1 and example 2.2:
uc  y   ; ur  F  ua ----Analogous systems
Example 2.5 : A DC-Motor control system
R2
R3
+ DC
ur R1 R3 mot or
- - ua M
uk w l oad
R1
t r i gger
Uf r ect i f i er -
M
t echomet er
Input → ur, Output →ω; neglect the friction: +
R2
uk  ( ur  u f )  k1 ( ur  u f )........................................(1)
R1
u f   .....................(2) ua  k 2 uk ......................(3)

d 
2
d 1 1
TeTm  Tm   ua  (TeTm M  Tm M )......(4)
dt 2 dt Ce J
（2）→（1）→（3）→（4），we have：

d 2 d 1 Tm
TeTm 2  Tm  (1  k1k2 C )  k1k2
1 ur  (Te M  M )
dt dt e Ce J
2.2.2 steps to obtain the input-output description (differential
equation) of control systems
1) Identify the output and input variables of the control systems.
2) Write the differential equations of each system’s component
in terms of the physical laws of the components.
* necessary assumption and neglect.
* proper approximation.
3) dispel the intermediate(across) variables to get the input-
output description which only contains the output and input
variables.
4) Formalize the input-output equation to be the “standard” form:
Input variable —— on the right of the input-output equation .
Output variable —— on the left of the input-output equation.
Writing the polynomial—according to the falling-power order.
2.2.3 General form of the input-output equation of the linear
control systems
——A nth-order differential equation:
Suppose: input → r ，output → y
y ( n)  a1 y ( n1)  a2 y ( n2)      an1 y (1)  an y

 b0 r ( m )  b1r ( m 1)  b2 r ( m 2)      bm 1r (1)  bm r .........n  m
2.3 Linearization of the nonlinear components
2.3.1 what is nonlinearity？
The output of system is not linearly vary with the linear variation
of the system’s (or component’s) input → nonlinear systems (or
components).
2.3.2 How do the linearization？
Suppose: y = f(r)
The Taylor series expansion about the operating point r0 is:
f ( 2) ( r0 ) f (3) ( r0 )
f ( r )  f ( r0 )  f (1)
( r0 )( r  r0 )  ( r  r0 ) 
2
( r  r0 )3    
2! 3!
 f ( r0 )  f (1) ( r0 )( r  r0 )
make : y  f (r )  f ( r0 ) and : r  r  r0
we have : y  f ' ( r0 )r ............linearization equation
Examples:
Example 2.6 : Elasticity equation
F ( x )  kx
suppose : k  12.65;   1.1; operating point x0  0.25
F ' ( x )  kx 1  F ' ( x0 )  12.65 1.1 0.250.1  12.11
we have : F ( x )  F ( x0 )  12.11( x  x0 )
that is : ΔF  12.11x ..............linearization equation
Example 2.7 : Fluxograph equation
Q( p )  k p
Q —— Flux; p —— pressure difference
k
because : Q' ( p) 
2 p
k
thus : Q  p...........linearization equation
2 p0
2.4 Transfer function
Another form of the input-output(external) description of control
systems, different from the differential equations.
2.4.1 definition
Transfer function: The ratio of the Laplace transform of the
output variable to the Laplace transform of the input variable with
all initial condition assumed to be zero and for the linear systems,
that is:
C ( s)
G( s) 
R( s )
C(s) —— Laplace transform of the output variable
R(s) —— Laplace transform of the input variable
G(s) —— transfer function
Notes:
* Only for the linear and stationary(constant parameter) systems.
* Zero initial conditions.
* Dependent on the configuration and coefficients of the systems,
independent on the input and output variables.
2.4.2 How to obtain the transfer function of a system
1) If the impulse response g(t) is known
We have: G( s )  Lg(t )
Because: C ( s)
G( s )  , if r ( t )   ( t )  R( s )  1
R( s )
Then: G( s)  C ( s)  Lg(t )
2 t 5 3 2( s  5)
Example 2.8 : g( t )  5  3e  G( s )   
s s  2 s ( s  2)
2) If the output response c(t) and the input r(t) are known
Lc( t )
We have: G( s ) 
Lr ( t )
1
Example 2.9: r ( t )  1( t )  R(s)  ........Unit step function
s
3t 1 1 3
c( t )  1  e  C ( s)   
s s  3 s( s  3)
.........Unit step response
Then: C ( s ) 3 s( s  3) 3
G( s )   
R( s ) 1s s3
3) If the input-output differential equation is known
•Assume: zero initial conditions;
•Make: Laplace transform of the differential equation;
•Deduce: G(s)=C(s)/R(s).
Example 2.10:   
2 c( t ) 3 c( t ) 4c( t )  5 r ( t ) 6r ( t )

2 s 2C ( s )  3 sC ( s )  4C ( s )  5 sR( s )  6 R( s )

C(s) 5s  6
G(s)   2
R(s) 2 s  3 s  4
4) For a circuit
* Transform a circuit into a operator circuit.

* Deduce the C(s)/R(s) in terms of the circuits theory.
Example 2.11: For a electric circuit:
R1 R2 R1 R2
ur C1 C2 uc ur ( s) 1/ C1s 1/ C2s uc( s)
1 1 1
// ( R2  )
sC1 sC 2 sC 2
U c ( s)   U r ( s) 
1 1 1
R1  // ( R2  ) R2 
sC1 sC 2 sC 2
1
  U r ( s)
T1T2 s  (T1  T2  T12 ) s  1
2
U c ( s) 1
G( s)  
U r ( s ) T1T2 s 2  (T1  T2  T12 ) s  1
here : T1  R1C 1 ; T2  R2 C 2 ; T12  R1C 2
Example 2.12: For a op-amp circuit
R2 C R2 1/ Cs
ur R1 ur R1
- uc - uc
+ +
R1 R1
1
R2 
U c ( s) sC R2Cs  1
G( s)   
U r ( s) R1 R1Cs
1
  k (1  )................. .PI-Controller
s
here : k  R2 ;   R2C ...... Integral time constant
R1
5) For a control system
• Write the differential equations of the control system;
• Make Laplace transformation, assume zero initial conditions,
transform the differential equations into the relevant algebraic
equations;
• Deduce: G(s)=C(s)/R(s).
Example 2.13 the DC-Motor control system in Example 2.5
R2
R3
+ DC
ur R1 R3 mot or
- - ua M
uk w l oad
R1
t r i gger
Uf r ect i f i er -
M
t echomet er
+
as: R2
uk  ( ur  u f )  k1 ( ur  u f )..................................(1)
R1
u f   ....................(2) ua  k 2 uk ...................(3)

d 
2
d 1 T
TeTm  Tm   ua  m (Te M  M )......(4)
dt 2 dt Ce J
U k ( s )  k1[U r ( s )  U f ( s )]........ ...........................................(1)
U f ( s )  ( s )...............(2) U a ( s )  k 2U k ( s )..............(3)
1 T T s  Tm
(TeTm s 2  Tm s  1)( s )  U a ( s)  e m M ( s )......(4)
Ce J
(2)→(1)→(3)→(4), we have:
1 1 TeTm s  Tm
[TeTm s  Tm s  (1  k1k2 )]( s )  k1k2 U r ( s ) 
2
M ( s)
Ce Ce J
k1k2 1
( s ) Ce
G( s )  
U r ( s ) T T s 2  T s  (1  k k  1 )
e m m 1 2
Ce
La
here : Te  ...........electric  magnetic time - constant
Ra
Ra J
Tm  ......mechanical  electric time - constant
CeCm
2.5 Transfer function of the typical elements of linear systems
A linear system can be regarded as the composing of several
typical elements, which are:
2.5.1 Proportioning element
c ( t )  kr ( t )
C ( s)
Transfer function: G( s )  k
R( s )
R( s) C( s)
k Examples:
r( t ) C( t )
k amplifier, gear train,
1
tachometer…
t t
2.5.2 Integrating element
t
1
c( t )   r ( t )dt ..........TI : integral time constant
TI 0
C ( s) 1
R( s ) TI s
R( s) 1 C( s)
Examples:
r( t ) TI s C( t )
1 Integrating circuit, integrating
1 motor, integrating wheel…
t t
TI
2.5.3 Differentiating element
dr ( t )
c( t )  TD
dt
C ( s)
Transfer function: G( s)   TD s
R( s )
TDs
r( t ) C( t ) differentiating amplifier, differential
1 TD valve, differential condenser…
t t
2.5.4 Inertial element

dc( t )
T  c( t )  kr ( t )
dt
C ( s) k
Transfer function: G ( s )  
R( s ) Ts  1
R( s) k C( s)
Examples:
r( t ) Ts  1 C( t )
k inertia wheel, inertial load (such
1 as temperature system)…
t t
T
2.5.5 Oscillating element
2
d c( t ) dc( t )
T 2
2
 2T  c( t )  kr ( t ) 0 1
dt dt
C ( s) k
Transfer function: G( s )   2 2 0 1
R( s ) T s  2Ts  1
R( s) 1 C( s) Examples:
r( t ) T 2 s 2  2Ts  1 C( t )
oscillator, oscillating table,
1 k oscillating circuit…
t t
2.5.6 Delay element
c( t )  kr ( t   )
 ke s
C ( s)
Transfer function: G ( s ) 
R( s )
R( s) C( s)
s Examples:
ke
r( t ) C( t ) gap effect of gear mechanism,
k threshold voltage of transistors…
1
t
t 
Portray the control systems by the block diagram models more
intuitively than the transfer function or differential equation
models
.2.6.1 Block diagram representation of the control systems
Si gnal X( s) Component G( s)
( var i abl e) ( devi ce)
X3( s)
Adder ( compar i son) X1( s) + E( s)

E( s) =x1( s) +x3( s) - x2( s)
+
-
Examples: X2( s)
Example 2.14 For the DC motor in Example 2.4
as: dia
La  Ra ia  Ea  ua ....(1) M  C m ia .........................( 2)
dt
d
Ea  C e .........................( 3) M  M  J  f  .....(4)
dt
U a ( s )  Ea ( s )
La sI a ( s )  Ra I a ( s )  Ea ( s )  U a ( s )  I a ( s )  .............(5)
La s  Ra
M ( s )  C m I a ( s )......................................................................................(6)
Ea ( s )  C e ( s ).......................................................................................(7)
1
M ( s )  M ( s )  J s( s )  f ( s )  ( s )  [ M ( s )  M ( s )]......(8)
Js  f
Draw block diagram in terms of the equations (5)～(8):
M (s )
Ua( s) 1 I a( s) M( s) - 1 (s )
Cm
- La s  Ra Js  f
Ea( s)
Ce
M(s)
Consider the Motor as a whole: 1
(TeTms  Tm)
J
TeTms2  (Tm  TeTf )s  Tf 1
1 (s)
Ua(s) Ce -
TeTms2  (Tm  TeTf )s  Tf 1
Example 2.15 The water level control system in Fig 1.8:
1 s k
Ce k 2e k 3 4
k1 TeTm s 2  Tm s  1 s T1 s  1 T2 s  1
Desi r ed Act ual
wat er l evel wat er l evel
I nput hi e ua   Q Wat er Out put h
ampl i f i er Mot or Gear i ng Val ve cont ai ner
-
Feedback si gnal hf
Fl oat
Tm
(Te s  1)
 J M ( s) 
TeTm s  Tm s  1
2
M (s )
Tm
(Te s  1)
J
TeTm s 2  Tm s  1
1
Hi ( s) E( s) Ua( s) Ce - k 2 e  s k3 k4 H( s)
(s) s (s) T1s 1 Q( s) T2 s  1

K
- TeTm s 2  Tm s  1
Hf ( s)

Example 2.16 The DC motor control system in Fig 1.9
1 s 1
k p (1  ) k De Ce
TI s TeTm s 2  Tm s  1
Desi red
rot at e speed Act uat or Act ual
Ref erence Error rot at e speed
i nput ur e uk a ua Out put 
Regul at or Tri gger Rect i f i er DC
mot or
-
Techomet er
Feedback si gnal uf Tm
 (Te s  1)
 J M ( s)
Ts  1 TeTm s  Tm s  1
2
M (s)
Tm
(T e s  1)
J
TeTm s 2  Tm s  1
Uk( s) Ua( s) -  (s ) 1
s
1
Ur ( s) E( s) 1 Ce  (s )
k p (1  ) kD e
- TI s TeTm s 2  Tm s  1 s
Uf ( s)

Ts1
2.6.2 Block diagram reduction
purpose: reduce a complicated block diagram to a simple one.
2.6.2.1 Basic forms of the block diagrams of control systems
Chapter 2-2.ppt
Three basic forms
cascade parallel feedback
G1 G1
G1 G2
G2 G2
G1
G1 G2 G1 G2
1+ G1 G2
2.6.2.2 block diagram transformations
1. Moving a summing point to be:
behind a block
x1 y
x1 y
G G
± ±
x2 x2
G
Ahead a block
x1 y x1 y
G G
±
±
x2 1/G x2
2. Moving a pickoff point to be:
behind a block
x1 y x1 y
G G
x2 x2
1/G
ahead a block
x1 y x1 y
G G
x2
x2 G
3. Interchanging the neighboring—
Summing points
x3 x3
x1 ＋ y
x1 ＋
y
－
－
x2 x2
Pickoff points
y y
x1 x2 x1 x2
4. Combining the blocks according to three basic forms.
Notes:
1. Neighboring summing point and pickoff point can not be
interchanged！
2. The summing point or pickoff point should be moved to the

same kind！
3. Reduce the blocks according to three basic forms！
Examples:
Moving pickoff point
H2
G1 G2 G3 G4
H3
H1
Example 2.17 1
H2 G4
G1 G2 G3 G4
a b
H3
H1
Moving summing point Move to the same kind
G3
G1 G2
H1
Example 2.18
G3
G1 G2
G1 H1
Disassembling the
G4 actions
G1 G2 G3
H1 H3
G4 Example 2.19
G1 G2 G3
H1 H3
H1 H3
2.7 Signal-Flow Graph Models
Block diagram reduction ——is not convenient to a complicated
system.
Signal-Flow graph —is a very available approach to determine
the relationship between the input and output variables of a sys-
tem, only needing a Mason’s formula without the complex reduc-
tion procedures.
2.7.1 Signal-Flow Graph
only utilize two graphical symbols for describing the relation-
ship between system variables。
Nodes, representing the signals or variables.

G Branches, representing the relationship and gain
Between two variables.
Example 2.20:
f
x1  ax0  bx1  cx2
c
x2  dx1  ex3 x0 a x1 d x2 g x3 h x4
x3  fx0  gx2
b e
x4  hx 3
2.7.2 some terms of Signal-Flow Graph
Path — a branch or a continuous sequence of branches traversing

from one node to another node.
Path gain — the product of all branch gains along the path.
Loop —— a closed path that originates and terminates on the

same node, and along the path no node is met twice.
Loop gain —— the product of all branch gains along the loop.
Touching loops —— more than one loops sharing one or more
common nodes.
Non-touching loops — more than one loops they do not have a
common node.
2.7.3 Mason’s gain formula
m
C ( s)
 Pk  k
k 1
G( s)  
R( s ) 
  1   L1   L2   L3    
m
C ( s)
 Pk  k
k 1
G( s)  
R( s ) 
  1   L1   L2   L3    
pk  k-th forward path gain

 k  cofactor of pk : make the branch gains, which
touch the k-th forward path, are zero in Δ.
 L1  sum of all different loop gains.
 L2  sum of the gain products of all combination of
2 non-touching loops.
 L3  sum of th e gain products of all combination of
3 non-touching loops.

Example 2.21 f
c
x0 a x1 d x2 g x3 h x4
b e
  1  (b  cd  ge )  (bge )
m
 Pk  k
C ( s ) k 1
G( s) 
R( s )

 P1  adgh 1  1
  1   L1   L2   L3     P2  fh ;  2  1  (b  cd )
x4 adgh  fh(1  b  cd )
G 
x0 1  b  cd  ge  bge
2.7.4 Portray Signal-Flow Graph based on Block Diagram
Graphical symbol comparison between the signal-flow graph

and block diagram:
Block diagram Signal-flow graph
and
G(s) G(s)
Example 2.22 H1
R(s) E(s) X － X3 C(s)

G1 1
G2 G3 G4
－ X
－
2
H2
H3
－H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X 2 G3 X3 G4 C(s)
－H2
－H3
－H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X 1 G2 X 2 G3 G4 X3 1 C(s)
－H2
－H3
  1  (G1G2G3G4 H 3  G2G3 H 2  G3G4 H1 )

P1  G1G2G3G4 ; 1  1
C ( s) G1G2G3G4
G 
R( s ) 1  G1G2G3G4 H 3  G2G3 H 2  G3G4 H1
Example 2.23 －
－ X1 Y1
G1
R(s) + + C(s)
E(s)
－－X +
2
G2
－ Y2
-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) -1 C(s)
1 1 1
X2 G2 Y2
-1 -1
-1
X G Y
-1 1 1 1
C(s)
R(s) 1 E(s) 1 -1
1 X 1 Y 1
G
2 2
2
-1 -1
7 loops:
3 ‘2 non-touching loops’ :
-1
X G Y
-1 1 1 1
C(s)
R(s) 1 E(s) 1 -1
1 X 1 Y 1
G
2 2
2
-1 -1
Then: Δ  1  2G2  4G1G2

4 forward paths: p1  (  1)  G1  1 Δ1  1  G2
p2  (  1)  G1  (  1)  G2  1 Δ2  1
p3  1  G2  1 Δ3  1  G1
p4  1  G2  1  G1  1 Δ4  1
C ( s)
We have G( s) 
R( s )

 pk  k

G2  G1  2G1G2

1  2G2  4G1G2
Chapter 5 Frequency Response Method
1. Introduction Concept

2. Frequency Response of the typical Graphics
elements of the linear systems mode
3. Bode diagram of the open loop system
4. Nyquist-criterion

5. System analysis based on the frequency
Analysis
response
6. Frequency response of the closed loop
systems
5.1 Introduction
Three advantages:
* Frequency response(mathematical modeling) can be obtained
directly by experimental approaches.
* easy to analyze the effects of the system with sinusoidal voices.
* easy to analyze the stability of the systems with a delay
element
R
5.1.1 frequency response
For a RC circuit:
If : ur  A sin(t   0 ) ur C uc
We have the steady-state response:

1
j C 1
U c ( j )  U r ( j )  U r ( j )
1 jRC  1
R
j C
5.1 Introduction
Uc ( j ) 1
Make: G ( j )  
Ur ( j ) jRC  1
then: U c ( j )  G( j )U r ( j )
We have: uc (t )  U cm sin(t   c )
Here: U cm  U c ( j )  G( j )  U r ( j )  c  U c ( j )  G( j )  U r ( j )
1  tg -1 ( RC )   0
 A
( RC ) 2  1
U c ( j ) 1
We call: G ( j )  
U r ( j ) jRC  1
Frequency Response(or frequency characteristic) of the electric

circuit.
5.1 Introduction
Generalize above discussion, we have:
Definition : frequency response (or characteristic) —the ratio of
the complex vector of the steady-state output versus sinusoid input
for a linear system, that is:
C ( j )
G( j ) 
R( j )
Here: R( j )  the complexvector representation of the sinusoidinput
C( j )  the complexvector representation of the output
G( j )  frequency response(or characteristic)
And we name:
C ( j )
A( )  G( j )   magnitude response (characteristic)
R( j )
(amplitude ratio of the steady-state output versus sinusoid input)
 ( )  G( j )  C( j )  R( j )  phase response(characteristic)
(phase difference between steady-state output and sinusoid input )
5.1.2 approaches to get the frequency characteristics
1. Experimental discrimination
Input a sinusoid signal to the control system
Measure the amplitude and phase of the steady-state output
Change frequency
Get the amplitude ratio of the output versus input
Get the phase difference between the output and input
Are the measured data enough？ N
y
Data processing
2. Deductive approach
Theorem: If the transfer function is G(s), we have:
G( j )  G( s )
s  j
Proof :
C ( s) M ( s)
assume : G ( s )  
R( s ) ( s  p1 )( s  p2 )    ( s  pn )
A
and r(t)  A sint  R( s ) 
s2   2
Where — pi is assumed to be distinct pole (i=1,2,3…n).
then C ( s )  G ( s ) R( s )
M ( s) A
 
( s  p1 )( s  p2 )    ( s  pn ) ( s  j )( s  j )
In partial fraction form:
K1 K2 Kn  A1 A2 
C ( s)        
( s  p1 ) ( s  p2 ) ( s  p3 )  ( s  j ) ( s  j ) 
M ( s)
Here: Ki   ( s  p i )  R( s )
( s  p1 )( s  p2 )    ( s  p3 ) s   pi
A
A1  G ( s )   ( s  j )
( s  j )( s  j ) s  j
A A G ( j ) j ( G ( j ) 90o )
 G ( j )  e
2j 2
 A G( j )  j (G ( j )90o )
A2  A1  e
2
Taking the inverse Laplace transform:
n
c( t )   K i e pi t  A1e jt  A2 e  jt
i 1
n  j (t  G ( j ) 90o )  j ( t   G ( j  )  90 o 
)
e e
  Kie pi t
 A G ( j ) 
 2 

i 1  
n
  K i e pi t  A G ( j ) sin(t  G ( j ))
i 1
For the stable system all poles (-pi) have a negative real parts,
we have the steady-state output signal:
n
lim c( t )  c s ( t )  lim [
t  t 
 K i e pi t  A G ( j ) sin(t  G ( j ))]
i 1
 A G ( j ) sin(t  G ( j ))
the steady-state output:
cs (t )  A G( j ) sin(t  G( j ))
Compare with the sinusoid input r (t )  A sint , we have:
The amplitude ratio of the steady-state output cs(t) versus
sinusoid input r(t):
A G( j ) C ( j )
 G(jω)   magnitude characteristic
A R( j )
The phase difference between the steady-state output and
sinusoid input:
[t  G( j )]  t  G( j )  C ( j )  R( j )
 phase characteristic
Then we have :
C ( j )
G ( j )   G( s )
R( j ) s  j
5.1 Introduction
Examples 5.1.1
a unity feedback control system, the open-loop transfer function:

1
G( s) 
0.5 s  1
If : r ( t )  10 sin(4t  60o )  20cos(4t  45o )
1) Determine the steady-state response c(t) of the system.
2) Determine the steady-state error e(t) of the system.
Solution:
1) Determine the steady-state response c(t) of the system.
The closed-loop transfer function is:
1
 ( s) 
C ( s)

G( s )
 0.5 s  1  1
R( s ) 1  G ( s ) 1  1 0.5 s  2
0.5 s  1
5.1 Introduction
The frequency characteristic :
1 1
 ( j )  s  j 
0.5 s  2 0.5 j  2
The magnitude and phase The output response:
response :
So we have the steady-state response c(t) :

5
c( t )  2 sin(4t  60o  45o )  5 2cos(4t  45o  45o )
2
5
 2 sin(4t  15o )  5 2 cos 4t
2
5.1 Introduction
2) Determine the steady-state error e(t) of the system.
The error transfer function is :
0.5 j  1
E ( s ) R( s )  C ( s ) E ( j )  R( j )
  1
C ( s) 0.5 j  2
R( s ) R( s ) R( s )  5
j 0.5  1   10
 1   ( s)  1 
1 E ( j )   R( j )  4
j 0.5  2
0.5 s  2  4 
5
 20
0.5 s  1  4

0.5 s  2  j 0.5  1 
 E ( j )     R( j )
The error frequency response:  j 0.5  2   4
(63.4 o  45o )  (4t  60o )  4t  78.4 o

The steady state error e(t) is: (63.4 o  45o )  (4t  45o )  4t  63.4 o
e( t )  2.5 5 sin(4t  78.4o )  5 5 cos(4t  63.4o )

5.1 Introduction
5.1.3 Graphic expression of the frequency response
Graphic expression —— for intuition
1. Rectangular coordinates plot
  tg 1 ( 2 )
10 10 10
Example 5.1.2 G( s )   G( j )  
2s  1 j 2  1
1  ( 2 ) 2
G ( j ) G( j )
 G ( j )  G ( j ) 10
0 10 0o
5
0.5 7.07  45o
1 4.47  63.435o 1
0 
2 2.4  75.964o 0. 5 1 2 3 4 5
3 1.64  80.538o
4 1.24  82.875o
5 0 .995  84.29o - 90o
2. Polar plot
The polar plot is easily useful for investigating system stability.
Example 5.1.3 K K
G( s )   G( j )  G( s ) 
s(Ts  1) s  j j ( jT  1)
The magnitude and phase response:
;  ( )  G( j )  [90o  tg 1 (T)]
K
A( )  G( j ) 
 1  (T ) 2
Calculate A(ω) and  ( ) for different ω:

Im
KT  
2
Re
 0 1 1 
2T T   1T
A( )   4 KT KT 0 4KT
5 2 5 -135o
o o 1
 ( )   90  117  135o  180o 2T
 0 -117o
The shortage of the polar plot and the rectangular coordinates
plot: to synchronously investigate the cases of the lower and
higher frequency band is difficult.
Idea: How to enlarge the lower frequency band and shrink
(shorten) the higher frequency band？
3. Bode diagram(logarithmic plots)
Plot the frequency characteristic in a semilog coordinate:
Magnitude response — Y-coordinate in decibels: 20 log G( j )
X-coordinate in logarithm of ω: logω
Phase response — Y-coordinate in radian: G( j )
X-coordinate in logarithm of ω: logω
First we discuss the Bode diagram in detail with the frequency
response of the typical elements.
5.2 Frequency Response of The Typical Elements
The typical elements of the linear control systems — refer to
Chapter 2.
1. Proportional element
Transfer function: G ( s )  C ( s )  K
R( s )
Frequency response:

 G( j )  K  L( )  20 log G( j )  20 log K
G( j )  K  

  ( )  G( j )  0o
Im L( ),  ( )
 ( )  0o
K Re
L( )  20 log K dB
0dB, 0o  (log  )
0.1 1 10 100
Polar plot Bode diagram
5.2 Frequency response of the typical elements
2. Integrating element
C ( s) 1
Transfer function: G ( s )  
R( s ) s
Frequency response:
 1
1  G ( j )   L( )  20 log G ( j )  20 log 
G ( j )   
j  o
  ( )   G ( j  )   90
L( ),  ( )
  Im
Re L( ) :  20dB / dec
0dB, 0o  (log  )
 0 0.1 1 10 100  ( )  90o
Polar plot
Bode diagram
3. Inertial element
C ( s) 1 1
Transfer function: G( s )   G ( j  ) 
R( s ) Ts  1 jT  1
0   1 T
1 
G( j )   L( )  20 log 1  (T ) 2    3dB  1 T
1  (T ) 2  20 log(T )   1 T
 
 ( )   tg (T )
1
K 1
1/T: break frequency G ( s )  :
T2 s  1 T2
L( ),  ( )
1
Im  0 20 log K
  0dB, 0o
T
 (log  )
1 Re 0.1 1 10 100
 45o 20dB / dec
 90o

4. Oscillating element
C ( s) 1
Transfer function: G( s )   0 1
R( s ) T 2 s 2  2Ts  1
1
G( j ) 
(1   2T 2 )  j 2T
2T
G ( j ) 
1
 ( )  tg 1 ( )
1  ( T )  (2T )
2 2 2 2
2 2
1 T
0    n (  1 T )

L( )  20 log (1   2T 2 ) 2  ( 2T ) 2    20 log( 2 )   n
 40 log(T )   
 n
maximum value of G( j ) ：
d 2 2
Make: ( G( j ) )  0     r   n 1  2 (0    )
d 2
 r  resonant f requency  M  G( j )  1
r r
M r  resonant p eak 2 1   2
The polar plot and the Bode diagram:  2  1
Im L( ),  ( ) 20 log M r
   0 n  1 / T 20 log( 1 )
Re 2
1 r
0dB, 0o  (log  )
0.1 1 10 100
1  90o
j (   n )
2 40dB / dec
Polar plot  180o

Bode diagram
1.    r  (  n )  M r 
   0   r   n  unstable system
2. 
  2    0 No resonan ce, Optimal Second - order System
r
2
5. Differentiating element
Transfer function:
 s differential

G( s )   Ts  1 first  order differential
Ts 2  2Ts  1 second  order differential

Im Im Im
Re Re Re
1 1
differential 1th-order differential 2th-order differential
Polar plot
Because of the transfer functions of the differentiating elements
are the reciprocal of the transfer functions of Integrating element,
Inertial element and Oscillating element respectively,
that is: inverse
s  1
s
inverse
Ts  1  1
Ts  1
inverse
T 2 s 2  2Ts  1  1
T 2 s 2  2Ts  1
the Bode curves of the differentiating elements are symmetrical

to the logω-axis with the Bode curves of the Integrating element,
Inertial element and Oscillating element respectively.
Then we have the Bode diagram of the differentiating elements:
L( ),  ( ) L( ),  ( )
 180o
L( ) :  20dB / dec  40dB / dec
 ( )  90o
 (log  )  90o
0dB, 0o n  1 T
0.1 1 10 100
0dB, 0o  (log  )
differential 0.1 1 10 100
L( ),  ( )
20 log( 1 )
o 2
 90
o
 20dB / dec 20 log M r
 45
0dB, 0o  (log  ) 2th-order differential
0.1 1 10 100
1th-order differential
6. Delay element
 e s
C ( s)
Transfer function: G ( s ) 
R( s )
   G( j )  1  L( )  0
G( j )  e j 
 ( )  G( j )  
Im L( ),  ( )
R=1
0dB, 0o  (log  )
Re 0.1 1 10 100

5.3 Bode diagram of the open loop systems
5.3.1 Plotting methods of the Bode diagram of the open loop
systems
Assume: G ( s )  G1 ( s )  G2 ( s )  G3 ( s )...
here : Gi ( s )  the transf er functio n of the t ypical elements
We have:
 ( )  G( j )  G1 ( j )  G2 ( j )  G3 ( j )  ...
L( )  20 log G  2o log G1  20 log G2  20 log G3  ...

That is, Bode diagram of a open loop system is the superposition
of the Bode diagrams of the typical elements.
10( s  1)
Example 5.3.1 G( s ) H ( s ) 
s 2 (0.01s  1)
5.3 Bode diagram of the open loop systems
G(s)H(s) could be regarded as:
① ②③ ④
10( s  1) 1 1
G ( s) H ( s)   10  (s  1)  
2
s (0.01s  1) s2 0.01s  1
Then we have:
L( ),  ( ) 20dB/dec
②
－40dB/dec
40dB, 90o
①
20dB, 45o
－20dB/dec
0dB, 0o  (log  )
0.1 1 10 100 －20dB/dec
-20dB, -45o ④
-40dB/dec
-40dB, -90o
－40dB/dec
-60dB.-135o
③
-80dB,-180o
5.3.2 Facility method to plot the magnitude response
of the Bode diagram
Summarizing example 5.3.1, we have the facility method to plot
the magnitude response of the Bode diagram:
1) Mark all break frequencies in theω-axis of the Bode diagram.
2) Determine the slope of the L(ω) of the lowest frequency band
(before the first break frequency) according to the number of the
integrating elements:
－20dB/dec for 1 integrating element
－40dB/dec for 2 integrating elements …
3) Continue the L(ω) of the lowest frequency band until to the
first break frequency, afterwards change the the slope of the L(ω)
which should be increased 20dB/dec for the break frequency of
the 1th-order differentiating element .
The slope of the L(ω) should be decreased 20dB/dec for the
break frequency of the Inertial element …
5.3.2 Facility method to plot the magnitude response of
the Bode diagram
Plot the L(ω) of the rest break frequencies by analogy .
Example 5.3.2 10( s  1)
G ( s) 
s(0.1s  1)( 0.012 s 2  0.01s  1)
 20log10  20logω (  1)  ( )  90o  tg 1  tg 1 (0.1 )
 20log10  20log
  0.01
 (1    10)  tg 1
  20log 
 1  ( 0.01 ) 2

L( )   20log10  20log     51.3o
 (10    100)  1
20log  20log(0.1 ) 
    56.5o   10
 20log10  20log    ( )  

 20log  20log(0.1 ) (100   )   174 . 9 o
  100
   179.6o   104
 40log(0.01 )  
The Bode diagram is shown in following figure:

5.3.2 Facility method to plot the magnitude response of
the Bode diagram
L( ),  ( )
G ( s) 
－20dB/dec
10( s  1) 40dB, 90o －20dB/dec
2 2 1.25dB
s(0.1s  1)( 0.01 s  0.01s  1) 20dB, 45o
0dB, 0o  (log  )
0.1 1 10 100
-20dB, -45o
－60dB/dec
-40dB, -90o r
-60dB.-135o
-80dB,-180o
-100dB,-225o
-120dB,-270o
There is a resonant peak Mr at:    r   n 1  2 2

1
Mr   1.154  1.25 dB  100 1  2  0.52  70.7
2 1   2
5.3.3 Determine the transfer function in terms of the
Bode diagram
1. The minimum phase system(or transfer function)
Compare following transfer functions:
K (s  1) K (s  1) We have:

G1 ( s)  G2 ( s) 
(Ts  1) (Ts  1) G1 ( )  G2 ( )  G3 ( )  G4 ( )
T 
K ( s  1) K (s  1)
G3 ( s)  G4(s)  ( ) 2  1
(Ts  1) (Ts  1) K
(T ) 2  1
The magnitude responses are the same.
But the net phase shifts are different when ω vary from zero to
infinite. It can be illustrated as following:
Sketch the polar plot:

G1 ( j )   tg 1 (T )  tg 1 ( ), G2 ( j )   tg 1 (T )  180o  tg 1 ( ) 
 
G3 ( j )   tg 1 (T )  tg 1 ( ), G4 ( j )   180o  tg 1 (T )  tg 1 ( )
Bode diagram
The polar plot:
Im
 
  , K
Im T
 0
  ,  K Im   0, K
K T Re
Re Re
  0,  K 
  , K
T
K (s  1) phase K (s  1) phase G3 ( s) 

K ( s  1) phase
G1 ( s)  G2 ( s) 
Ts  1 shift 0
0
Ts  1 shift －π Ts  1 shift －π
Im
  0,  K It is obvious: the net phase shifts of the
Re G1(jω) is the minimum when ω vary from
zero to infinite.

  , K G1(s) is named: the minimum phase
T
K (s  1) phase transfer function .
G4 ( s ) 
Ts  1 shift π
5.3.3 Determine the transfer function of the minimum phase
systems in terms of the magnitude response
Definition:
A transfer function is called a minimum phase transfer func-
tion if its zeros and poles all lie in the left-hand s-plane.
A transfer function is called a non-minimum phase transfer
function if it has any zero or pole lie in the right-hand s-plane.
Only for the minimum phase systems we can affirmatively deter-
mine the relevant transfer function from the magnitude response of
the Bode diagram .
2. Determine the transfer function from the magnitude response

of the Bode diagram .
Example 5.3.3
Bode diagram
L( )
we can get the G(s) from － 40dB/dec
the Bode diagram : －20dB/dec

 (log  )
0dB, 0o
K ( 0.5s  1)
2 20 200
0.1 1 10 100
G ( s)  40dB/dec
s2 ( 0.005s  1)
－
and :
L( )  2o log K  20 log  2  20 log( 0.5 )  0  K  40
  20
Example 5.3.4 L( )
we can get the G(s) from the 20dB
20dB/dec －20dB/dec
0.5 200
Bode diagram :  (log  )
0dB 10 100
0.1 1
Ks
G ( s) 
(T1s  1)(T2 s  1)
Bode diagram
L( )
we can get the G(s) from the 20dB
20dB/dec －20dB/dec
Bode diagram : 0.5 200
 (log  )
0dB 10 100
Ks 0.1 1
G ( s) 
and : (T1s  1)(T2 s  1)
L( )  20 log K  20 log   0.5  0  K 2
L( ω)  20 log 2  20 log   1 / T  20 dB  T1  0.2
1
L( )  20 log 2  20 log   20 log( 0.2 )  20 log(T2 )   200  0  T2  0.05
Example 5.3.5 L( )
－20dB/dec
we can get the G(s) from
8.136 dB
the Bode diagram : 20 dB
 (log  )
2 0dB
K ( 0.01s  1) 0.1 1 10 100
G ( s)  －60dB/dec
s(T 2 s  2Ts  1) －20dB/dec

Bode diagram
L( )
－20dB/dec
we can get the G(s) from
8.136 dB
the Bode diagram : 20 dB
0dB  (log  )
K ( 0.01s  1)2 0.1 1 10 100
G ( s)  －60dB/dec
s(T s  2Ts  1)
2 －20dB/dec
1
 10  T  0.1
T
L( )  20 log K  20 log   10  20 dB  K  100 then :
1 100(0.01s  1) 2
20 log  8.136    0.2 G(s) 
2ζ 1   2 s(0.01s  0.04s  1)
For the non-minimum phase system we must combine the

magnitude response and phase response together to determine
the transfer function.
Bode diagram
L( ),  ( )
Example 5.3.6
－20dB/dec
10(0.1s  1) 10(0.1s  1) 0dB, 0o  (log  )
G1  G2  0.1 1 10 100
( s  1) ( s  1) －90o
－180o
10( 0,1s  1) 10(0.1s  1)
G3  G4 ( s ) 
( s  1) ( s  1)
All satisfy the magnitude response
10(0.1s  1)
But only G4 ( s ) 
( s  1)
satisfy the phase response sim ultaneously.
10(0.1s  1)
So, we have : G( s) 
(s - 1)
5.4 The Nyquist-criterion
A method to investigate the stability of a system in terms of the
open-loop frequency response.
5.4.1 The argument principle(Cauchy’s theorem)
Assume: G ( s ) H ( s )  K 1 ( s  z1 )( s  z 2 )...( s  z m ) nm
( s  p1 )( s  p2 )...( s  pn )
here : z i  open-loop zeros; p j  open-loop poles .
Make : K 1 ( s  z1 )( s  z 2 )...( s  z m )
F ( s)  1  G( s) H ( s)  1 
( s  p1 )( s  p2 )...( s  pn )
( s  p1 )( s  p2 )...( s  pn )  K 1 ( s  z1 )( s  z 2 )...( s  z m )

( s  p1 )( s  p2 )...( s  pn )
K F ( s  s1 )( s  s 2 )...( s  s n )
 s i  zeros of the F ( s )
( s  p1 )( s  p2 )...( s  pn )
Note: si→ the zeros of the F(s), also the roots of the 1+G(s)H(s)=0
5.4.1 The argument principle
Now we consider the net phase shift F (s) if s travels 360o
along a closed path Γ of the s-plane in the clockwise direction
shown in Fig.5.4.1 .
 ( s  si )  ( s  p j )

n n
Because : F ( s ) 
i 1 j 1 S-plane
If the zeros si is enclosed by Γ , then : Im Γ
( s  si )  2 s  si
s
si
If the zeros si is not enclosed by Γ , then : Re
( s  si )  0 si
Similarly we have:
p j is enclosed by Γ : ( s  p j )  2 Fig. 5.4.1
p j is not enc losed by Γ : ( s  p j )  0

If Z zeros and P poles are enclosed by Γ , then:
 ( s  si )   ( s  p j )
n n
F ( s ) 
i 1 j 1
 Z  ( 2 )  P  ( 2 )  ( P  Z )  2
It is obvious that path Γ can not pass through any zeros si or

poles pj . Then we have the argument principle:
If a closed path Γ in the s-plane encircles Z zeros and P poles of
F(s) and does not pass through any poles or zeros of F(s) , when s
travels along the contour Γ in the clockwise direction, the corres-
ponding F(s) locus mapped in the F(s)-plane will encircle the
origin of the F(s) plane N = P-Z times in the counterclockwise
direction, that is:
N=P－Z
here: N —— number of the F(s) locus encircling the origin of the
F(s)-plane in the counterclockwise direction.
P —— number of the zeros of the F(s) encircled by the path
Γ in the s-plane.
Z —— number of the poles of the F(s) encircled by the path
Γ in the s-plane.
5.4.2 Nyquist criterion

Im
If we choose the closed path Γ so S-plane
that the Γ encircles the entire right
hand of the s-plane but not pass Re
through any zeros or poles of F(s)
shown in Fig.5.4.2 .
The path Γ is called the Nyquist-path. Fig. 5.4.2
5.4.2 Nyquist criterion Im  S-plane
When s travels along the the Nyquist-path:
F ( s )  1  G( s ) H ( s )  1  G( s ) H ( s )  0
s  j Re
F ( s)  1  G( j ) H ( j )  G( j ) H ( j )  1  F ( s )
s   j
Because the origin of the F(s)-plane is Fig. 5.4.2
equivalent to the point (-1, j0) of the G(jω)H(jω)-plane, we have
another statement of the argument principle:
When ω vary from - (or 0) →+  , G(jω)H(jω) Locus mapped
in the G(jω)H(jω)-plane will encircle the point (-1, j0) in the
counterclockwise direction:
N  P  Z [or N  (P  Z)/ 2 for  from 0   ]
here: P — the number of the poles of G(s)H(s) in the right hand
of the s-plane.
Z — the number of the zeros of F(s) in the right hand of the
s-plane.
5.4.2 Nyquist-criterion
If the systems are stable, should be Z = 0, then we have:
The sufficient and necessary condition of the stability of the
linear systems is : When ω vary from - (or 0) →+  , the
G(jω)H(jω) Locus mapped in the G(jω)H(jω)-plane will encircle
the point (-1, j0) as P (or P/2) times in the counterclockwise
direction. ——Nyquist criterion
Here: P — the number of the poles of G(s)H(s) in the right hand
of the s-plane.
Discussion :
i) If the open loop systems are stable, that is P = 0, then:
for the stable open-loop systems, The sufficient and necessary
condition of the stability of the closed-loop systems is :
When ω vary from - (or 0) →+  , the G(jω)H(jω) locus
mapped in the G(jω)H(jω)-plane will not encircle the point (-1, j0).
ii) Because that the G(jω)H(jω) locus encircles the point (-1, j0)
means that the G(jω)H(jω) locus traverse the left real axis of
the point (-1, j0) , we make:
G(jω)H(jω) Locus traverses the left real axis of the point (-1, j0)
in the counterclockwise direction —“positive traversing”.
G(jω)H(jω) Locus traverses the left real axis of the point (-1, j0)
in the clockwise direction —“negative traversing”.
Then we have another statement of the Nyquist criterion:
linear systems is : When ω vary from - (or 0) →+  , the
number of the net “positive traversing” is P (or P/2).
Here: the net “positive traversing” —— the difference between the
number of the “positive traversing” and the number of the “negative
traversing” .
Example 5.4.1
The polar plots of the open loop systems are shown in Fig.5.4.3,
determine whether the systems are stable.
Im Im
stable stable
(-1, j0)
(-1, j0)
  Re   Re
 0
(1) P=2 (2) P=0
 0  0
Im Im
unstable unstable
(-1, j0)
  Re (-1, j0)
  Re
 0
(3) P=2
Fig.5.4.3 (4) P=0
Note: the system with the poles (or zeros) at the imaginary axis
10
Example 5.4.2 G ( s ) H ( s ) 
s( s  1)( 0.5s  1)
There is a pole s = 0 at the origin in this system, but the Nyquist
path can not pass through any poles of G(s)H(s).
Idea: We consider a semicircular Radius
detour around the pole (s = 0) repre- s  j Im
r 
sented by setting s  e j (  0)   0  0
at the s = 0 point we have: Re
  j 90 o   1 1 j 90 o －2 －1
  0  s  εe  G( j0 ) H ( j0 )   e Radius
o  
εe  j 90  0  0
j 0o 1 1 j 0o
  0  s  εe  G ( j 0) H ( j 0)   e s   j s  j
o 
εe j 0
Fig. 5.4.4
o 1 1 o
  0  s  εe j 90  G ( j 0 ) H ( j 0 )   e  j 90
j 90 o 
εe
It is obvious that there is a phase saltation of the G(jω)H(jω) at
ω=0, and the magnitude of the G(jω)H(jω) is infinite at ω=0.
Radius
s  j Im   0
r  Im
  0  0
  
Re G ( s) H ( s) 
Re
Radius
10 (-1, j0)
  0 s( s  1)( 0.5s  1)   
 0  0
s   j s  j
  0
Fig. 5.4.4 Fig.5.4.5
In terms of above discussion , we can plot the system’s polar
plot shown as Fig.5.4.5.
The closed loop system is unstable.
Example 5.4.3
10 10
G ( s) H ( s)  
s( s  1)( s  4) s( s  1)( s  j 2)( s  j 2)
2
Determine the stability of the system applying Nyquist criterion.

Solution Im
Similar to the Example   j 2

5.4.2, the system’s polar plot
Re
is shown as Fig.5.4.6 .
(-1, j0)
The closed loop system     0
is unstable.   j 2
  0
5.4.3 Application of the Fig.5.4.6
Nyquist criterion in the Bode diagram

5.4.3 Application of the Nyquist criterion in the Bode diagram
G(jω)H(jω) locus traverses the left real axis of the point (-1, j0)
in G(jω)H(jω)-plane → L(ω)≥0dB and φ(ω) =－180o in Bode
diagram (as that mentioned in 5.4.2).
We have the Nyquist criterion in the Bode diagram :
linear closed loop systems is : When ω vary from 0→+  , the
number of the net “positive traversing” is P/2.
Here: the net “positive traversing” —the difference between
the number of the “positive traversing” and the number of the
“negative traversing” in all L(ω)≥0dB ranges of the open-loop
system’s Bode diagram.
“positive traversing” — φ(ω) traverses the “-180o line” from
below to above in the open-loop system’s Bode diagram;
“negative traversing” — φ(ω) traverses the “-180o line” from
above to below.
5.4.3 Application of the Nyquist criterion in the Bode diagram
Example 5.4.4
The Bode diagram of a open-loop stable system is shown in
Fig.5.4.7, determine whether the closed loop system is stable.
Solution
Because the open-loop system is L( )
－20
－40
stable, P = 0 . －90o
－60
In terms of the Nyquist
－40 φ(ω)
criterion in the Bode diagram: －20
0dB, －180o  (log  )
The number of the net
－40
“positive traversing” is
－60
0 ( = P/2 = 0 ). －270o
L(ω)
Fig.5.4.7
The closed loop system is stable .
5.4.4 Nyquist criterion and the relative stability
(Relative stability of the control systems)
In frequency domain, the relative stability could be described
by the “gain margin” and the “phase margin”.
1. Gain margin Kg
1
Kg  K g ( dB )   20 log G ( j ) H ( j )
G ( j ) H ( j )   g
  g
g : G( j ) H ( j )    1800  Phase-cros sover freq uency

g
2. Phase margin γc
 c  G ( j ) H ( j )    ( 1800 )  G ( jc ) H ( jc )  1800
c
ωc : G( j ) H ( j )  1  Gain-crossover frequ ency
 c
3. Geometrical and physical meanings of the Kg and γc
The geometrical meanings is shown in Fig. 5.4.8.
Im
The physical signification : 1/Kg
Kg— amount of the open-loop gain in

decibels that can be allowed to increase
－1 Re
before the closed-loop system reaches to
be unstable. γc
For the minimum phase system:
Kg>1
the closed loop system is stable . stable
unstable
γc —amount of the phase shift Critical
Fig. 5.4.8
of G(jω)H(jω) to be allowed before stability
the closed-loop system reaches to be unstable.

For the minimum phase system: γc>0 the closed loop system is
stable .
Attention :
For the linear systems:
The changes of the open-loop gain only alter the magnitude of
G(jω)H(jω).
The changes of the time constants of G(s)H(s) only alter the
phase angle of G(jω)H(jω).
Example 5.4.5
The open loop transfer function of a control system is:
e s
K
G ( s) H ( s) 
s(0.1s  1)
(1) Determine Kg and γc when K =1 and τ =1.
(2) Determine the maximum K and τ based on K = 1 and τ = 1.
e s
K
Solution G ( s) H ( s) 
s(0.1s  1)
(1) Determine Kg and γc ( K =1 and τ =1)
In terms of: G ( j ) H ( j )    1800 G( j ) H ( j ) 1
g  c

  tg 10.1 g   g     g  1.43;  c 1  (0.1 c )  K  c  1
2
2  1 K 1
1  1  (0.1 )2
Kg    1.44  3.17 (dB)
G ( j g ) H ( j g ) K  g 1.43
K 1
 c  G ( jc ) H ( jc )  1800   900  tg 10.1c  c  c 1  270

 1
(2) Because K g  1.44  maximum K  1.44
K 1
Because  c  1  270  c  270  maximum   0.47
Example 5.4.6
The G(jω)H(jω) polar plot of a system is shown in Fig.5.4.9.
(1) Determine Kg
(2) Determine the stable range of the open loop gain.
Solution 2 Im
(1) Determine Kg 1.5
(-1, j0) Re
1
Kg   1.25  1.94( dB)
0.8 0.8
G(jω)H(jω)
(2) Determine the stable range of
the open loop gain.
Fig.5.4.9
Assume : G( jω) H ( jω)  K0GH ( jω)
and the critical stable value of the open loop gain is Kc .
In terms o f :
2 Im
K 0GH ( j )  0.8 and
  g 1.5
5 (-1, j0) Re
K c1GH ( j )  1  K c1  K 0
  g 4 0.8
K 0GH ( j )  1.5 and G(jω)H(jω)
  g
2
K c 2GH ( j )  1  Kc 2  Fig.5.4.9
  g 3
K 0GH ( j )  2 and
  g
1
K c 3GH ( j )  1  K c 3  K0
  g 2
Then we have the stable range of the open loop gain K :
2 5 1
K 0  K  K 0 or K  K0
3 4 2
5.5 System analysis based on the frequency response
5.5.1 Performance specifications in the frequency domain
1. For the closed loop systems
The general frequency response of a closed loop systems is
shown in Fig. 5.5.1
(1) Resonance frequency ωr:
A(ω)
G ( j )
Assume : A( )   ( j )  Mr
1  G ( j ) H ( j )
d A(0)
 r satisfy : A( ) 0 0.707A(0)
d   r
ω
(2) Resonance peak Mr : 0
ωr ωb
M r  A( ) Fig. 5.5.1

  r
(3) Bandwidth ωb:
2
 b satisfy : A( )
 b
 A(0)
2
2. For the open loop systems
(1) Gain crossover frequency ωc:
c satisfy : G ( jω) H ( jω) 1
ωωc
For the unity feedback systems, ωc≈ ωb , because:
G ( j ) 1 G(j  )  1
 ( j )  
1  G ( j ) G ( j ) G(j  )  1
(2) Gain margin Kg:
1
Kg  ; K g ( dB)   20 log G ( j ) H ( j )
G ( j ) H ( j )   g
  g
Here g satisfies : G( j ) H ( j )    1800

g
(3) Phase margin γc:  c  G ( j ) H ( j )    ( 1800 )
c
Here c satisfies : G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
 c
Generally Kg and γc could be concerned with the resonance
peak Mr : Kg and γc ↑ —— Mr ↓.
ωc could be concerned with the resonance frequency ωr and
bandwidth ωb : ωc↑ —— ωr and ωb↓.
5.5.2 Relationship of the performance specifications between the
frequency and time domain
The relationship between the frequency response and the time
response of a system can be expressed by following formula:
1 
C ( t )  L C ( j ) 
1 jt
 C ( j )e d
2  
G ( j )
here : C ( j )   ( j ) R( j )  R( j )
1  G ( j ) H ( j )
But it is difficult to apply the formula .
(1) Bandwidth ωb(or Resonance frequency ωr)  Rise time tr
Generally ωb(or ωr )↑—— tr ↓ because of the “time scale”
theorem:
1 
In terms of c ( t )  L C ( j ) 
1
 C ( j ) e jt
d
2 
If :    , C ( j )  C ( j )
1  j t /   1
d    c ( t /  )
1
Then : c ( t )   C ( j )e
2    
That is : βω  t So ωb(or ωr )↑—— tr ↓
β
alike : ωc↑—— tr ↓ because of ωc≈ ωb .
For the large ωb , there are more high-frequency portions in c(t),
which make the time response to be faster.
(2) Resonance peak Mr  overshoot σp%
Normally Mr ↑ —σp% ↑ because of the large unbalance of the
frequency signals passing to c(t) .
Kg and γc ↓ —σp% ↑is alike because of Kg and γc ↓—Mr ↑.
Some experiential formulas:

Overshoot  p %  0.16  0.4( M r  1)  (1.1  M r  1.8)
1
and Mr 
sin  c
For mostdesignproblem, an optimumvalueof Mr : 1.1  Mr  1.5
Settling time ts 
k
c
 1
, k  2  1.5
  1
 1  2.5


 1  350   c  900 
 sin  c   sin  c 
(3) A(0) → Steady state error ess
G ( j )
A( 0 )  A( )  0 
1  G ( j ) H ( j )  0
1
assume : G ( s )  KG   G0 ( s) H ( s )  K H  H0 ( s)
v
s
 1 For the unity feedback system, H(s)  1 :
 K v 1
then : A( 0)   H  1 v 1

1 
v0 A( 0)   KG v0
 KG K H 1  KG
So for the unity feedback systems: A(0)  1, A(0)   ess 

(4) Reproductive bandwidth ωM → accuracy of Reproducing r(t)
A(ω)
Reproductive bandwidth ωM : Mr
G ( j ) △
A( )   A( 0)   A(0)
1  G ( j ) H ( j )   0.707A(0)
M
ω
 : allowed reproducin g error 0
ωM ωr ωb
Fig. 5.5.2
for a given ωM , △↓—higher accuracy of reproducing r(t) .

for a given △, ωM ↑ —higher accuracy of reproducing r(t) .
Demonstration
assume : E ( j )  R( j )  C ( j )   e ( j ) R( j )
and :  e ( j )  
5.5.2 Relationship of the performance specifications between
the frequency and time domain
For the frequency spectrum of r(t) shown in Fig.5.5.3 .
1  M jt
e(t )    e ( j ) R ( j ) e d R( j )
2 
M
  M jt
  R( j )e d    r ( t ) ω
2  0
ωM
M
That is : e( t )    r ( t )    e( t )  Fig. 5.5.3

frequency and the time domain: for the typical 2th-order system
For the typical 2th-order system:
 n2  n2
G( s)    ( s) 
s( s  2 n ) s 2  2 n s   n 2
frequency and the time domain: for the typical 2th-order system
We have:
 b   n (1  2 2 )  2  4 2  4 4

2 
 r   n 1  2 (0   
2
) 
2    ,  n   p % , t s , t r ...
1 
Mr  
2 1   2
c  n 1  4 4  2 2

2 
 c  tg 1 
   ,  n   p % , t s , t r ...
1  4 4  2 2 
Kg   
5.5.4 “three frequency band” theorem
The performance analysis of the closed loop systems according
to the open loop frequency response.
1. For the low frequency band
the low frequency band is mainly concerned with the control
accuracy of the systems.
The more negative the slope of L(ω) is , the higher the control
accuracy of the systems. The bigger the magnitude of L(ω) is, the
smaller the steady state error ess is.
2. For the middle frequency band
The middle frequency band is mainly concerned with the
transient performance of the systems.
ωc↑—tr ↓; Kg and γc ↓—σp% ↑
5.5.4 “three frequency band” theorem
The slope of L(ω) in the middle frequency band should be the

–20dB/dec and with a certain width .
3. For the high frequency band
The high frequency band is mainly concerned with the ability of
the systems restraining the high frequency noise.
The smaller the magnitude of L(ω) is, the stronger the ability of
the systems restraining the high frequency noise is.
Example 5.5.1 L( )  20 log G( j ) H ( j )
－40
Compare the performances
between the system Ⅰand 0dB －20 ω
system Ⅱ
－40
Fig. 5.5.4
Ⅰ Ⅱ
Solution : L( )  20 log G( j ) H ( j )
essⅠ> essⅡ
－40
σpⅠ% =σpⅡ%
trⅠ > trⅡ －20 ω
0dB
The ability of the system Ⅰ
－40
restraining the high frequency Fig. 5.5.4
noise is stronger than system Ⅱ Ⅰ Ⅱ
L(ω)
Example 5.5.2 －20dB/dec
For the minimum phase system, the open loop
magnitude response shown as the Fig. 5.5.5. 1 ω
Determine the system’s parameter to make the 0.1 －40dB/dec
system being the optimal second-order system Fig. 5.5.5
and the steady-state error ess< 0.1.
Solution :
5.6 Frequency response of the closed loop systems
5.6 Frequency response of the closed loop systems
How to obtain the closed loop frequency response in terms of
the open loop frequency response.
5.6.1 The constant M circles: How to obtain the magnitude
frequency response of the closed loop systems in terms of the
open loop frequency response…… (refer to P495)
5.6.2 The constant N circles: How to obtain the phase frequency
characteristic of the closed loop systems in terms of the open
loop frequency response…… (refer to P496)
5.6.3 The Nichols chart: How to obtain the closed loop frequency
response in terms of the open loop frequency response……
(refer to P496)
Chapter 5 Frequency Response Methods
Chap 6 The Compensation of the linear control
systems
181
Chap 6 The Compensation of the linear control
systems
§6-1 Introduction
6.1.1 definition of compensation
6.1.2 types of compensation
§6-2 The basic controller operation analysis
6.2.1 PI D controller ---active compensation

6.2.2 phase-lead controller passive
6.2.3 phase-lag controller compensation controller
6.2.4 phase lag-lead controller
§6-3 Cascade compensation method of Root loci
§6-4 Cascade compensation method of frequency- Domain
§6-5 Feedback compensation
182
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 What is compensation or correction of a control system ?

K
For example : G ( s) H ( s) 
s(Ts  1)( s  1)
make this closed- loop systemcan be stable
solution According to Routh - Hurwitz criterion, we can get :
T 1 1
K  1 (K  0 T  0)
T T
K
But if : G ( s ) H ( s) 
s2 (Ts  1)
Accor ding to Routh - Hurwitz Criterion, this closed - loop
system can not be stable only varying K or T .
183
6.1 Introduction
K (s  1)
If we make : G( s ) H ( s )  τ T
s 2 (Ts  1)
This closed-loop system can be stable.
We make the system stable by increasing a component.
This procedureis called the compensation or correction.
Definition of the compensation:
increasing a component ,which makes the system’s
performance to be improved, other than only varying the
system’s parameters, this procedure is called the
compensation or correction of the system.
184
6.1 Introduction
Compensator:
The compensator is an additional component or circuit that is
inserted into a control system to compensate for a deficient
performance.
K
Example : G ( s ) H ( s )  , to increase s  1 component,
2
s (Ts  1)
the system can be stable, s  1 is a compensato r.
6.1.2 Types of the compensation
The transfer function of the compensato r is designated as
Gc ( s ), and according to the location of Gc ( s ) in the structure
of the system, we can get several types :
185
6.1 Introduction
(1) Cascade(or series) compensation
(2) Feedback compensation
(3) Both series and feedback compensation
(4) Feed-forward compensation
(1) Cascade(or series) compensation
Features : simple but the effects to be restricted.

186
6.1 Introduction
(2) Feedback compensation
R(s) C(s) R(s) C(s)
G0 ( s) G10 G20
- - - -
GC GC
Features: complicated but noise limiting, the effects are more

than the cascade compensation.
R(s) C(s)
(3) Both cascade and GC1 G0
feedback compensation - -
GC 2
Features: have advantages both
of cascade and feedback compensation.
187
6.1 Introduction
(4) Feed-forward compensation

F(s)
GC GC
R(s) + C(s) R(s) + C(s)

G10 G20 G10 G20
- -
For input For disturbance(voice)
Features: theoretically we can make the error of a system to be
zero and no effects to the transient performance of the system.
Demonstration:
188
6.1 Introduction
E ( s )  R( s )  C ( s ) GC
 G10G20  GC G20 
  1   R( s ) R(s) + C(s)
 1  G10G20 
G10 G20

1  GC G20
R( s )
-
1  G10G20
1 For input
Make : GC   E ( s)  0
G20
But no effect to the characteristic equation: 1+ G10G20 = 0
1
Question: actually the GC  G20
could not be easy implemented
especially maybe the G20 is variable.
189
6.1 Introduction
E F ( s )  C F ( s ) F(s)
GC
G G G  G20
  C 10 20 R( s )
1  G10G20 R(s) + C(s)
G10 G20
G20 (GC G10  1)
 R( s ) -
1  G10G20
1
Make : GC    EN ( s)  0 For disturbance(voice)
G10
Also no effect to the characteristic equation: 1+ G10G20 = 0
1
Question: actually the GC  could not be easy implemented
G10
especially maybe the G20 is variable. And the F(s)
could not be easy measured.
190
6.1 Introduction
example
GCN N(s)
For the system shown in Fig.6.1.7:
Where: 5 -
G10  R(s) E(s) + C(s)
s G10 G20
2 - +
G20  GCR
0.5s  1
Determine GCR and GCN , make
E(s) to be zero. Fig.6.1.7
1 1
Solution : GCN   0.2 s ; GCR   0.5(0.5s  1)
G10 G20
Thinking: if r(t) = n(t) = t , Determine GCR and GCN , make ess to
be zero — as a exercise.
191
6.2 Operation analysis of the basic compensators
6.2.1 Active Compensation
PID controller － active “compensator”.
Transfer function:
1
Gc (s)  K p (1   τ D s)
τI s
1 Kp
 K p  K I  K Ds  K I  ; K D  K p D
s I
P - - proportion al controller  promoting sensitivity.
I - - integratin g controller  clearing e ss .
D - - differenti al controller  improving stability.
192
PD controller transfer function : Gc ( s )  K p  K D s
GC (s)
Assuming : R(s)＋＋ C(s)

Kp G(s)
2 －＋
n
G( s)  K Ds
s( s  2 n )
The open  loop transfer function of the compensate d

 n2 ( K P  K D s)
system is : Gc ( s )G ( s ) 
s( s  2 n )
It shows that the PD controller is equivalent to adding a
KP
open  loop zero at : s  
KD
193
Effects of PD controller:
1) PD controller does not alter the system type;

2) PD controller improve the system’s stability (to increase
damping and reduce maximum overshoot);
3) PD controller reduce the rise time and settling time;
4) PD controller increase BW(Band Width) and
improve GM(Kg),PM(γc), and Mr .
－ bring in the noise !
194
1
PI controller Transfer function : Gc ( s )  K p  K I
s
R(s)＋＋ C(s)
K G(s)
 n2 －
p
＋
Assuming : G( s ) 
s( s  2 n )
1
KI GC (s)
s
The open  loop transfer function of the compensate d system is :

1
 n2 ( K P  K I )  2 ( K s  K )
Gc ( s )G ( s )  s  n P I
s( s  2 n ) s 2 ( s  2 n )
It shows that the PI controller is equivalent to adding a open  loop
KI
zero at : s   and a pole at : s  0
KP
195
Effects of PI controller:
1) Increase the system’s type－clear the steady-state error ;
2) reduce BW(Band Width) and GM(Kg), PM(γc) and Mr ;
beneficial to the noise limiting ,

not beneficial to the system’s stability.
196
PID controller Transfer function: Gc (s)  K p  K I 1  K D s
s
R(s) C(s)
Kp G(s)
- +
1
KI
s
KDs GC (s )
PID controller have advantages both of PI and PD.
197
Circuits of PID U0 ( s ) R2
 (1  R1C1s )
U R ( s) R R2
R2 C 1
ur R1
ur R1 _
_
u0
u0
C +
+
PI controller PD controller
R2 C2
U0 ( s ) R2 1
 (1  )
U R ( s) R R2Cs ur R1
1 U0 ( s )
_ ?
u0 U R ( s)
C1 +
PID controller
198
For example:
Disk driver control system
Determine : K P , K D values, make the system to satisfy

the following specifcation :
 %  5% t s  250ms for r (t )  t
199
solution
open  loop transfer function :
5000 K p ( s  z ) KD
Gc ( s )G1( s )G2 ( s )  here : z   .
s( s  20)( s  1000) Kp
one type of design, choose K P  K D , the root - loci of the system for
K D : 0   is shown in following figure :
How to get？
Shown in 6.3 detail.
200
6.2.2 Passive compensation controllers
Types of passive compensation controller
1  s
1) phase - lead controller G c (s)   1
1   s
1  s
2) phase - lag controller G c (s)   1
1   s
1   bs 1   a s
3) phase lag - lead controller G c (s)  
1   bs 1   a s
  1,   1 b  a
201
1) Phase - lead controller
1  τs 1 s  z
Transfer function : Gc ( s )    1
1  τs  s  p
1 1
z p
τ τ
Zero and pole

202
Maxmum value of the phase, m , and
Frequency response
the frequency  m at which m occurs
1  j
Gc ( jω)  1
1  jτ  m  zp 
 
Gc( j )   ( j )
 tan 1   tan 1  
from which we get :
1  1  

m  sin  
 1  
1  sinm

z zp p 1  sinm
Bode plot
Compensation ideal:
Effects are similar to PD. make ωm to be ωc !
203
Circuit of the phase-lead controller
R2 R1Cs  1
Gc (s)    τs  1
R1  R2 R2 τs  1
R1Cs  1
R1  R 2
R2
  R1C 
R1  R2
204
2) Phase - lag controller
s  1 1 s  z
Transfer function : Gc ( s )     1
 s  1  s  p
1 1
z p
τ βτ
Zero and pole

205
Frequency response
1  jω
Gc ( jω) 
1  jω 
1
  2
Effects are similar to PI.
Compensation ideal:
1
  2
Make 1/τto be in the
lower frequency-band
and far from ωc !
Bode plot
206
Circuit of the Phase-lag controller
Vo ( s ) 1  τs R1  R2
Gc ( s )   τ  R2C β
Vin ( s ) 1  τs R2
207
2) Phase lag - lead controller
1 τa s 1 τbs
transfer function : Gc ( s )    1  1
1  ατ a s 1  βτ b s
j
1 1
p1   z1   
βτ b τb
1 1 p2 z 2 z1 p1
p2   z2  
τ a τa
Zero and pole
208
Frequency response
L( ) / dB 1  j a 1  j b
Gc ( jω)  
1 1 1 1 1  j a 1  j b
 b b a  a
0
  1  1
 20dB/dec
20dB/dec Effects are similar to PID.
 ( ) Compensation ideal:
90 0 First make the phase-lag

compensation－to satisfy ess
 90 0 and compensate a part of γc .
second make the phase-lead
Bode plot
compensation－to satisfy the
transitional requirements.
209
Circuit of the Phase lag-lead controller
 1
210
6.2.3 Comparing active compensation controllers and

passive compensation controllers
s  1
PD : K p (1  τ D s )  phase  lead :
 s  1
1
K p (1  )
τIs s  1
PI :  phase  lag :
K p ( I s  1)  s  1

Is
1
K p (1   τ D s)
τIs ( τ a s  1)( τ b s  1)
PID :  phase lag  lead :
K p ( I D s 2   I s  1) (ατ a s  1)( τ b s/α  1)

Is
211
6.3 Cascade compensation by Root loci method
6.3.1 Phase-lead compensation (P569)
K
Example 6.3.1: open - loop transfer function : GH ( s )  1
2
Performanc e specificat ions of the system are : s
setting time(2% criterion) t s  4s; overshoot  %  25%
determine the compensati on for the system.
solution
The root loci of the system shown in Fig.6.3.1
Analysis: unstable.
Fig.6.3.1
phase-lead compensation
212
According to ts and  % , we can choose the desired dominant
roots as : Sd1, 2   n  j n 1   2 (   p ,  n  ts )


1 2
In terms of :  %  e  100%    0.4( %  25.4%)
4
ts   4   n  1
 n
Sd1, 2  1  j 2
Choose desired dominant roots :
Sd 1,2  1  j 2 (  0.44)
Fig.6.3.2
213
1  s 1 s  zc 1 1
Applying : Gc ( s )     zc  , pc 
1   s  s  pc  
According to the phase criterion of root - loci we have :
Gc  GH ( s )s  s  1800  Gc ( sd1 )   c  1800  GH ( sd1 )
d1
 c  ( sd  zc )  ( sd  pc )  1800  2(1800  tg 1 2)  530
There are two approaches to determine sd1 
zc and pc .
c 
(1) Maximum α method
1  pc  zc
  (     c )
2
(2) Method based on the open-loop gain Fig.6.3.3
214
1csc c 
  ctg   ctg c 
GH ( s ) 
 d 1 
For this example we choose the Maximum α method:
  tg 1 2  630
1
  (1800  530  630 )  320 sd1 
2
In terms of the sine’s law: c 
sin  zc  pc  zc
  zc  1.19
sin(180     ) sd1
0
sin( c   ) pc Fig.6.3.3
  pc  4.2
sin(1800   c     ) sd1
215
0.84 s  1
So we have : Gc ( s )  sd1
0.238s  1
The root locus of the compensated
system is shown in Fig.6.3.4  4.2  1.19
Steps of the cascade phase-lead
Compensation: Fig.6.3.4
(1) Determine the dominant roots based on
the performance specifications of the system:
Sd1,2   n  jn 1   2 (   p ,  n  ts )
(2) plot the root locus of the system and analyze what
compensation device should be applied.
Root locus of the compensted216
system
(3) Determine the angle φc to be compensated:
 c  Gc ( sd )  1800  GH0 ( sd )  
 1   2
(4) calculate θ andγ:   tg 1 n
 n
1 1
csc c 
  (     c ) or   ctg   ctg c 

2  GH ( sd1 ) 
(5) calculate zc and pc In terms of the sine’s law :
sin  zc sin( c   ) pc
 ; 
sin(180     ) sd1 sin(180   c     ) sd1
0 0
(6) plot the root locus of the compensated system and make
validity check.
217
6.3.2 Phase-lag compensation using the root locus (P577)
Example 6.3.2:
The open - loop transfer function of a system :
K
GH(s) 
s(s  10 )2
Specificat ions for the system are :
Damping ratio   0.707(for the dominant poles)
Speed error constant : K v  20
Solution: 450
The root locus of the system -10

is shown in Fig.6.3.5.
Fig.6.3.5
218
The detail of the root-loci is shown in Fig 6.3.6.
K
Analysi s : Kv  20  2
 K  2000,
10
but K  2000, two closed - loop poles lie
on the jω - axis at  j10.
When   0.707, the poles :
sd1,2  - 2 .9  j 2 .9
and the gain at the poles : K  236.
K v  20 and   0.707 can not be satisfied
synchronou sly, and a phase lag compensati on
should be used.
Fig 6.3.6
219
The phase - lag compensato r :
1 s  zc 1  s
Gc ( s )      1.
 s  pc 1   s
Make the ratio of zc and pc :
zc K 2000
  vdesire   8.5
pc K 236
v uncomp
and ( sd  zc )  ( sd  pc )  50
0.1
We choose : zc  0.1 and pc   0.0118
8.5
s  0.1
 G c (s) 
s  0.0118 Fig 6.3.6
220
The open - loop transfer function compensate d :
K(s  0 .1 )
GH(s)G c (s) 
s(s  10 )2(s  0 .0118 )
Validate……
Steps of the cascade phase-lag Compensation:
(1) Determine the dominant roots based on the performance
specifications of the system:
Sd1,2   n  jn 1   2 (   p ,  n  ts )
(2) plot the root locus of the system and analyze what
compensation device should be applied.
If the phase-lag Compensation be applied:
221
1 s  zc 1  s
The phase - lag compensato r : Gc ( s )      1.
 s  pc 1  s
zc K vdesire
(3) Make the ratio of zc and pc :   
pc K
vuncomp
(4) Rationally choose zc :
to make : pc  zc / and ( sd  zc )  ( sd  pc )  50 to be satisfied.
(5) plot the root locus of the compensated system and make
validity check.
6.3.3 Phase lag-lead compensation by the root locus method

Basic ideal:
222
6.3.3 Phase lag-lead compensation by the root locus method
First: make the phase-lead compensation－to satisfy the

transitional requirements.
Second: make the phase-lag compensation－to satisfy ess
requirements.
Exercise:
Make compensation using PD and PI for example 6.3.1 and
example 6.3.2
223
6.4 Cascade compensation by frequency response method
6.4.1 Phase-Lead Compensation using Bode diagram
Assume : open loop transfer function uncompensa ted system
is K 0GH0 ( s ).
Ideal : make  m to be  c , maxmum phase - Lead angle can be
compensate d.
1. Active compensati on : GC (s)  K p( 1  τ D s)
1
K p : can be get from the desire e ss 
K0K p
τ D : can be get from the desire  C  1800  GH 0 ( s )GC ( s ) s  jωc
( K 0GH 0(s)G C (s) s  j  1 )
c
224
6.4 Cascade compensation by frequency response
method
1  τs
2. Passive compensati on : GC (s)  (  1)
1  τs
1) Plot the Bode diagram of the uncompensa ted system according to
the open - loop transfer function K 0GH 0(jω) and the desired e ss .
2) Measure the  c and  co from the Bode diagram.
3) Get φm   cd -  co     : 5o ~ 15o
 cd : desired  c .
 : compensate d angle because of the increasing of  c due to
the cascade GC (s) to be made to the K 0GH 0(s).
If the slope of L0(ω) : 20dB / dec at  c ,   5o ; - 40dB/dec,
  5o ~ 10o ; - 60dB/dec,   10o ~ 15o .
225
6.4 Cascade compensation by frequency response
method
1  1  sinφm
4) from φm  sin 1 get  
1  1  sinφm
1
5) get  from the formula :  m

here  m can be get from :
20 lg K 0GH 0(jw) ωω  10 lg α
m
6) plot the Bode diagram of the K 0GH 0(s)  Gc (s)
examining the ωC ,γ C etc.
226
Example:
K1
Open - loop transfer function GH(s)  2 , specificat ions for the
S
1 2
system are :  c  45 ;  c  10; e ss  0.1( r ( t )  t )
0
2
solution: －40dB/dec
20 lg Gc
K1  10( ess  0.1)
The Bode diagram is shown in Fig.6.4.1. 10
Fig.6.4.1
 c  00 ;  c  10  3.16
1  τs
We must use the phase - lead compensati on : Gc (s) 
 1  τs
and add 45 angle at c  10
227
φm   cd   c 0    45o  0o  0o  45o
( ( )  GH ( j )  180o ) －40dB/dec
20 lg Gc
1  sin  m
    0.17
1  sin  m  45o
m 10
1
m  c   10    0.24 Fig.6.4.1
 
but 20 log GH ( j )  10  20dB  20 log   0.17  15.4dB
1  0.24 s
So we make Gc  K c and K c  1.7
1  0.041s
( 20 lg K c  20  15.4  K c  1.7)
Exercise: 1. Make validity check for this example.
2. Make compensation using PD for this example.
228
6.4.2 Phase-Lag Compensation using Bode diagram
Example: The uncompensa ted transfer function :
K Kv
GH(jω)  
s( s  2) s(0 .5s  1 )
－20dB/dec 6.32
Specificat ions for the system are : －20lgβ
Phase margin  c  45 , and K v  20. 2

－40dB/dec
－900
Dtermine the compensato r.
－1800  c  200
solution:
Fig.6.4.2
The Bode diagram of the uncompensa ted system is shown in Fig.6.4.2 :
 c  20 at  c  6.32
1  s
We can use the phase - lag compensati on : Gc (s)  ,  1
1   s
229
We locate the frequency  c  1.5 where φ( )  130o   c  50o

At  c  1.5, 20 lg GH ( j )  1.5  20dB .
－20dB/dec 6.32
The required attenuatio n at  c is 20dB －20lgβ
 20dB  20log    10 2
－40dB/dec
－900
1 c  c  200
Make :   0.15 －1800
 10 Fig.6.4.2
(Consider Allowing 5 error at  c for the phase - lag compensato r)
1  6.67 s
   6.67  G ( s ) 
1  66.7 s
Validate……
230
Steps of the phase-lag compensation:
1) Plot the Bode diagram of the uncompensa ted system according to
the open - loop transfer function K 0GH 0(jω) and the desired e ss .
2) Find  c which satisfy the  c requiremen t.
3) Get  from : 20log  20 log GH ( j )  
c
1 c
4) Make  ( k : 5～10) to get  .
 k
5) Plot the Bode diagram of the compensate d system to validate
the specificat ions  c and  c etc.
Exercise:
1. Make validity check for this example.
2. Make phase-lag compensation for γc=50o and Kv=20.
231
6.4.3 Phase-Lag-lead Compensation using Bode diagram
First: make the phase-lag compensation－to satisfy ess
and compensate a part of γc .
Second: make the phase-lead compensation－to satisfy
the requirementsγc and ωc etc.
6.4.4 Compensation according to the desired frequency response
Example
The desired frequency response is shown in Fig.6.4.3.
If the open - loop transfer function of the uncompensa ted system is :
1 －20dB/dec
GH(s)  100
s( s  1)
10
determine the series compensati on device.
Fig.6.4.3
solution －40dB/dec
232
6.4.4 Compensation according to the desired frequency response
In terms of the desired frequency response we have:

10 1
GHdesire ( s )  Gc ( s )GH ( s )  GH ( s ) 
s(0.01s  1) s( s  1)
GH desire ( s ) 10 1 －20dB/dec
Gc ( s )   100
GH ( s ) s(0.01s  1) s( s  1)
10
( s  1)
 10 
(0.01s  1) Fig.6.4.3 －40dB/dec
233
Exercise:
The desired open - loop frequency response
of a system is shown in Fig.6.4.4 (minimum
phase system) and －40dB/dec
1 －20dB/dec
GH(s)  100
s( s  1) 1 10
Determine the cascade compensati on device
－40dB/dec
and compare the performanc e between the
compensate d system and the uncompensa ted Fig. 6.4.4
system.
234
6.5 Feedback compensation
6.5.1 The configuration of the Feedback compensation
G’0(s) G’20(s)
R(s) C(s) R(s) C(s)
G0 (s ) G10 G20
－－－－
GC GC
Fig. 6.5.1
6.5.2 The basic Feedback compensators
Gc ( s )    proportion al(positio n) feedback compensati on;
Gc ( s )  s[1 (s  1)]  differenti al(speed) feedback compensati on;
Gc ( s )  s 2 [1 (s  1)]
 2th  differenti al(acceleration) feedback compensati on;
235
6.5.3 Function of the feedback:
1. Decrease the time constant of the encircled elements →
Quicken the response of the encircled elements－may be;
'
K
For example G20 ( s )  20 , Gc ( s )    G20 K K
'
( s)  20
 ' 20
Ts  1 Ts  1  K 20 T s  1
T
T'  , but also K 20 '
 K 20 /(1  K 20 ) 
1  K 20
K 20 K 20
But if Gc ( s )  s  G20 ( s ) 
'
 '
Ts  1  K 20s T s  1
T '  (T  K 20 ) , K 20  K 20
2. Impair(weaken) the influences of the disturbance to the

encircled elements.
3. make the performance of the encircled elements to be desired .
236
6.5.4 The design procedure of the feedback compensator
1. Design the desired characteristics, such as the desired Bode
diagram, of the encircled elements in terms of the system’s
analysis.
2. Choose the appropriate feedback compensators to get the
desired characteristics. G’20(s)
Example For the system shown R(s) C(s)
G10 G20
in Fig. 6.5.2, G20=10/s2, the desired －－
G’20(jω) shown in Fig. 6.5.3. GC
determine the Gc. Fig. 6.5.2
solution ' 0.1(10 s  1) G20 －40dB/dec
G20 ( s )  
s (0.1s  1)
2 1  G20Gc －20dB/dec 10
G20 G20  G20
'
9.9 s 2 0.1 1
Gc  (  1) G20  
'
G20 '
G20G20 0.1s  1 －40dB/dec
Fig. 6.5.3
237
238
Chap7 Nonlinear Control system
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Describing function
7.3 Method of the phase locus
239
Chap7 Nonlinear Control system
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 What is the nonlinearity ?
7.1.2 What is the nonlinear control system?
7.1.3 The typical nonlinearities.
7.1.4 The speciality of the nonlinear systems
7.1.5 Analysis method of the nonlinear systems
240
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 What is the nonlinearity ?
The “output” varying is not proportional to the “input” varying
for a device.
The characteristic of the nonlinear device can not be described by
the linear differential equation.
Types of the nonlinearity:
(1) Essential nonlinearity
The nonlinearity y=f(x) can not be expressed as the Talor series
expansion in all x.
( 2) Nonessential nonlinearity
The y=f(x) can be expressed as the Talor series expan-sion in
all x.
241
7.1 Introduction
7.1. 2 What is the nonlinear control system?
If a control system include one or more nonlinear cha-
racteristic element or link , the system is named as the nonlinear
control system.
7.1.3 The typical nonlinearities y(t )
(1) Saturation nonlinearity b
Mathematical description a k x(t )
kx( t ) x( t )  a 0 a
y( t )   b
ka  sign x(t) x( t )  a
a  linear zone width; k  slope of the linear characteristic;
 1 x ( t )  0
sign x( t )  
 1 x ( t )  0 242
7.1.3 The typical nonlinearities
Actual examples: saturation characteristic of the amplifier;valve
journey; power limit etc.
y(t )
(2) Dead zone nonlinearity
k
Mathematical description: a x(t )
0 a
0 x( t )  a k
y( t )  
k x(t) - asing x(t)  x( t )  a
a  dead zone width; k  slope of the linear output ;
 1 x(t)  0
sign x(t)  
 1 x(t)  0
Insensitive zone of the measure system;
Actual examples:
Turn on characteristic of the diode etc. 243
(3) Relay nonlinearity

y(t )
Mathematical description :

b x ( t )   ma b
0  ma  x ( t )  a x ( t )  0 a  ma x(t )
y(t )  b x( t )  a 0 ma a

b x ( t )  ma b
0  a  x ( t )  ma x ( t )  0
b x ( t )  a
a  relay attracting voltage; ma  relay release voltage
b  saturation output
Actual examples: relay, switch etc.
Several special relay nonlinearity:
244
Approximate relay nonlinearity

Ideal relay nonlinearity (m=1)
(4) Backlash hysteresis loop(clearance) nonlinearity y(t )
k  x ( t )   
b
y ( t )  0
 a  k x(t )
y ( t )  k  x ( t )    y ( t )  0 0  a
bsign x( t ) y ( t )  0

2  backlash width
Actual example:
k  slope of the backlash characteristic gear backlash
245
y(t )
(5) changeable gain nonlinearity k2
a k1 x(t )
k1 x(t) x(t)  a 0 a
y(t)  
k 2 x(t) x(t)  a
a  change point
k 1 k 2  slope of the changeable gain characteristic
246
7.1.4 The characteristics of the nonlinear systems
(distinguishing features with linear system)
Linear system Nonlinear system

characteristics characteristics
1 Satisfy superposition theorem. Not satisfy superposition
theorem.
2 Stability is only related to the Stability is related to system
system parameters. input, initial state, parameters,
structure etc.
3 Have two kind of work states: Have stable, unstable and self-
stable and unstable. oscillation.
4 The form of the output is the The form of the output is
same as input. different from the input.
247
7.1.4 The analysis and design methods of the nonlinear systems
① Phase plane method

② Describing function method

Classical
③ Computer and intelligence → modern
248
Review of last class:
1. What is the nonlinearity, nonlinear control system?
2. The typical nonlinearity.
3. The characteristics of the nonlinear control system.
4. The analysis methods of the nonlinear control
system:
describing function
Classical methods: 
 phase plane
249
7.2 Describing function method of the nonlinear
system analysis
Four items:
1. What is the describing function?
2. How to get the describing function?  (modeling)
3. How to analyze a nonlinear system (analysis
by describing function? and design)
4. Attentions and development
7.2.1 What is the describing function?
(Put forwarded by P.J.Daniel, In 1940)
1. Basic idea
For the nonlinear system
250
r(t )  0

x (t )
N
y(t )
G(s)
c (t )
Fig.7.7 Typical structure of
the nonlinear systems
H(s)
nonlinear linear
If : x(t )  X sint a sinusoidal input,
y(t), maybe it is not a sinusoidal but a periodic
function, can be expressed as a Fourier series:
251
2
 y(t )d (t )
1
A0 
2
2 0
 y(t ) cos ntd (t )

1
An 

0
An 2
Yn  2 2
An  Bn ,  n  arctg
 y(t ) sin ntd (t )
1
Bn Bn 

Discuss: 0
i) For the symmetry nonlinearity: A0  0, and
ii) the harmonic of y(t) could be neglected, then:
y(t )  Y1 sin(t  1 ) output frequency is equal to
input frequency approximately.
252
It means:
We can describe the nonlinear components by the fre-
quency response like as that we did in chapter 5.
So we have:
2. Definition of the describing function
The describing function N(X) of the nonlinear element
is: the complex ratio of the fundamental component of
the output y(t) and the sinusoidal input x(t), that is:
For x( t )  X sint ,
y( t )  A1 cos t  B1 sint
Y1e j1
 Y1 sin(t  1 ) N(X ) 
Here: X 253
2
 y(t ) cos td (t )

1

A1 
Y1  A12  B12 
0
A1 2
 1  arctg
 y(t ) sintd (t )
1
B1 B1 

0
Because the describing function actually is the linearized
“frequency response” → “harmonic linearization”,
we can analyze the nonlinear systems like as that we did in
chapter 5.
7.2.2 How to get the describing function?
1. Steps
(1) Input a sinusoid signal x(t) to the nonlinear elements:
x(t )  X sint 254
(2) Solve y(t) and obtain the fundamental component of
y(t).
(3) Calculate the describing function N(X) according to
following formula:
2 

1
A1  y( t ) cos td (t )
  Y1  A 2  B 2 
 1 1 
0
  y(t )  Y1 sin(t  1 )
2 
 1  arctg
A1


1 B1 
B1  y( t ) sintd (t ) 
 
0 
j 1
Y1e
N(X ) 
X
2. Examples
255
Example 7.1
The mathematical description of a nonlinear device is:
1 1 3
y  x x
2 4
Determine the describing function of the device.
Solution 1 1 3
y( t )  x x
2 4 x  X sint
1 3 3 1 3
( X  X ) sint  X sin 3t
2 16 16

1 3 3 Y1 1 3 2
y1 ( t )  ( X  X ) sint N(X)    X
2 16  2 16
X
256
Example 7.2 Determine the describing function of the
saturation nonlinearity.
y(t ) y
b
a k 2 t
x(t ) 
0 a 0 1
b
Solution
0 x(t )
a
1 1  arcsin
X
x(t )  X sint
t 257
y
kXsint 0  t   1
 2 t 
1 y( t )   
kX  1  t  2
0

2

1
A1  0 B1 

0
2kX  a a a 2
 arcsin  1( ) 
  X X X 
B1 2k  a a a 2
N(X )   arcsin  1( )  X a
X   X X X 
258
Example 7.3 Determine the describing function of the
dead zone nonlinearity.
x(t ) y
  1
k
a t t
0 a 0 1
k

solution
0 x(t )

1 1  arcsin
X
x(t )  X sint
t 259
y
0 0   t   1   1

y(t)    t
k ( Xsint -  ) 1  t  2 0 1

A1  0
2

1
B1 

0
2kX      2
   arcsin  1( )  ( X  )
  2 X X X 
B1 2k      2
N(X )     arcsin  1( )  ( X  )
X   2 X X X 
260
3. The describing function of some typical nonlinearity
M
4M M
N(X )  N(X ) 
4M h 2
1( )
－M
X h
X X
－M
Relay
k 2k  a a a 2
N ( X )  arcsin  1( ) 
a   X X X 
saturation
k
2k      2
 N ( X )    arcsin  1( ) 
dead zone
  2 X X X 
261
3. The describing function of some typical nonlinearity
M 4M h 2 4M
N(X )  1( )  j
h X X X 2
 2h 
 arcsin(1  )
k k  2 X 

N(X ) 
h
 2h h h 
  2(1  ) (1  ) 
backlash  X X X 
hysteresis 4kh h
j (  1)
X X
262
4. characters
(1) For the “single value” nonlinearity the describing
function must be a “real number”.
such as the dead zone, saturation and the ideal
relay nonlinearity etc.
(2) The describing function satisfy the superposition
principle (nonlinearity not).
For example: N1 ( X ) N2( X ) N3( X )
k2
y(t )
k1
a x(t ) = + +
0 a
N ( X )  N1 ( X )  N 2 ( X )  N 3 ( X ) 263
7.2.3 Stability analysis of the nonlinear system by
describing function
G( j ) 1/Kg Im
1. Review of Nyquist criterion
For the linear system:
r (t )  c(t ) －1 Re
G(s)
 γc
Fig.7.2.3.1
The charac teristic equation of the system : stable
1  G( j )  0 unstable Critical Fig.7.2.3.2
stability
 G( j )  1  j 0
If G( s ) is a minimum phase transfer function, the necessary and
sufficient condition of the stable system is :
G( jω) does not circle the point ( 1, j )
264
describing function
2. Compare the nonlinear system with the linear system

Nonlinear Linear
r (t )  c(t ) r (t )  x(t ) y(t ) c(t )

G(s)
 N(x) G(s)
Linear system Fig.7.2.3.1 nonlinear system

Transfer function of the system:
C ( j ) G( j ) C ( j ) N ( X )G ( j )
 ( j )    ( j )  
R( j ) 1  G( j ) R( j ) 1  N ( X )G ( j )
Characteristic equation:
1  N ( X )G ( j )  0
1  G( j )  0
1
 G( j )  1  G ( j )  
N(X)
In the G( j ) plane A point A curve
265
Because the describing function N(X) actually is a linearized
frequency response, we can expand the Nyquist criterion to
the nonliear system :
3. Stability analysis of the nonlinear system compare with
(For example the minimum phase system)
linear system
1
(1) G ( j ) don' t circle the  (1) G( j ) don' t circle the point
N(X )
( 1, j ) , the system is stable;
curve, the nonlinear system is stable;
1 (2) G ( j ) circle the point ( 1, j ),
(2) G ( j ) circle the  curve,
N(X )
the system is unstable;
the nonlinear system is unstable;
1
(3) G ( j ) intersect with the  (3) G ( j ) intersect with the point
N(X )
( 1, j ), the system is in the
curve, there will be a self - oscillation
critical stability.
in the nonlinear system . 266
3. Stability analysis of the nonlinear system
(For example the minimum phase system)
1
 : Negative inverse describing function.
N(X)
Graphical explanation is shown as following:
Im X increasing Im G ( j ) Im
1 direction

N(X)
Re Re Re
G ( j )
G ( j ) 1 1
 
N(X ) N(X)
G ( j ) G ( j )
do not circle －1/N(X) G ( j ) circle －1/N(X) Intersect with －1/N(A)
(stable) (unstable) (self-oscillation)
267
describing function
4. Self-oscillation of the nonlinear system

A special motion of the nonlinear system:
Im
System will be at a continuous A : stable point
oscillation, which has a constant Re
amplitude and frequency, when stable unstable
the system come under a light zone zone
disturbance.
1
Corresponding to the intersection B: 
N(X )
1 unstable point G( j )
point of G(jω) with  :
N(X ) Self-oscillation
B: unstable self-oscillation point→－1/N(X)enter unstable zone
from stable zone.
A: stable self-oscillation point→－1/N(X) enter stable zone from
unstable zone. 268
Example: (a graduate examination)
A nonlinear system is shown in Fig.7.2.3. 4. The describing function of
4 K
the Relay nonlineari ty is , G( s) 
πX s(5 s  1)(10s  1)
1) Determine the system' s stability.
2) Determine K and oscilation frequency  when self - oscilation amplitude
1 r0
is X  . e 1 c
  0 
G(s)
-1
Solution: Fig.7.2.3.4
The system is equivalent r0 e c
to the Fig.7.2.3.5. N(X) G(s)

4 1 X
N(X )  1  
X N(X ) X  4 Fig.7.2.3.5 269
Graphical explanation is shown as Fig.7.2.3.6
K
G ( j )  Exercise: for this example, if:
j ( j 5  1)( j10  1)
K
K G ( s ) 
 s (10 s  1 ) 2
j (1  50 2 )  j15 
 
1 Im
10   0.14 
G( j ) 1  K G ( j )
 0.14 3
50
50 10
G ( j )   K
X 0 X 0
Re
1 3
   1
N(X ) X  4  1 X  
3

K , unstable. 1 X
10  
(1) Stability analysis: N(X ) X  4
3
K , self - oscillation Fig.7.2.3.6
10
1 X 1 1 3
(2)      G ( j )     0.14, K 
N(X ) X  4 X  1 5 50 50
 270
7.2.4 Attentions and development
1. Attentions
(1) Using the describing function to analyze the nonlinear system, the
Linear parts of the system must be provided with a good charact-eristic of the
low-pass filter→so that the harmonics produced by the nonlinear element can
be neglected.
(2) Generally the describing function method can only be used for analyzing
the stability and self-oscillation of the nonlinear systems, not the stead-state
error and transient specifications.
2. development
Modern analysis and design method of the nonlinear systems:
Computer simulation and intelligent design.
271
7.3 Phase plane method
It is a kind of graphic method to solve first and second order differen-
tial equation, put forward by Poincare In 1885.
Four items:
1. What is the Phase plane？
2. How to plot the Phase plane ？
3. How to analyze the nonlinear systems by the Phase plane method.
4. Attentions and development.
7.3.1 What is the Phase plane
For a second - order time - invariable system :
x  f ( x , x )
f ( x , x ) is a linear or nonlnear function of x( t ) and x (t).
The solution of x  f ( x , x ) can be expressed by the form of the
relation curve between x( t ) and x ( t )
272
7.3.1 What is the Phase plane
In the rectangula r coordinate plane constitute d by :
x - axis[  x ( t )] and y - axis[  x ( t )]
 the plane  the phase plane
 x ( t ) and x ( t )  the phase plane variables (state variable) .
 relation curve between x( t ) and x ( t )  phase trajectory .
x x ( X 2 ,  )
X 2
Phase plane
X 1 X 2 t x graph
0
( X 3 , X 3 )
Increasing t
x ( X1 , X 1 ) direction
X3
X2
t
Fig.7.3.1 Always to be
X1
Graphic expression clockwise
273
7.3.2. plotting method of the phase locus
1. Analytic method
For the sy stem : x  f ( x , x )  0
dx dx dx dx dx2
Because : x    x  x2
dt dx dt dx dx
dx2
Make : x  x1 x  x 2 we have : x 2   f ( x1 , x 2 )
dx1
can be x2
If f ( x1 , x 2 )  f1 ( x1 )  f 2 ( x 2 )  dx2   f1 ( x1 )dx1
decomposed f 2 ( x2 )
x2
Then :  f 2 ( x2 ) 
dx2   f1 ( x1 )dx1
we have : F2 ( x 2 )  F1 ( x1 )
The relationship between x 2 (  x ) and x1 (  x ) is obtained .
274
1. Analytic method
Example 7.3.1:
Spring - mass motion system : mx  Kx  0 k=1
m  mass, K  spring constant.

m=1
If initial condition x (0)  x 0 , x (0)  0 , x
plot the phase loci. Stable position
Solution: m x  Kx  0  x  x  0
m 1, K 1
dx
then : x
dx  
  x  x dx   xdx
1 2  1 2
 2
x  x ( 0)  
  x  x 2 ( 0)
2   2  
Because x (0)  x 0 , x (0)  0  x 2  x 2  x 0 2
The phase trajectory is a circ le, x 0 is the radius. 275
For different x0 the phase loci are x
a tuft of concentric circles shown
x0 x
in following figure.
Example 7.3.2: For the system:
r =0 e y 1 c
M
s2
-
Plot the phase loci of the system:
1
Solution: Because : Y ( s )   C ( s )  Y ( s )  s 2C ( s )  y  c
s2
So we have :
d 2c
dt 2
 y
M

M
r c  0
r c  0

 Msign(r  c )
276
make : c  x1 , c  x 2
then : x 1  x 2 dx2 Msign( r  x1 )

x 2  c  Msign( r  x1 ) dx1 x2
x2 x1
that is  x2dx2   Msign(r  x1 )dx1
x2 ( 0 ) x1 ( 0)
x2
when x1  r :
we have x 22  2 Mx1  2 Mx1 (0)  x 22 (0) x1
when x1  r : r
we have x 22  2 Mx1  2 Mx1 (0)  x 22 (0)
The phase loci of the system is shown in

following figure→self-oscillation.
277
2. Graphic method---isoclinal method
dx
For the systems : x  f ( x , x )  0  x  f ( x , x )  0
dx
dx2
make : x1  x , x 2  x then : x 2   f ( x1 , x 2 )
dx1
dx2 f ( x1 , x 2 )
 
dx1 x2
dx2 f ( x1 , x 2 )
make :       isocline equation
dx1 x2
 : the slope of the phase loci
Example 7.3.3:   x  0
Spring - mass motion system : x
plot the phase loci by the isoclinal method. 278
solution
dx  x
In terms of : x  x  0 we have : 
dx x
dx 1
make   then : x   x

dx 
The isocline is the beelines passing the coordinate origin and
1
with slope  .

1
The  values are shown in following table for different 

  2 1 0.5 0 －0.5 －1 －2 
1


0 －0.5 －1 －2  2 1 0.5 0
We can plot the isoclinals like as following figure:

279
(1) Plot the isoclinals for different α.
(2) Plot the corresponding tangents of the phase loci in each
isoclinals.  is the slope of the phase loci.
(3) Plot the phase loci starting at the initial states (x 0 , x 0 ).
 0
  0.5 x   0.5
 1   1
 2
  2
x  
(x 0 , x 0 )
280
Attentions:
1) x - axis and x shoudhave the samescale.
2) The direction of the phase loci always are clockwise :
For x  0 : from left to right with x increasing ;
For x  0 : from right to left with x decreasing .
3) The slope of the phase loci through x - axis is   ,
so the phase loci intersect x - axis uprightly.
4) apply the symmetry of the phase locus to reduce work .
For the symmetry about x  axis : f(x, x )  f(  x, x )
For the symmetry about x  axis : f(x, x )  f(x,  x )
For the symmetry about origin : f(x, x )  f(  x,  x )
281
7.3.3 Analysis of the phase plane
1. Singularity points of the phase locus
(1) singularity points
dx dx f ( x , x )
For : x  x   f ( x , x ), slope :   
dx dx x
if f ( x , x )  0 and x  0 at the same time, then :
dx 0
  indefinite slope.
dx 0
 singularit y point.
 There are infinite phase loci going to or going off the
singularit y point because of the indefinite slpoe .
 The singularit y points are the balance points of the
nonliear systems because of x  0 at the points. 282
1. Singularity points of the phase locus
(2) Types of the singularity points
The linearized nonlinear differenti al equation in the
neighborho od of the singularit y point can be expressed :
x  2ξωn x  ωn2 x  0 Characteristic 2
s  2 n s   n2  0
equation:
s1, 2   n   2 n2   n2
According to the position of s1,2 in s-plane, there are six types
of the singularity points:
For 0    1  stable focus;   1  stable nodes;
 1    0  unstable focus.   1  unstable nodes.
  0  center.
If : x  2ξωn x  ωn2 x  0 and   0  saddle point
283
types Roots Phase plane
stable
focus
unstable
focus
stable
nodes
unstable
nodes
284
centers
saddle
points
285
2. limit cycle
A kind of phase locus with the closed loop form
→Corresponding to the self-oscillation.
Types of the limit cycle :
(1) stable limit cycle
(2) unstable limit cycle
(3) semi - stable limit cycle
286
Example 7.3.4:
The differenti al equation of the nonlinear contol system:
x  0.5 x  2 x  x 2  0
Determine the singularit y point of the system and plot the
phase loci by the isocline method.
dx  0.5 x  2 x  x 2 0
Solution make :  
dx x 0
we have the singularit y point : x  0, x  0; x  2, x  0.
Linearize the nonlinear differential equation to determine the
types of the singularity points:
According to : x   f ( x , x )  (0.5 x  2 x  x 2 )
f ( x , x )
we have :  2  2 x x 0, x 0  2
x x 0, x 0 287
f ( x , x )
 0.5
x x  0, x  0
In the neighborho od of the singularit y point (0, 0) the linearizat ion
equation of the system is :
x  0.5 x  2 x  0
The characteri stic roots are : s1 , 2  0 .25  j1.39.
So the singularit y point (0, 0) is a stable focus.
In the neighborho od of the singularit y point (-2, 0) the linearizat ion
equation of the system is :
x  0.5 x  2 x  0
The characteri stic roots are : s1  1.19 , s2  1.69.
So the singularit y point (-2, 0) is a saddle point.
The phase loci plotted by the isoclinal method are shown in
following figure: 288
289
3. How to get the time response x(t) from the phase locus
dx dx x
Because : x   dt   t i 
dt x x avi
The graphical expression:
x1 x A  x B
t1   x  x B  x A , x av1 
x av1 2
x
x 2 x  x C
A B t 2   x2  xC  x B , x av 2  B
C x av 2 2
D
x x 3 x C  x D
t 3   x3  x D  xC , x av 3 
x av 3 2
We can get the time response curve x(t)
t1
t 2
x from the phase locus to analyze the time
t 3 specifications, such as the rise time tr,
t
Settling time ts etc. , of the nonlinear systems.
290
4. How to analyze the performance of the nonlinear systems from
the phase locus
(1) We can analyze the stability directly from the phase locus:
the phase locus is convergent or divergent.
(2) We can analyze the self-oscillation directly from the phase
locus: the phase loci converge upon a limit circle.
(3) We can transform the phase locus into the time response
curve x(t) to analyze the rise time tr , settling time ts etc..
(4) Also we can analyze the steady state error, overshoot etc.,
directly from the phase locus.
Example 7.3.5 k2

r e k1 y K c k1  0.0625 ; k2  1;
e0 s(Ts  1)
T  1; K  4; e0  0.2
If c (0)  c(0)  0, analyze the unity step response of the system

291
solution
4 0.0625e e  0.2
because : Y ( s )   C ( s)  y  
s( s  1)  e e  0.2
 e  e  4e  0 e  0.2
We have : 
e  e  0.25e  0 e  0.2
e(0)  1, e(0)  0
Singularity points: (0, 0), and a stable nodes in the e  e plane.
The phase locus is shown in following figure:
(1) Stability: stable e
(2) Steady state error ess = 0
(3) Overshoot (1,0) e
(4) We can transform the phase locus
into the time response curve e(t) to
analyze the rise time tr , settling time ts etc. 0.2 0.2
292
7.3 Phase plane method
7.3.4 Attentions and development
(1) Phase plane method is only used for analyzing or designing
the 1th-order or 2th-order nonlinear systems.
(2) Analyzing the nonlinear systems by phase plane method is
more all-sided compare with the describing function method.
but more complicated.
(3) Also the phase plane method is used to analyze the stability
of some intelligent control systems, such as the Fuzzy control
systems.
Exercise: For example 7.3.5, if the nonlinearity is:
2 1
0.2
0.5
(1) (2) 293
Chapter 8 Discrete (Sampling) System
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Z-transform
8.3 Mathematical describing of the sampling systems
8.4 Time-domain analysis of the sampling systems
8.5 The root locus of the sampling control systems
8.6 The frequency response of the sampling control
systems
8.7 The design of the “least-clap” sampling systems
8.1 Introduction
x(t)
x*(t)
8.1.1 Sampling x(t)
Make a analog signal to be a discrete
signal shown as in Fig.8.1 .
x(t) —analog signal . t
x*(t) —discrete signal . 0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
8.1.2 Ideal sampling switch —sampler Fig.8.1 signal sampling

Sampler —the device which fulfill the sampling.
Another name —the sampling switch — which works like a
switch shown as in Fig.8.2 . T
8.1.3 Some terms x(t) x*(t)

1. Sampling period T— the time interval
of the signal sampling: T = ti+1 － ti . 0
t
0
t
Fig.8.2 sampling switch

8.1.3 Some terms
2. Sampling frequency ωs — ωs = 2π fs = 2π / T .
3. Periodic Sampling — the sampling period Ts = constant.
4. Variable period sampling — the sampling period Ts≠constant.
5. Synchronous sampling —not only one sampling switch in a
system, but all work Synchronously.
6. Multi-rate sampling.
7. Opportunity(Random) sampling.
We mainly discuss the periodic and synchronous sampling in
chapter 8.
8.1.4 Sampling (or discrete) control system
There are one or more discrete signals in a control system —
the sampling (or discrete) control system. For example the
digital computer control system:
8.1 Introduction
r(t) e(t) e*(t) u*(t) u (t) c(t)
A/D computer D/A process
－
measure
Fig.8.3 computer control system
8.1.5 Sampling analysis
Expression of the sampling signal:
 
x * ( t )  x( t )   T ( t )  x( t )    (t  kT )   x(kT ) (t  kT )
k 0 k 0
It can be regarded as Fig.8.4:
T
x(t) x*(t)
x(t) x*(t)
δT(t)
× ＝
t t t
0 0 0
Modulation modulating modulated
signal pulse(carrier) wave
Fig.8.4 sampling process
  
1
because :  T ( t )    (t  kT )   C ne jk s t

T
 e jk st   s  2 / T
k 0 k   k  
 T /2
1 
0
1  1 
0
C  1 jk s t jk s t
 n T   T (t )e dt  T   T (t )e dt  T   T (t )dt  T 
 T / 2 0 0 
We have:
 Laplace 
1 jk s t 1
x * ( t )  x( t ) 
T
e  X * ( s ) 
T
 X ( s  jk s )
k   transforma tion k  
  
 here : X ( s )  L[ x ( t )]  x ( t )e  st dt 
  
 0 

1
The frequency spectrum of x * ( t ) : X*( j ) 
T
 X [ j(  k s )]
k  
This means: for the frequency spectrum of x(t) shown in Fig.8.5,
the frequency spectrum of x*(t) is like as Fig.8.6.
X * ( j )
X ( j )  max
Filter
Only:  s  2max
  X ( j ) could be
 max  max
s reproduced
 max
Fig.8.5 2 s
Fig.8.6
8.1 Introduction
So we have:
8.1.6 Sampling theorem ( Shannon’s theorem)
If the analog signal could be whole restituted from the sampling
signal, the sampling frequency  s must be satisfied :

 s  2 max or T 
 max
here :  max  the maximu m frequenc y of the analog signal .
T  sampling period .
 s  sampling frequency ,  s  2 T .
8.1.7 zero-order hold
Usually the controlled process require the analog signals, so
we need a discrete-to-analog converter shown in Fig.8.5.
x*(t) discrete-to-analog xh(t) Fig.8.7
converter D/A convert
8.1.7 zero-order hold
The ideal frequency response of the D/A converter is shown in
Fig.8.8.
A(ω)  ( )
To put the ideal frequency response in
ω
practice is difficult, the zero -order hold
is usually adopted. Fig.8.8
The action of the zero-order hold is shown x*(t)
in Fig.8.9. x(t)
xh(t)
The mathematic expression of xh(t) :
xh (t )  x(kT ) kT  t  (k  1)T
The unity pulse response of the zero- Fig.8.9
order hold is shown in Fig.8.10. g(t)
The transfer function of the zero-order
hold can be obtained from the unity pulse
1  e Ts
t
response:
G ( s )  L1( t )  1( t  T )  T
s Fig.8.10
8.1 Introduction
G( j ) , G( j )
8.1.7 zero-order hold T G( j )
The frequency response of 
0 s 2 s 3 s
the zero-order hold, which is
shown in Fig.8.11, is: Fig.8.11 G( j )
 sin(T / 2)
1  e  jT  G ( j )  T
G ( j )   T / 2
j  G ( j )  (T / 2)
8.2 Z-transform
8.2.1 Definition 
Expression of the sampled signal: x * ( t )   x( kT ) ( t  kT )
k 0

Using the Laplace transform: x * ( s)   x ( kT )e  kTs
k 0
Define: ze Ts
8.2 Z-transform
We have the Z-transform:

X ( z )  Z x( t )  Z x * ( t )   x( kT ) z k
k 0
8.2.2 Z-transforms of some
Table 8.1
common signals
x(t ) X ( s) X (z)
The Z-transforms of some  (t ) 1 1
z
common signals is shown in 1( t ) 1
s z 1
table 8.1. t 1 Tz
s2 ( z  1) 2
8.2.3 characteristics of Z-
e t
1 z
transform s  z  e T
 z sinT
The characteristics of Z- sint
s2   2 z 2  2 z cos T  1
transform is given in table s z ( z  cos T )
cos t
8.2. s2   2 z 2  2 z cos T  1
Table 8.2
x( t ) X (z)
k1 x1 ( t )  k 2 x2 ( t ) k1 X 1 ( z )  k 2 X 2 ( z )
m 1
x( t  mT ) z m
X (z)   x(iT  mT )z i
i 0
m 1
x( t  kT ) z m X (z)   x(iT )z m i
i 0
dX ( z )
tx( t )  Tz
dz
e t x( t ) X ( z ) z  zeT
a k x( t ) X ( z) z z
a
Initial value lim x( t )  lim X ( z )
t 0 z 
Final value lim x ( t )  lim( z  1) X ( z )
t  z 1
k 
Z x1 ( t )  x2 ( t )  Z   x1 ( iT ) x2 ( kT  iT )
Real convolutio n  i 0 
 X1( z) X 2 (z)
8.2.3 characteristics of Z-transform
Using the characteristics of Z-transform we can conveniently
deduce the Z-transforms of some signals.
Such as the examples shown in table 8.3:
Table 8.3
x( t ) X (z)
z z (1  e T ) z
1  e t  
z 1 z  e  T ( z  1)( z  e T )
t Tz Tze T
te 
( z  1) 2 z  zeT ( z  e T ) 2
z z
ak 
z  1 z z z  a
a
d Tz T 2 z( z  1)
t2  Tz 
dz ( z  1) 2 ( z  1) 3
 ( t  mk ) z m
8.2 Z-transform
8.2.4 Z-transform methods
1. Partial-fraction expansion approaches
A(s) K1 K2 Kn
If : X(s)      
( s  a1 )( s  a2 )    ( s  an ) s  a1 s  a2 s  an
n
Ki z
then : X ( z )    ai T
i 1 z  e
Example 8.1
 5( s  4)   10 15 5  10 z 15 z 5z
Z   Z   
 s s  1 s  2 z 1  
 s ( s  1)( s  2 )    z  e T z  e  2T
2. Residues approaches
n
 z  n
X ( z )   res  X ( s )  Ts 
  Ri  Residues
i 1  z  e  s   a i 1
i
1  q 1  z 
Ri  lim   ( s  ai ) X ( s )
q
Ts 
For q-order poles of X(s)
(q  1)！s   a i s
q 1
 z  e 
8.2.4 Z-transform methods
Example 8.2
 10  10 z 1   10 z 
Z 2
   

( 2  1)！s1 s  s z  eTs 
lim
 s( s  1)  s( s  1) z  eTs
2
s 0
T
10 z  z 2  ze (1  T )
 
z 1 ze T 2
 
8.2.5 Inverse Z-transform
x(kT )  Z 1 X ( z )  Inverse z- transform
1. Partial-fraction expansion approaches
A(z) K1z K2z
If : X(z)  a1T a2T  anT
  a1T
 a2T
 
(z  e )( z  e )  (s  e ) ze se
n
then : X ( kT )   K i e ai kT
i 1
Example 8.3
  2T
1 z (1  e )  1  z z   2kT
x( kT )  Z   2T   Z z 1   2T 
 1  e
 ( z  1)( z  e )   ze 
2. Power-series approaches
A(z)
If : X(z)   K 1 z 1  K 2 z  2  K 3 z  3    
B( z )
then : X ( kT )  K 1 ( t  T )  K 2 ( t  2T )  K 3 ( t  3T )    
Example 8.4
1
 z 3
 2 z 2
1 
x( kT )  Z  3 
 z  1.5 z  0.5 z 
2

 Z 1 1  3.5 z 1  4.75 z  2  6.375 z  3     
 1  3.5 ( t  T )  4.75 ( t  2T )  6.375 ( t  3T )    
3. Residues approaches
    R  Residues
n n
x( kT )   res X ( z )  z k 1
i
i 1 i 1
Ri 
1
lim
 q 1
(q  1)！z  ai  z q 1
( z  a 
i ) q
X ( z ) z k 1
 For q-order poles of X(z)
Example 8.5
1
 z2  z 2  z k 1 z 2  z k 1
Z   ( z  1)  ( z  0.5)
 ( z  1)( z  0.5)  ( z  1)( z  0.5) z 1
( z  1)( z  0.5)
z 0.5
kT
 2  (0.5) T
8.3 Mathematical modeling of the sampling systems
8.3.1 Difference equation
For a nth-order differential equation:
dn d n1 d n 2 d
n
c( t )  a1 n1 c( t )  a2 n 2 c( t )      an1 c( t )  anc( t )
dt dt dt dt
dm d m 1 d
 b0 r ( t )  b1 m 1 r ( t )      bm 1 r ( t )  bm r ( t )
dt m dt dt
Make:
d c( k  1)T   c( kT )  c( k  1)  c( k )  c( k )
c( t )   
dt T T T
 1th-order Forward difference
d 2c( t ) d  dc( t )  2c( k ) c( k )
   
dt 2 dt  dt  T 2
T2
c(k  1 )-c(k) c(k  2 )- 2c(k  1 )  c(k)
 2

T T2
…  2th-order Forward difference
Or :
dc( t ) c( k )  c( k  1)  c ( k )
   1th-order backward difference
dt T T
d 2c( t )  2c( k ) c( k )
 
dt 2 T2 T2
c(k)-c(k  1 ) c(k)- 2c(k  1 )  c(k  2 )
 2

T T2
…  2th-order backward difference
A nth-order differential equation can be transformed into a
nth-order difference equation by the backward or forward
difference:
c( k )   1c( k  1)   2c( k  2)       n1c( k  n  1)   nc( k  n)
  0 r ( k )   1r ( k  1)   2 r ( k  2)       m 1r ( k  m  1)   m r ( k  m )
To get the solution of the difference equation is very simple by
the recursive algorithm.
 T c(mT )
Example 8.6 e e
r K (5 s  1)
For the sampling system
shown in Fig.8.12, Assume:
 T s( 2 s  1)
c
K = 10, T = 0.5s, r(t) = 1(t) Fig.8.12

Determine the output c*(mT).
Solution
C ( s) K (5 s  1) d 2c( t ) dc( t ) de ( t ) 

  2   5 K  Ke (t )
e ( s ) s( 2 s  1) dt 2 dt dt
d 2c( t ) c( k )  2c( k  1)  c( k  2) dc( t ) c( k )  c( k  1)
 2 2
2 2
; 
dt T dt T
de  ( t ) e  ( k )  e  ( k  1)
5K  5K ; Ke ( t )  Ke ( k )
dt T
 The difference equation :
2T 4T 2 5 K  KT  5K 
c( k )  c(k  1)  c( k  2)  e (k )  e ( k  1)
T2 T2 T 2 T T
4T 2 5 KT  KT 2  5 KT 
c( k )  c( k  1)  c ( k  2)  e (k )  e ( k  1)
2T 2T 2T 2T
5 KT  KT 2  5 KT  4T 2
c( k )  e (k )  e ( k  1)  c( k  1)  c ( k  2)
2T 2T 2T 2T
For K = 10, T = 0.5s, we have:
c(k )  11e (k )  10e (k  1)  1.8c(k  1)  0.8c(k  2)
Consider e*(k) = r(k)－c(k) = 1－c(k):
41 4
c( k )  1.75  c( k  1)  c ( k  2)
60 60
If c(0) = 0, applying the recursive algorithm we have:
41 4
c(1)  1.75  c ( 0)  c( 1)  1.75
60 60
41 4
c( 2)  1.75  c(1)  c(0)  0.554
60 60
41 4
c( 3)  1.75  c ( 2)  c(1)  1.255
…… 60 60
41 4
c( m )  1.75  c( m  1)  c( m  2)
60 60
8.3 Mathematical modeling of the sampling systems
8.3.2 Z-transfer (pulse) function
Definition: Z-transfer (pulse) function — the ratio of the Z-
transformation of the output signal versus input signal for the
linear sampling systems in the zero-initial conditions, that is:
C(z)
G( z ) 
R( z )
1. The Z-transfer function of the open-loop system
r(t) c*(t)
G1(s) G2(s) c(t)
T T
R(z) C(z)
G1(z)G2(z) G1(z) =Z [ G1(s)] G2(z) =Z [ G2(s)]
c*(t)
r(t)
G1(s) G2(s) c(t)
T
R(z) C(z)
G1G2(z) G1G2(z) =Z [ G1(s)G2(s) ]
2. The z-transfer function of the closed-loop system
r c
 GH ( z )  Z G( s ) H ( s )
R( z )G( z )
－
G(s)
C(z) 
H(s)
1  GH ( z )
 RG( z )  Z R( s )G( s )

RG( z )
r
G(s)
c
C(z) 
－ 1  GH ( z )
H(s)
r c R( z )G ( z )
G(s) C(z) 
－ 1  G( z ) H ( z )
H(s)
r c RG1( z )G2 ( z )
－
G1(s) G2(s) C(z) 
1 G1G2 H ( z )
H(s)
r c R( z )G1( z )G2 ( z )
－
G1(s) G2(s) C(z) 
1 G1( z )G2 H ( z )
H(s)
r c
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)
－
H(s)
RG1 ( z )G2 ( z )G3 ( z )
C(z) 
r c
1  G2 ( z )G3 ( z )G1 ( z ) H ( z )
G1(s) G2(s)
－－
H1(s)
H2(s) R( z )G1 ( z )G2 ( z )
C(z) 
1  G2 H1 ( z )  G1 ( z )G2 H 2 ( z )
r c
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)
－－
H1(s)
H2(s)
RG1 ( z )G2 ( z )G3 ( z )
C(z) 
1  G2 ( z )G3 H1 ( z )  G2 ( z )G1G3 H 2 ( z )
8.4.1 The stability analysis
1. The stability condition
The characteristic equation of the sampling control systems:
1  GH ( z )  0
∵ z  eTs  1  GH (eTs )  0
Suppose: s    j  eTs  eT (  j )  eT  e jT
In s-plane, α need to be negative for a stable system, it means:
eTs  z  eT  1
So we have:
The sufficient and necessary condition of the stability for the
sampling control systems is:
The roots zi of the characteristic equation 1+GH(z)=0 must all
be inside the unity circle of the z-plane, that is: zi  1
8.4.1 The stability analysis critical stability Im
z-plane
The graphic expression of the stability 1 Re
condition for the sampling control systems
is shown in Fig.8.4.1.
unstable zone Stable zone
2. The stability criterion Fig.8.4.1
In the characteristic equation 1+GH(z)=0, substitute z with
w  1 —— W (bilinear) transformation.
z
w 1
We can analyze the stability of the sampling control systems
the same as we did in chapter 3 (Routh criterion in the w-plane) .
 Proof : suppose w    j , z  x  jy , then : 
 
 z  1 x  jy  1  x  1  jy  x2  y2  1 2y 
 w    j   
 
  j 
 z  1 x  jy  1  x  1  jy  ( x  1) 2
 y 2
( x  1) 2
 y 2

 
   0  x 2
 y 2
 1  0  x 2
 y 2
1 
 ( for the left half of the w-plane )  ( inside the unit circle of the z-plane ) 
 
8.4.1 The stability analysis
0.632 Kz
Example 8.7 1  G( z )  1  0
z  1.368 z  0.368
2
Determine K for the stable system.

Solution : make w 1
z
w 1
0.632 Kz
1 2  0  0 .632 Kw  1.264w  ( 2.736  0.632 K )  0
z  1.368 z  0.368
0 .632 K 2.736  0.632 K
In terms o f the Routh criterion : 1.264
2.736  0.632 K
We have: 0 < K < 4.33.
8.4.2 The steady state error analysis
The same as the calculation of the steady state error in Chapter
3, we can use the final value theorem of the z-transform:
e ss  lim ( z  1) E ( z )
z 1
For the stable system shown in Fig.8.4.2
R( z )G( z ) R( z ) r e c
E ( z )  R( z )  c( z )  R( z )   G(s)
1  G( z ) 1  G( z ) －
R( z ) Fig.8.4.2
e ss  lim ( z  1) E ( z )  lim ( z  1)
z 1 z 1 1  G( z )
 1
 z
r ( t )  1( t )  R( z )  ; K *p  lim G ( z )
1  K p
*
z 1 z 1
 T
 Tz
* r (t )  t  R( z )  ; K v*  lim ( z  1)G ( z )
 K v ( z  1) 2 z 1
 T2
 T 2 z ( z  1)
 K a* r (t )  t 2  R( z )  ; K a*  lim ( z  1)2 G ( z )
( z  1) 3 z 1
Example 8.8 r e c
－ T Z.o.h G (s)
K
Z.o.h —Zero-order hold. T  1s G ( s ) 
s( s  5)
1) Determine K for the stable system.
2) If r(t) = 1+t, determine ess=？
Solution
1)  KTz Kz Kz 
1  e Ts
K   25 
G( z )  Z    (1  z 1 ) 5  5
 s

s( s  5)   ( z  1)2 z  1 z  e 5T 
  T 1
 K 
Ts
 (1  e ) Z  2  K z 2
 2.2067 z  0.2135
  
 s ( s  5)  5 ( z  1)( z  0.0067)
K  K K 
 (1  e Ts ) Z  25  5  25 
 s s s5
 
The charecteristic equation of the system :
K z 2  2.2067 z  0.2135
1  G( z )  1   0
5 ( z  1)( z  0.0067)
(5-K ) z 2  ( 2.2067 K  5.0335) z  (0.0335  0.2135 K )  0
w 1
z  0.9932 w  (9.993  1.573 K )w  (10.067  2.4202 K )  0
w 1
0  K  4.16
K z 2
 2.2067 z  0.2135
2) K p  lim G ( z )  lim 
*

z 1 z 1 5 ( z  1)( z  0.0067)
K z 2
 2.2067 z  0.2135
K v*  lim ( z  1)G ( z )  lim    0.2 K
z 1 z 1 5 ( z  0.0067)
1 T T 5
e ss    0 
1 K *p K v* 0.2 K T1 K
8.4.3 The unit-step response analysis
A( z ) z
suppose : C ( z )   ( z ) R( z )  
( s  p1 )( s  p2 )    ( s  pn ) z  1
A0 z n Ai z
 
z  1 i 1 z  pi
n kT Im
then : c( kT )  A0   Ai ( pi )T
i 1
1
Re
Analyzing c(kT) we have
the graphic expression of
C(kT) is shown in Fig.8.4.3.
Fig.8.4.3
8.5 The root locus of the sampling control systems
The plotting procedure of the root loci of the sampling systems
are the same as that we introduced in chapter 4.
But the analysis of the root loci of the sampling systems is
different from that we discussed in chapter 4 (imaginary axis of
the s-plane ←→ the unit circle of the z-plane).
8.6 The frequency response of the sampling control systems
The analysis and design methods of the frequency response of
the sampling systems are the same as that we discussed respect-
ively in chapter 5 , chapter 6, only making:
w 1
z and w  jv
w 1
Here: v — the counterfeit frequency
The transition process of the sampling control systems can be
finished in the minimum sampling periods—the “least-clap”
systems.
8.7.1 design of D(z)
For the system shown in r e c
D(z) G (s)
－
Fig.8.6.1.
We have: Fig.8.6.1
C(z) D( z )G( z ) E(z) 1
 (z)   e ( z )   1   (z) 
R( z ) 1  D( z )G( z ) R( z ) 1  D( z )G( z )
 (z) 1  e ( z )
D( z )  
G ( z )1   ( z ) G ( z )e ( z )
For the input signal :
1 Tz 1
r ( t )  1( t )  R( z )  1
; r(t)  t  R( z ) 
1 z (1  z 1 ) 2
T 2 z 1 (1  z 1 )
r ( t )  t 2  R( z ) 
(1  z 1 )3
we have
 ( z )  z 1 or e ( z )  1  z 1  r ( t )  1( t )
 ( z )  2 z 1  z 2 or e ( z )  (1  z 1 )2  r ( t )  t
1 2 3 1 3 1 2
 ( z )  3 z  3 z  z or e ( z )  (1  z )  r ( t )  t
2
 (z) 1  e ( z )
D( z )  
G ( z )1   ( z ) G ( z )e ( z )
1
Proof: E ( z )  e ( z ) R( z )  R( z )
1  D( z )G ( z )
1 1 A( z )
e ss  lim (1  z ) 
z 1 1  D( z )G ( z ) (1  z 1 )v
1 1  z 1
If :  e ( z )   and B( z )  1
1  D( z )G ( z ) B( z )
then : e ss  lim (1  z 1 ) A( z )  e ss  0
z 1
The transient process of the system response can be ended
in the minimum periods.
c*(t) c*(t) c*(t)
The responses of 1
the “least-clap”
System are shown t t t
T 2T T 2T 3T T 2T 3T
in Fig.8.6.2.
Fig.8.6.2
Example 8.9
For the system shown in Fig.8.6.3
1  e Ts
Gh ( s )  r e
D(z)
u
Gh(s) G (s)
c
s － T T
10
G( s) 
s( s  1) Fig.8.6.3
Determine D(z), make the system to be the “least-clap” system

for r(t) = t.
3.68 z 1 (1  0.718 z 1 )
Solution G ( z )  Z Gh ( s )G ( s )  1 1
(1  z )(1  0.368 z )
Tz 1
r ( t )  t  R( z )   e ( z )  (1  z 1 )2
(1  z 1 ) 2
1  e ( z ) 0.543(1  0.368 z 1 )(1  0.5 z 1 )
D( z )  
G ( z )e ( z ) (1  z 1 )(1  0.718 z 1 )
8.7.2 The realization of D(z)
To illustrate by example 8.10
Example 8.10 To realize D(z) for Example 8.9
Solution U ( z ) 0.543(1  0.368 z 1 )(1  0.5 z 1 )
D( z )  
E(z) (1  z 1 )(1  0.718 z 1 )
U ( z )[(1  z 1 )(1  0.718z 1 )]  E ( z )[0.543(1  0.368z 1 )(1  0.5z 1 )]
U ( z )  0.282z 1U ( z )  0.718z 2U ( z )  0.543 E ( z )  0.471z 1 E ( z )  0.1z 2 E ( z )
u(k )  0.543e(k )  0.471e(k  1)  0.1e(k  2)  0.282u(k  1)  0.718u(k  2)

We can program the computer in terms of above formula to
realize D(z).
Exercises: p820～ E13.11; E13.14; P13.12; p13.18; AP13.2
10
In example 8.9, if G ( s ) 
s( s  5)
and respectively for r(t)=1(t); t; t2 .

Modern Control Engineering 5e - Katsuhiko Ogata

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Modern Control Engineering 5e - Katsuhiko Ogata

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Modern Control Engineering 5e - Katsuhiko Ogata

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Modern Control

1.2 Automatic control systems

* Feedback control…… Figure 1.1

ser vopot ent i omet er

For the Fig.1.1, The

comparat or Act uat or

1) Open loop control systems

I nput r ( t ) Out put c( t )

Features: Only there is a forward action from the input to the

1.4 Basic performance requirements of control systems

2. Identify the variables to control

A disk drive read system Shown in Fig.1.13

Fig.1.13 A disk drive read system

(1) Identify the control goal:

(3) Write the initial specification for the variables:

Desired error Actual

Fig.1.13 system configuration for disk drive

The key — designing the controller → how produce uk.

define: input → ur output → uc。

Make: Te  La ............electric - magnetic time - constant

2) Write the differential equations of each system’s components in

wehave : y  f ' ( r0 )r ............linearizat ion equation

Example 2.7 : Fluxograph equation

2.4 Transfer function

3) If the input-output differential equation is known

ur C1 C2 uc ur ( s) 1/ C1s 1/ C2s uc( s)

Relationship between the input and output variables:

Adder ( compar i son) X1( s) + E( s)

define: input → ur output → uc。

Define: input → F ，output → y. We have:

Suppose: input → r ，output → y

y ( n)  a1 y ( n1)  a2 y ( n2)      an1 y (1)  an y

* Transform a circuit into a operator circuit.

ur C1 C2 uc ur ( s) 1/ C1s 1/ C2s uc( s)

Relationship between the input and output variables:

Adder ( compar i son) X1( s) + E( s)

(s) s (s) T1s 1 Q( s) T2 s  1

2. The summing point or pickoff point should be moved to the

Nodes, representing the signals or variables.

Path — a branch or a continuous sequence of branches traversing

Loop —— a closed path that originates and terminates on the

pk  k-th forward path gain

Graphical symbol comparison between the signal-flow graph

Block diagram Signal-flow graph

R(s) E(s) X － X3 C(s)

  1  (G1G2G3G4 H 3  G2G3 H 2  G3G4 H1 )

Then: Δ  1  2G2  4G1G2

We have the steady-state response:

Frequency Response(or frequency characteristic) of the electric

Input a sinusoid signal to the control system

Measure the amplitude and phase of the steady-state output

Are the measured data enough？ N

a unity feedback control system, the open-loop transfer function:

So we have the steady-state response c(t) :

e( t )  2.5 5 sin(4t  78.4o )  5 5 cos(4t  63.4o )

Calculate A(ω) and  ( ) for different ω:

Re L( ) :  20dB / dec

Polar plot Bode diagram

Polar plot  180o

Assuming : R(s)＋＋ C(s)