WEEK 2

CELL &
MEMBRANE
TRANSPORT
WHAT IS A CELL?
 ‘Cell’ means a small room or chamber, cells
are the structural and functional units of all
living organisms.
 The major parts of a cell are the nucleus and
the cytoplasm
 prokaryotes and eukaryotes, based on the
presence and absence of the true nucleus
 Eukaryotes

• Eukaryotes have
nucleus which is covered
by nuclear membrane.
• Unlike prokaryotes,
eukaryotes have a
variety of other
membrane-bound
organelles (subcellular
elements) in their
cytoplasm, including:
– Mitochondria
– Lysosomes
– Endoplasmic reticulum
– Golgi complexes.
Prokaryotes

 Prokaryotes have no typical nucleus and

subcellular components. (Greek: Pro =
before).
 Bacteria and blue green algae belong to
the prokaryotes.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF A CE
AND ITS SUBCELLULAR COMPONENTS
A cell has three major components:
1. Cell membrane (Plasma membrane)
2. Cytoplasm with its organelles
3. Nucleus.
CELL AND ITS SUBCELLULAR
COMPONENTS
Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)
 The cell is enveloped by a thin membrane called
cell membrane or plasma membrane.

 The cell membrane is an organized structure

consisting of a lipid bilayer primarily of
phospholipids and penetrated protein molecules
forming a mosaic-like pattern
CELL MEMBRANE
Membrane Lipids
• The major classes of membrane lipids are:
– Phospholipids
– Glycolipids
– Cholesterol.
They all are amphipathic molecules, i.e.
they have both hydrophobic and
hydrophilic ends.
• Membrane lipids spontaneously form
bilayer in
aqueous medium, burying their
hydrophobic tails and leaving their
hydrophilic ends exposed to the water
 Membrane Proteins
Classified into two major
categories
1. Integral proteins
 either partially or totally
immersed in the lipid bilayer.
 Many integral membrane
proteins span the lipid bilayer
from one side to the other
and are called
transmembrane protein
whereas others are partly
embedded in either the
outer or inner leaflet of the
lipid
 Membrane Proteins
2. Peripheral or extrinsic
proteins
 Peripheral proteins are
attached to the
surface of the lipid
bilayer by
electrostatic and
hydrogen bonds.
 They bound loosely to
the polar head groups
of the membrane
phospholipid bilayer
 Membrane Carbohydrates
 Membrane carbohydrate is not free. It occurs in
combination with proteins or lipids in the form of
glycoproteins or glycolipids.

 Most of the integral proteins are glycoproteins and

about one-tenth of the membrane lipid molecules
are glycolipids.

 The carbohydrate portion of these molecules

protrude to the outside of the cell, dangling
outward from the cell surface .
 Many of the carbohydrates act as receptor for
hormones. Some carbohydrate moieties function
 Functions of Cell
Membrane
• Protective function: The cell membrane protects the
cytoplasm and the organelles of the cytoplasm.

• Maintenance of shape and size of the cell.

• As a semipermeable membrane: The cell

membrane permits only some substances to pass in
either direction, and it forms a barrier for other
substances.
The Fluid Mosaic Model of
Cell Membrane
Cytoplasm and its
Organelles
Cytoplasm is the internal volume bounded
by the
plasma membrane. The clear fluid portion
of the
cytoplasm in which the particles are
suspended is called cytosol.

Six important organelles that are suspended

in the
cytoplasm are:
1. Endoplasmic reticulum
2. Golgi apparatus
3. Lysosomes
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
 is the interconnected network of tubular and flat
vesicular structures in the cytoplasm

 forms the link between nucleus and cell membrane

by connecting the cell membrane at one end and
the outer membrane of the nucleus at the other
end

 A large number of minute granular particles called

ribosomes are attached to the outer surface of
many parts of the endoplasmic reticulum, this part
of the ER is known as rough or granular ER.

 During the process of cell fractionation, rough ER is

 Functions of the ER
 Rough ER functions in the biosynthesis of
protein.

 The smooth endoplasmic reticulum

functions in the synthesis of steroid
hormones and cholesterol.

 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the site of

the metabolism of certain drugs, toxic
compounds and carcinogens (cancer
producing substances).
 Golgi Apparatus
 Golgi apparatus is present in all cells except in
red blood cells.

 It is situated near the nucleus and is closely

related to the endoplasmic reticulum.

 It consists of four or more membranous sacs.

 This apparatus is prominent in

secretory cells.
 Functions of golgi
apparatus
 The Golgi apparatus functions in association with the
endoplasmic reticulum.

 Proteins synthesized in the ER are transported to

the Golgi apparatus where these are processed by
addition of carbohydrate, lipid or sulfate moieties.

 These chemical modifications are necessary for the

transport of proteins across the plasma membrane.

 Golgi apparatus are also involved in the synthesis of

intracellular organelles, e.g.lysosomes and
 Lysosomes
 Lysosomes are vesicular organelles formed from
Golgi apparatus and dispersed throughout the
cytoplasm.

 Among the organelles of the cytoplasm, the

lysosomes have the thickest covering membrane to
prevent the enclosed hydrolytic enzymes from
coming in contact with other substances in the cell
and therefore, prevents their digestive actions.

 Many small granules are present in the lysosome.

 The granules contain more than 40 different
hydroxylases (hydrolytic enzymes).
 Functions of lysosomes
 Lysozymes present in lysosomes digest proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids.

 Apart from the digestive functions, the enzymes in

the lysosomes are responsible for the following
activities in the cell:

 Destruction of bacteria and other foreign bodies.

 Removal of excessive secretory products in the

cells
of the glands.
 Peroxisomes
 These organelles resemble the lysosomes in their
appearance, but they differ both in function and
in their synthesis.

 They do not arise from Golgi membranes, but

rather from the division of pre-existing
peroxisomes. Or perhaps through budding off
from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
 Functions of peroxisomes
 Peroxisomes contain enzymes peroxidases
and catalase which are concerned with the
metabolism of peroxide.

 Thus, the peroxisomes are involved in

the detoxification of peroxide

 Peroxisomes are also capable of carrying

out β-oxidation of fatty acid.
Mitochondria (Power House of
Cell)
Mitochondria are called
“Power Plant” of the cell
since they convert
energy to form ATP that
can be used by cell.
A mitochondrion is a
double-membrane
organelle that are
fundamentally different
in composition and
function.

— The outer membrane

The space within the
inner membrane is called
the mitochondrial matrix.
It contains the enzymes
of the:
— Citric acid cycle
— β-oxidation of fatty
acid
— Some other
degradative enzymes.

Mitochondria contain
DNA (mtDNA) which
encodes a few
polypeptides involved in
It is worth noting that sperms contribute
no mitochondria to the fertilized egg, so
that mitochondrial DNA is inherited
exclusively through the female line.
Thus, mitochondria are maternally
inherited!!!
 Nucleus
 The cells with nucleus are called eukaryotes and
those without nucleus are known as prokaryotes.

 Most of the cells have only one nucleus but cells of

skeletal muscles have many nuclei.

 The matured red blood cell contains no nucleus.

Structure of Nucleus
 The nucleus is spherical in shape and situated near
the center of the cell. The nucleus is surrounded by
the nuclear envelope.
 The space enclosed by the nuclear envelope is
called nucleoplasm, within this the nucleolus is
present.
 Nucleolus is an organized structure of DNA, RNA
and protein that is involved in the synthesis of
ribosomal RNA.
 The remaining nuclear DNA is dispersed throughout
the nucleoplasm in the form of chromatin fibers.
 At mitosis, chromatin is condensed into discrete
structures called chromosomes.
 Functions of Nucleus
The major functional role of the nucleus is that of:
• Replication: Synthesis of new DNA.
• Transcription: The synthesis of the three major
types of RNA:
1. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
2. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA).
CYTOSKELETON
The cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells contains
network of protein filaments, that interact extensively
with each other and with the component of the
plasma membrane.
Such an extensive intracellular network of protein has
been called cytoskeleton. The plasma membrane is
anchored to the cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton is not
a rigid permanent framework of the cell but is a
dynamic, changing structure.
• The cytoskeleton consists of three primary protein
filaments:
1. Microfilaments
2. Microtubules
3. Intermediate filaments.
Microfilaments
are about 5 nm in diameter. They are made up of
protein actin. Actin filaments form a meshwork just
underlying the plasma membrane of cells and are
referred to as cell cortex, which is labile.

They disappear as cell motility increases or upon

malignant transformation of cells.
The function of microfilaments is:
— To help muscle contraction
— To maintain the shape of the cell
— To help cellular movement
 Microtubules are cylindrical tubes, 20 to 25
nm in diameter. They are made up of
protein tubulin.

 Microtubules are necessary for the formation

and function of mitotic spindle. They provide
stability to the cell.

 They prevent tubules of ER from collapsing.

These are the major components of axons
and dendrites.
 Intermediate filaments are so called as their
diameter (10 nm) is intermediate between
that of microfilaments (5 nm) and of
microtubules (25 nm).

 Intermediate filaments are formed from

fibrous protein which varies with different
tissue type.

 They play role in cell-to-cell attachment and

help to stabilize the epithelium. They provide
strength and rigidity to axons.
Functions of Cytoskeleton
 The cytoskeleton gives cells their characteristic
shape
and form, provides attachment points for organelles,
fixing their location in cells and also makes
communication between parts of the cell possible.

It is also responsible for the separation of

chromosomes
during cell division.

 The internal movement of the cell organelles as

well
as cell locomotion and muscle fiber contraction
 MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
• One of the functions of the plasma membrane is to
regulate the passage of a variety of small molecules
across it.
• Biological membranes are semipermeable
membranes
through which certain molecules freely diffuse
across membranes but the movement of the others
is restricted because of size, charge or solubility.

• The two types of transport mechanisms are (Figure

1.6):
1. Passive transport or passive diffusion