Unit III – Bulk deformation

Processes
 Hot working
• In materials science, hot working refers to
processes where metals are plastically deformed
above their recrystallization temperature. Being
above the recrystallization temperature allows
the material to recrystallize during deformation.
This is important because recrystallization keeps
the materials from strain hardening, which
ultimately keeps the yield strength and hardness
low and ductility high.
 Advantages of Hot working
• Decrease in yield strength, therefore it is easier to work
and uses less energy or force
• Increase in ductility
• Elevated temperatures increase diffusion which can
remove or reduce chemical in homogeneities
• Pores may reduce in size or close completely during
deformation
• In steel, the weak, ductile, face-centered-cubic austenite
microstructure is deformed instead of the strong body-
centered-cubic ferrite microstructure found at lower
temperatures
 Disadvantages of HW
• Undesirable reactions between the metal and
the surrounding atmosphere (scaling or rapid
oxidation of the workpiece)
• Less precise tolerances due to thermal
contraction and warping from uneven cooling
• Grain structure may vary throughout the metal
for various reasons
• Requires a heating unit of some kind such as a
gas or diesel furnace or an induction heater,
which can be very expensive
 Cold working
• Cold working is a metalworking process that employs work
hardening because the work piece is shaped at a temperature
below its recrystallization temperature, usually at the ambient
temperature.[1] Cold forming techniques are usually classified
into four major groups: squeezing, bending, drawing, and
shearing.

• Such deformation increases the concentration of dislocations

which may subsequently form low-angle grain boundaries
surrounding sub-grains. Cold working generally results in a
higher yield strength as a result of the increased number of
dislocations and the Hall-Petch effect of the sub-grains, and a
decrease in ductility. The effects of cold working may be
reversed by annealing the material at high temperatures where
recovery and recrystallization reduce the dislocation density.
 Advantages of CW

• No heating required
• Better surface finish
• Superior dimensional control
• Better reproducibility and interchangeability
• Directional properties can be imparted into the
metal
• Contamination problems are minimized
 Disadvantages of CW
• Greater forces are required
• Heavier and more powerful equipment and
stronger tooling are required
• Metal is less ductile
• Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free
• Intermediate anneals may be required to
compensate for loss of ductility that
accompanies strain hardening
• The imparted directional properties may be
detrimental
• Undesirable residual stress may be produced
 Forging
• Forging is the term for shaping metal by using
localized compressive forces. Cold forging is
done at room temperature or near room
temperature. Hot forging is done at a high
temperature, which makes metal easier to shape
and less likely to fracture. Warm forging is done
at intermediate temperature between room
temperature and hot forging temperatures.
Forged parts can range in weight from less than
a kilogram to 170 metric tons. Forged parts
usually require further processing to achieve a
finished part.
 Hot and Cold forging
• Hot forging is defined as working a metal above
its recrystallization temperature. The main
advantage of hot forging is that as the metal is
deformed the strain-hardening effects are
negated by the recrystallization process.

• Cold forging is defined as working a metal below

its recrystallization temperature, but usually
around room temperature. If the temperature is
above 0.3 times the melting temperature (on an
absolute scale) then it qualifies as warm forging.
 Open-die drop-hammer forging

• Open-die forging is also known as smith forgingIn open-die forging a

hammer comes down and deforms the workpiece, which is placed
on a stationary anvil. Open-die forging gets its name from the fact
that the dies (the working surfaces of the forge that contact the
workpiece) do not enclose the workpiece, allowing it to flow except
where contacted by the dies. Therefore the operator needs to orient
and position the workpiece to get the desired shape. The dies are
usually flat in shape, but some have a specially shaped surface for
specialized operations. For instance, the die may have a round,
concave, or convex surface or be a tool to form holes or be a cut-off
tool.
• Open-die forging lends itself to short runs and is appropriate for art
smithing and custom work. Other times open-die forging is used to
rough shape ingots to prepare them for further operations. This can
also orient the grains to increase strength in the required direction.
 Impression-die forging
• Impression-die forging is also called closed-die forging. In
impression-die work metal is placed in a die resembling a
mold, which is attached to the anvil. Usually the hammer
die is shaped as well. The hammer is then dropped on
the workpiece, causing the metal to flow and fill the die
cavities. The hammer is generally in contact with the
workpiece on the scale of milliseconds. Depending on the
size and complexity of the part the hammer may be
dropped multiple times in quick succession. Excess metal
is squeezed out of the die cavities, forming what is
referred to as flash. The flash cools more rapidly than the
rest of the material; this cool metal is stronger than the
metal in the die so it helps prevent more flash from
forming. This also forces the metal to completely fill the
die cavity. After forging the flash is removed.
 Closed-die forging
• In this type of forging the die cavities are completely closed, which
keeps the workpiece from forming flash. The major advantage to
this process is that less metal is lost to flash. Flash can account for
20 to 45% of the starting material. The disadvantages of this
process include additional cost due to a more complex die design
and the need for better lubrication and workpiece placement.

Closed-die forging has a high initial cost due to the creation of dies and
required design work to make working die cavities. However, it has low
recurring costs for each part, thus forgings become more economical with
more volume. This is one of the major reasons closed-die forgings are
often used in the automotive and tool industry. Another reason forgings
are common in these industrial sectors is because forgings generally have
about a 20% higher strength to weight ratio compared to cast or machined
parts of the same material.
 Press forging
• Press forging is variation of drop-hammer forging. Unlike drop-
hammer forging, press forges work slowly by applying continuous
pressure or force. The amount of time the dies are in contact with
the workpiece is measured in seconds (as compared to the
milliseconds of drop-hammer forges). The press forging operation
can be done either cold or hot.

• Press forging can be used to perform all types of forging, including

open-die and impression-die forging. Impression-die press forging
usually requires less draft than drop forging and has better
dimensional accuracy. Also, press forgings can often be done in one
closing of the dies, allowing for easy automation.
Forging
Cold Forging
 Roll forging
• Roll forging is a process where round or flat bar stock is reduced in
thickness and increased in length. Roll forging is performed using
two cylindrical or semi-cylindrical rolls, each containing one or more
shaped grooves.

• A heated bar is inserted into the rolls and when it hits a stop the rolls
rotate and the bar is progressively shaped as it is rolled out of the
machine. The work piece is then transferred to the next set of
grooves or turned around and reinserted into the same grooves.
This continues until the desired shape and size is achieved. The
advantage of this process is there is no flash and it imparts a
favorable grain structure into the workpiece.

• Examples of products produced using this method include axles,

tapered levers and leaf springs.
Roll Forging
Drop Forging
Press Forging
 Roll forming
• Roll forming is a continuous bending
operation in which a long strip of metal
(typically coiled steel) is passed through
consecutive sets of rolls, or stands, each
performing only an incremental part of the
bend, until the desired cross-section
profile is obtained. Roll forming is ideal for
producing parts with long lengths or in
large quantities.
• A variety of cross-section profiles can be produced, but each profile
requires a carefully crafted set of roll tools. Design of the rolls starts
with a flower pattern, which is the sequence of profile cross-
sections, one for each stand of rolls. The roll contours are then
derived from the profile contours. Because of the high cost of the roll
sets, simulation is often used to validate the designed rolls and
optimize the forming process to minimize the number of stands and
material stresses in the final product.

• Roll formed sections have an advantage over extrusions of a similar

shapes. Roll formed parts are generally much lighter and stronger,
having been work hardened in a cold state. Another advantage is
that the part can be made having a finish or already painted. Labor
is greatly reduced since volume is a major consideration for
choosing the roll forming process.
• The process of roll forming is one of the simpler
manufacturing processes. It begins with a large spool of
metal strips, usually between 1 in. and 20in. in width, and
0.004 in. and 0.125 in. thick. This is held by a device called
a dispenser. The metal strip is then unrolled and fed into a
machine starting with the stock feeder which is connected
to the cutoff attachment. After the cutoff attachment, the
metal strip is fed into the forming rolls. These mating die-
set rolls are constructed to form the desired shape in
stages sequentially by means of various shaped rolls. The
layout of these rolls can be flower shaped as mentioned
previously, progressive upper/lower rolls, side rolls, or as
overhung spindle rolls (known as cluster roll
configurations). These different roll configurations are
used according to the job that needs to be done.
Rolled sections
Flat strip rolling
Rolling Mills
Rolling mills
Cluster mills
Tube piercing
Shape rolling
 Hot rolling
• Hot rolling is a hot working metalworking
process where large pieces of metal, such as
slabs or billets, are heated above their
recrystallization temperature and then deformed
between rollers to form thinner cross sections.
Hot rolling produces thinner cross sections than
cold rolling processes with the same number of
stages. Hot rolling, due to recrystallization, will
reduce the average grain size of a metal while
maintaining an equiaxed microstructure where
as cold rolling will produce a hardened
microstructure
 Cold rolling
• Cold rolling is a metalworking process in which
metal is deformed by passing it through rollers at
a temperature below its recrystallization
temperature. Cold rolling increases the yield
strength and hardness of a metal by introducing
defects into the metal's crystal structure. These
defects prevent further slip and can reduce the
grain size of the metal. Cold rolling is most often
used to decrease the thickness of plate and
sheet metal.
 Drawing
• Drawing is a metalworking process which uses tensile
forces to stretch metal. It is broken up into two types:
sheet metal drawing and wire, bar, and tube drawing.
The specific definition for sheet metal drawing is that it
involves plastic deformation over a curved axis. For wire,
bar, and, tube drawing the starting stock is drawn
through a die to reduce its diameter and increase its
length. Drawing is usually done at room temperature,
thus classified a cold working process, however it may
be performed at elevated temperatures to hot work large
wires, rods or hollow sections in order to reduce forces.
 Rod drawing
• Bars or rods that are drawn cannot be coiled therefore
straight-pull draw benches are used. Chain drives are
used to draw workpieces up to 30 m (98 ft). Hydraulic
cylinders are used for shorter length workpieces.

• The reduction in area is usually restricted to 20 to 50%,

because greater reductions would exceed the tensile
strength of the material, depending on its ductility. To
achieved a certain size or shape multiple passes through
progressively smaller dies or intermediate anneals may
be required.
 Wire drawing
• Wire drawing is a metalworking process used to reduce the
diameter of a wire by pulling the wire through a single, or series of,
drawing die(s).

• There are many applications for wire drawing, including electrical

wiring, cables, tension-loaded structural components, springs, paper
clips, spokes for wheels, and stringed musical instruments. Although
similar in process, drawing is different from extrusion, because in
drawing the wire is pulled, rather than pushed, through the die.

• Drawing is usually performed at room temperature, thus classified a

cold working process, but it may be performed at elevated
temperatures for large wires to reduce forces. Wires can also be
drawn into different shapes, although this is much more difficult than
diameter reductions. More recently drawing has been used with
molten glass to produce high quality.
Rod and wire drawing
Drawing operation
 Tube drawing
• Tube drawing is a metalworking process to size tube by
shrinking a large diameter tube into a smaller one, by
drawing the tube through a die. This process produces
high quality tubing with precise dimensions, good surface
finish, and the added strength of cold working. Because
it is so versatile, tube drawing is suitable for both large
and small scale production.

• There are five types of tube drawing: tube sinking,

mandrel drawing, stationary mandrel, moving mandrel,
and floating mandrel. A mandrel is used in many of the
types to prevent buckling or wrinkling in the work piece.
Tube drawing
 Extrusion
• Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed
cross-sectional profile. A material is pushed or drawn through a die
of the desired cross-section. The two main advantages of this
process over other manufacturing processes is its ability to create
very complex cross-sections and work materials that are brittle,
because the material only encounters compressive and shear
stresses. It also forms finished parts with an excellent surface finish.

• Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely

long material) or semi-continuous (producing many pieces). The
extrusion process can be done with the material hot or cold.

• Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics,

concrete and foodstuffs.
 Hot extrusion
• Hot extrusion is done at an elevated temperature
to keep the material from work hardening and to
make it easier to push the material through the
die. Most hot extrusions are done on horizontal
hydraulic presses that range from 250 to 12,000
tons. Pressures range from 30 to 700 MPa
(4,400 to 102,000 psi), therefore lubrication is
required, which can be oil or graphite for lower
temperature extrusions, or glass powder for
higher temperature extrusions. The biggest
disadvantage of this process is its cost for
machinery and its upkeep.
 Cold extrusion
• Cold extrusion is done at room temperature or near room
temperature. The advantages of this over hot extrusion
are the lack of oxidation, higher strength due to
cold working, closer tolerances, good surface finish, and
fast extrusion speeds if the material is subject to .
• Materials that are commonly cold extruded include: lead,
tin, aluminum, copper, zirconium, titanium, molybdenum,
beryllium, vanadium, niobium, and steel.
• Examples of products produced by this process are:
collapsible tubes, fire extinguisher cases, shock absorber
cylinders, automotive pistons, and gear blanks.
Extrusion
Extrusion
 Extrusion equipment
• There are many different variations of extrusion equipment. They vary by four major
characteristics:

• Movement of the extrusion with relation to the ram. If the die is held stationary and
the ram moves towards it then its called "direct extrusion". If the ram is held stationary
and the die moves towards the ram its called "indirect extrusion".

• The position of the press, either vertical or horizontal.

• The type of drive, either hydraulic or mechanical.

• The type of load applied, either conventional (variable) or hydrostatic.

• A single or twin screw auger, powered by an electric motor, or a ram, driven by

hydraulic pressure (often used for steel and titanium alloys), oil pressure (for
aluminum), or in other specialized processes such as rollers inside a perforated drum
for the production of many simultaneous streams of material.
 Direct extrusion
• Direct extrusion, also known as forward extrusion, is the
most common extrusion process. It works by placing the
billet in a heavy walled container. The billet is pushed
through the die by a ram or screw. There is a reusable
dummy block between the ram and the billet to keep them
separated. The major disadvantage of this process is that
the force required to extrude the billet is greater than that
need in the indirect extrusion process because of the
frictional forces introduced by the need for the billet to
travel the entire length of the container. Because of this the
greatest force required is at the beginning of process and
slowly decreases as the billet is used up. At the end of the
billet the force greatly increases because the billet is thin
and the material must flow radially to exit the die. The end
of the billet, called the butt end, is not used for this reason.
 Indirect extrusion
• In indirect extrusion, also known as backwards extrusion, the billet and container
move together while the die is stationary. The die is held in place by a "stem" which
has to be longer than the container length. The maximum length of the extrusion is
ultimately dictated by the column strength of the stem. Because the billet moves with
the container the frictional forces are eliminated. This leads to the following
advantages:
• A 25 to 30% reduction of friction, which allows for extruding larger billets, increasing
speed, and an increased ability to extrude smaller cross-sections
• There is less of a tendency for extrusions to crack because there is no heat formed
from friction
• The container liner will last longer due to less wear
• The billet is used more uniformly so extrusion defects and coarse grained peripherals
zones are less likely.
• The disadvantages are:
• Impurities and defects on the surface of the billet affect the surface of the extrusion.
These defects ruin the piece if it needs to be anodized or the aesthetics are
important. In order to get around this the billets may be wire brushed, machined or
chemically cleaned before being used.
• This process isn't as versatile as direct extrusions because the cross-sectional area is
limited by the maximum size of the
 Hydrostatic extrusion
• In the hydrostatic extrusion process the billet is completely
surrounded by a pressurized liquid, except where the billet contacts
the die. This process can be done hot, warm, or cold, however the
temperature is limited by the stability of the fluid used. The process
must be carried out in a sealed cylinder to contain the hydrostatic
medium. The fluid can be pressurized two ways:

• Constant-rate extrusion: A ram or plunger is used to pressurize the

fluid inside the container.

• Constant-pressure extrusion: A pump is used, possibly with a

pressure intensifier, to pressurize the fluid, which is then pumped to
the container.
• The advantages of this process include

• No friction between the container and the billet reduces force requirements.
This ultimately allows for faster speeds, higher reduction ratios, and lower
billet temperatures.
• Usually the ductility of the material increases when high pressures are
applied.
• An even flow of material.
• Large billets and large cross-sections can be extruded.
• No billet residue is left on the container walls.

• The disadvantages are:

• The billets must be prepared by tapering one end to match the die entry
angle. This is needed to form a seal at the beginning of the cycle. Usually
the entire billet needs to be machined to remove any surface defects.
• Containing the fluid under high pressures can be difficult