Metal Casting: Weeks 1 - 2

Metal Casting
Weeks 1 - 2
EMU - Manufacturing Technology

METAL CASTING
1. Overview of Casting Technology
2. Sand Casting
3. Investment Casting
4. Die Casting
5. Centrifugal Casting

Solidification Processes
We consider starting work material is either a
liquid or is in a highly plastic condition, and a
part is created through solidification of the
material
 Solidification processes can be classified
according to engineering material processed:
 Metals
 Ceramics, specifically glasses
 Polymers and polymer matrix composites
(PMCs)

Classification of solidification processes.
Casting
Process in which molten metal flows by
gravity or other force into a mold
where it solidifies in the shape of the
mold cavity
 The term casting also applies to the
part made in the process
 Steps in casting seem simple:
1. Melt the metal
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Let it freeze

Capabilities and Advantages of Casting
• Can create complex part geometries that can not be
made by any other process
• Can create both external and internal shapes
• Some casting processes are net shape; others are
near net shape
• Can produce very large parts (with weight more than
100 tons), like m/c bed
• Casting can be applied to shape any metal that can
melt
• Some casting methods are suited to mass production
• Can also be applied on polymers and ceramics

Disadvantages of Casting
 Different disadvantages for different casting
processes:
 Limitations on mechanical properties
 Poor dimensional accuracy and surface
finish for some processes; e.g., sand
casting
 Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten
metals
 Environmental problems

Parts Made by Casting
 Big parts
 Engine blocks and heads for automotive
vehicles, wood burning stoves, machine
frames, railway wheels, pipes, bells, pump
housings
 Small parts
 Dental crowns, jewelry, small statues, frying
pans
 All varieties of metals can be cast - ferrous and
nonferrous

Overview of Casting Technology
 Casting is usually performed in a foundry
Foundry = factory equipped for
• making molds
• melting and handling molten metal
• performing the casting process
• cleaning the finished casting
 Workers who perform casting are called

foundrymen

The Mold in Casting
 Mold is a container with cavity whose geometry
determines part shape
 Actual size and shape of cavity must be
slightly oversized to allow for shrinkage of
metal during solidification and cooling
 Molds are made of a variety of materials,
including sand, plaster, ceramic, and metal

Open Molds and Closed Molds
Cavity is closed
Cavity is open to atmosphere
Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in the

shape of the desired part; and (b) closed mold, in which the
mold geometry is more complex and requires a gating system
(passageway) leading into the cavity.

Two Categories of Casting Processes
1. Expendable mold processes – uses an
expendable mold which must be destroyed to
remove casting
 Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar
materials, plus binders
2. Permanent mold processes – uses a
permanent mold which can be used over and
over to produce many castings
 Made of metal (or, less commonly, a
ceramic refractory material)

Sand Casting Mold
Sand casting mold.

Sand Casting Mold Terms
 Mold consists of two halves:
 Cope = upper half of mold
 Drag = bottom half
 Mold halves are contained in a box, called a
flask
 The two halves separate at the parting line

Forming the Mold Cavity
 Cavity is inverse of final shape with shrinkage allowance
Pattern is model of final shape with shrinkage allowance
Wet sand is made by adding binder in the sand
Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a pattern
When the pattern is removed, the remaining cavity of the packed
sand has desired shape of cast part
The pattern is usually oversized to allow for shrinkage of metal
during solidification and cooling
Difference among pattern, cavity &

part ?

Use of a Core in the Mold Cavity
 Cavity provides the external features of the
cast part
 Core provides internal features of the part.
It is placed inside the mold cavity with
some support.
 In sand casting, cores are generally made of
sand
Difference b/w, cavity & core ?

Gating System
It is channel through which molten metal flows into
cavity from outside of mold
 Consists of a down-sprue, through which metal
enters a runner leading to the main cavity
 At the top of down-sprue, a pouring cup is often
used to minimize splash and turbulence as the metal
flows into down-sprue

Riser
It is a reservoir in the mold which is a source of liquid metal to
compensate for shrinkage of the part during solidification
Most metals are less dense as a liquid than as a solid so
castings shrink upon cooling, which can leave a void at the
last point to solidify. Risers prevent this by providing molten
metal to the casting as it solidifies, so that the cavity forms
in the riser and not in the casting

Heating the Metal
 Heating furnaces are used to heat the metal to
molten temperature sufficient for casting
 The heat required is the sum of:
1. Heat to raise temperature to melting point
2. Heat to raise molten metal to desired
temperature for pouring

Pouring the Molten Metal
 For this step to be successful, metal must flow into all
regions of the mold, most importantly the main cavity,
before solidifying
 Factors that determine success
 Pouring temperature
 Pouring rate
 Turbulence
 Pouring temperature should be sufficiently high in order
to prevent the molten metal to start solidifying on its way
to the cavity

Pouring the Molten Metal
Pouring rate should neither be high (may stuck the
runner – should match viscosity of the metal) nor very
low that may start solidifying on its way to the cavity
Turbulence should be kept to a minimum in order to

ensure smooth flow and to avoid mold damage and
entrapment of foreign materials. Also, turbulence
causes oxidation at the inner surface of cavity. This
results in cavity damage and poor surface quality of
casting.

Engineering Analysis of Pouring
E D
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CL
T IN
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1. v: velocity of liquid metal
at base of sprue in
cm/sec; g:
981cm/sec.sec; h:
height of sprue in cm
2. v1: velocity at section of
area A1; v2: velocity at
section of area A2
3. V: volume of mold cavity

Calculation of Pouring Parameters: Example
E D
UD
CL
T IN
NO
1. If sprue area at its entrance is 5cm2, compute metal velocity at sprue

entrance.
2. Calculate velocity & flow rate of metal when metal is in the midway of sprue
Why Sprue X-section is kept taper ??
 In order to keep volume flow rate (Q=VA)

constant. In case, x-section is fixed, increased
fluid velocity due to gravity will increase flow rate.
This can cause air entrapment into liquid metal.
Fluidity
A measure of the capability of the metal to flow
into and fill the mold before freezing.
•Fluidity is the inverse of viscosity (resistance to
flow)
Factors affecting fluidity are:
-Pouring temperature relative to melting point
-Metal composition
-Viscosity of the liquid metal
-Heat transfer to surrounding

Solidification of Metals
It is the transformation of molten metal back into
solid state
 Solidification differs depending on whether the
metal is
 A pure element or
 An alloy
 A Eutectic alloy

Solidification: Pure Metals
 Ref cooling curve:
- Pure metal solidifies at a
constant temperature equal to
its freezing point (same as
melting point).
- Local freezing time= Time
from freezing begins and
completed
- Total freezing time= Time
from pouring to freezing
completed
- After freezing is completed,
the solid continues to cool at
a rate indicated by downward
slope of curve
-
- Because of the chilling action of the

mold wall, a thin skin of solid metal is
initially formed at interface
immediately after pouring.
- The skin formed initially has equi-
axed, fine grained and randomly
oriented structure. This is because of
rapid cooling.
- As freezing proceeds, the grains
grow inwardly, away from heat flow
direction, as needles or spine of solid
metal.

- On further growth of spine,
lateral branches are formed,
and as these branches grow
further branches are formed at
right angle to the first
branches. This type of growth
is called dendritic growth.
- The dendritic grains are
coarse, columnar and aligned
towards the center of casting.

Solidification: Most Alloys
- Most alloys freeze at range of temperature rather than at a single
temperature.
- Freezing begins from liquidus temperature and completes at
solidus temperature.
- The cooling begins in the same manner as that in pure metals; a
thin skin is formed at the interface of mold and makes shell as
freezing proceeds.

Solidification: Most Alloys
- The dendrites begin to form -
with freezing. However, due to Pure metal
large temperature spread
between solidus and liquidus,
the earlier portion of dendritic
grains extract higher % of
elements from liquid solution Fe
than the portion of grain formed
later.
- As a result, the molten metal in Fe-Ni Alloy
the center of mold cavity
depletes from the elements and
hence forms a different
structure (see Fig). EMU - Manufacturing Technology
Solidification: Eutectic Alloys
• Eutectic alloys solidify similar to pure metals.
• Eutectic point on phase diagram is a point at which the liquid,
on cooling, completely converts into solid at one temp. No
intermediate phase (L+S) exists.
• Al-Si (11.6% Si) and Cast Iron (4.3% C) are relevant casting
eutectic alloys.

Solidification Time & Chorinov’s Rule
E D
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CL Chorinov’s Rule
T IN
NO

Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling
Shrinkage occurs in 3 steps: a.

while cooling of metal in liquid
form (liquid contraction); b. during
phase transformation from liquid
to solid (solidification shrinkage);
c. while solidified metal is cooled
down to room temperature (solid
thermal contraction).

Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling
(2) reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity caused by

solidification shrinkage; (3) further reduction in height and
diameter due to thermal contraction during cooling of solid metal
(dimensional reductions are exaggerated for clarity).
Why cavity forms at top , why not at bottom?

Solidification Shrinkage (Liquid –Solid transformation)
 Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid

phase has a higher density than the liquid
phase
 Thus, solidification causes a reduction in
volume per unit mass of metal
 Exception: cast iron with high C content
 Graphitization during final stages of freezing
causes expansion that counteracts
volumetric decrease associated with phase
change
Why solidification shrinkage is negligible in Cast
Irons??
Shrinkage Allowance
 Patternmakers account for solidification
shrinkage and thermal contraction by making
mold cavity oversized
 Amount by which mold is made larger relative
to final casting size is called pattern shrinkage
allowance
 Casting dimensions are expressed linearly, so
allowances are applied accordingly

Directional Solidification- Design Optimization
 In order to minimize the damaging effects of shrinkage, it is
desirable that the regions far from the riser (metal supply)
should solidify earlier than those near the riser in order to
ensure metal flow to distant regions to compensate
shrinkage. This is achieved by using Chvorinov’s rule.
 So, casting and mold design should be optimal: riser should
be kept far from the regions of casting having low V/A ratio.

Directional Solidification- Use of Chills
 The chills increase the heat extraction.
 Internal and external chills can also be used for
directional cooling.
 For thick sections, small metal parts, with same
material as that of casting, are put inside the cavity.
The metal solidifies around these pieces as it is
poured into cavity.
 For thin long sections, external chills are used. Vent
holes are made in the cavity walls or metal pieces are
put in cavity wall.
 If Chorinov’s rule can not be employed, use chills

Riser Design
 Riser is used to compensate for shrinkage of part during
solidification and later it is separated from the casting and
re-melted to make more castings
 The Chvorinov’s rule should be used to satisfy the design
requirements.
 There could be different designs of riser:
- Side riser: Attached to the side of casting through a channel
- Top riser: Connected to the top surface of the casting
- Open riser: Exposed to the outside at the top surface of
cope- Disadvantage of allowing of more heat to escape
promoting faster solidification.
- Blind riser: Entirely enclosed within the mold.

Self Practice
Design a riser according to conditions given in
Example 10.3.

METAL CASTING PROCESSES

Two Categories of Casting Processes
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is
sacrificed to remove part
 Advantage: more complex shapes possible
 Disadvantage: production rates often limited
by time to make mold rather than casting
itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of
metal and can be used to make many castings
 Advantage: higher production rates
 Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to
open mold

Overview of Sand Casting
 Sand casting is a cast part produced by forming
a mold from a sand mixture and then pouring
molten liquid metal into the cavity in the mold. The
mold is then cooled until the metal has solidified
 Most widely used casting process, accounting for
a significant majority of total tonnage cast
 Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including
metals with high melting temperatures, such as
steel, nickel, and titanium
 Castings range in size from small to very large
 Production quantities from one to millions

A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg (1500 lb) for an air
compressor frame

Steps in Sand Casting
1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold CAVITY
2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
 Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes
required to improve metallurgical properties

Sand Casting Production Sequence
Figure: Steps in the production sequence in sand casting.
The steps include not only the casting operation but also
pattern‑making and mold‑making.

Making the Sand Mold
 The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand
around a pattern, then separating the mold into two
halves and removing the pattern
 The mold must also contain gating and riser system
 If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be
included in mold
 A new sand mold must be made for each part produced

The Pattern
A full‑sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to
account for shrinkage and machining
allowances in the casting
 Pattern materials:
 Wood - common material because it is easy
to work, but it warps
 Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts
much longer
 Plastic - compromise between wood and
metal

Types of Patterns
Figure: Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match‑plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern

Buoyancy Force during Pouring
 One of the hazards during pouring is that buoyancy
of molten will displace the core with the force:
Fb= Wm-Wc (Archimedes principle)
Wm: Weight of molten metal displaced;
Wc: Weight of core
** In order to avoid the effect of Fb, chaplets are
used to hold the core in cavity of mold.

Core in Mold
A core is a full-scale model of interior surfaces of the part.
1. Like pattern, shrinkage allowances

are also provided in core. (-ve or +)?
2. It is usually made of compacted sand,
metal
(a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b) possible chaplet
design, (c) casting with internal cavity.

Desirable Mold Properties
 Strength ‑ Ability of mold to maintain shape and resist
erosion caused by the flow of molten metal. Depends
on grain shape, adhesive quality of binders
 Permeability ‑ to allow hot air and gases to pass
through voids in sand
 Thermal stability ‑ ability of sand at the mold surface
cavity to resist cracking and buckling on contact with
molten metal
 Collapsibility ‑ ability to give way and allow casting to
shrink without cracking the casting
 Reusability ‑ can sand from broken mold be reused to
make other molds?

Foundry Sands
Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
 Good refractory properties ‑ capacity to
endure high temperatures
 Small grain size yields better surface finish
on the cast part
 Large grain size is more permeable, allowing
gases to escape during pouring
 Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due
to interlocking, compared to round grains
 Disadvantage: interlocking tends to
reduce permeability

Binders Used with Foundry Sands
 Sand is held together by a mixture of water and
bonding clay
 Typical mix: 90% sand, 7% clay and 3%
water
 Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
 Organic resins (e.g , phenolic resins)
 Inorganic binders (e.g , sodium silicate and
phosphate)
 Additives are sometimes combined with the
mixture to increase strength and/or
permeability

Types of Sand Mold
 Green‑sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and
water;
 “Green" means mold contains moisture at
time of pouring
 Dry‑sand mold - organic binders rather than
clay
 And mold is baked to improve strength
 Skin‑dried mold - drying mold cavity surface
of a green‑sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25
mm, using torches or heating lamps

Other Expendable Mold Processes
 Shell Molding
 Vacuum Molding
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
 Investment Casting
 Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

Shell Molding
Casting process in which the cavity (& gating system)
is a thin shell of sand held together by
thermosetting resin binder
part
Steps in shell‑molding: (1) a match‑plate or cope‑and ‑drag metal

pattern is heated and placed over a box containing sand
mixed with thermosetting resin.
Shell Molding
Steps in shell‑molding: (2) box is inverted so that sand and
resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the
mixture to partially cure on the surface to form a hard
shell; (3) box is repositioned so that loose uncured
particles drop away;

Shell Molding
Steps in shell‑molding: (4) sand shell is heated in oven for
several minutes to complete curing; (5) shell mold is
stripped from the pattern;

Shell Molding
Steps in shell‑molding: (6) two halves of the shell mold are

assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring
is accomplished; (7) the finished casting with sprue removed.

Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages of shell molding:
 Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish
 Good dimensional accuracy - machining often
not required
 Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
 Can be mechanized for mass production
 Disadvantages:
 More expensive metal pattern
 Difficult to justify for small quantities

Vacuum Molding

Vacuum Molding

Expanded Polystyrene Process or
lost‑foam process
Uses a mold of sand packed around a
polystyrene foam pattern which vaporizes
when molten metal is poured into mold
 Other names: lost‑foam process, lost pattern
process, evaporative‑foam process, and
full‑mold process
 Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue,
risers, gating system, and internal cores (if
needed)
 Mold does not have to be opened into cope
and drag sections

Expanded Polystyrene Process
Expanded polystyrene casting process: (1) pattern of

polystyrene is coated with refractory compound;

Expanded polystyrene casting process: (2) foam pattern is

placed in mold box, and sand is compacted around the
pattern;

Expanded polystyrene casting process: (3) molten metal is

poured into the portion of the pattern that forms the
pouring cup and sprue. As the metal enters the mold,
the polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead of the
advancing liquid, thus the resulting mold cavity is filled.

 Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:
 Pattern need not be removed from the mold
 Simplifies and speeds mold‑making,
because two mold halves are not required
as in a conventional green‑sand mold
 Disadvantages:
 A new pattern is needed for every casting
 Economic justification of the process is
highly dependent on cost of producing
patterns


 Applications:
 Mass production of castings for automobile
engines
 Automated and integrated manufacturing
systems are used to
1. Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and
then
2. Feed them to the downstream casting
operation

Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)

A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory
material to make mold, after which wax is
melted away prior to pouring molten metal
 "Investment" comes from a less familiar
definition of "invest" - "to cover completely,"
which refers to coating of refractory material
around wax pattern
 It is a precision casting process - capable of
producing castings of high accuracy and
intricate detail

Investment Casting
Steps in investment casting: (1) wax patterns are produced, (2)

several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree

Investment Casting
Steps in investment casting: (3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin
layer of refractory material, (4) the full mold is formed by covering
the coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make it rigid

Investment Casting
Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold is held in an inverted position

and heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity, (6)
the mold is preheated to a high temperature, the molten metal is
poured, and it solidifies
Investment Casting
Steps in investment casting: (7) the mold is broken away

from the finished casting and the parts are separated
from the sprue
Investment Casting
A one‑piece compressor stator with 108 separate airfoils

made by investment casting


 Advantages of investment casting:
 Parts of great complexity and intricacy can
be cast
 Close dimensional control and good surface
finish
 Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
 Additional machining is not normally
required ‑ this is a net shape process
 Disadvantages
 Many processing steps are required
 Relatively expensive process

Plaster Mold Casting

Similar to sand casting except mold is made of
plaster of Paris (gypsum ‑ CaSO4‑2H2O)
 In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is
poured over plastic or metal pattern and
allowed to set
 Wood patterns not generally used due to
extended contact with water
 Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern,
capturing its fine details and good surface
finish


 Advantages of plaster mold casting:
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Capability to make thin cross‑sections
 Disadvantages:
 Mold must be baked to remove moisture,
which can cause problems in casting
 Mold strength is lost if over-baked
 Plaster molds cannot stand high
temperatures, so limited to lower melting
point alloys can be casted

Ceramic Mold Casting

Similar to Plaster Mold Casting except the
material of mold is refractory ceramic material
instead of plaster.
The ceramic mold can withstand temperature of
metals having high melting points.
Surface quality is same as that in plaster mold
casting.

Permanent Mold Casting Processes
 Economic disadvantage of expendable mold
casting: a new mold is required for every
casting
 In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused
many times
 The processes include:
 Basic permanent mold casting
 Die casting
 Centrifugal casting

Permanent Mold Processes
The Basic Permanent Mold Process

Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections
designed for easy, precise opening and closing
 Molds used for casting lower melting-point alloys
(Al, Cu, Brass) are commonly made of steel or
cast iron
 Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures

Permanent Mold Casting
Steps in permanent mold casting: (1) mold is preheated and

coated

Permanent Mold Casting
Steps in permanent mold casting: (2) cores (if used) are inserted and
mold is closed, (3) molten metal is poured into the mold, where it
solidifies.

Advantages and Limitations

 Advantages of permanent mold casting:
 Good dimensional control and surface finish
 Very economical for mass production
 More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal
mold results in a finer grain structure, so castings
are stronger
 Limitations:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
 Complex part geometries can not be made
because of need to open the mold
 High cost of mold
 Not suitable for low-volume production

Variations of Permanent Mold Casting:
a. Slush Casting
 The basic procedure the same as used in
Basic Permanent Mold Casting
 After partial solidification of metal, the molten
metal inside the mold is drained out, leaving
the part hollow from inside.
 Statues, Lamp bases, Pedestals and toys are
usually made through this process
 Metal with low melting point are used: Zinc,
Lead and Tin

b. Low-pressure Casting
 The basic process is shown in Fig.
- In basic permanent and slush casting processes, metal in cavity is
poured under gravity. However, in low-pressure casting, the metal is
forced into cavity under low pressure (0.1 MPa) of air.

b. Low-pressure Casting
• Advantages:
- Clean molten metal from the center of ladle (cup) is
introduced into the cavity.
- Reduced- gas porosity, oxidation defects, improvement in
mechanical properties

c. Vacuum Permanent-Mold Casting
 This is a variation of low-pressure permanent
casting
 Instead of rising molten into the cavity through air
pressure, vacuum in cavity is created which
caused the molten metal to rise in the cavity from
metal pool.

Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which
molten metal is injected into mold cavity under
high pressure
 Pressure is maintained during solidification,
then mold is opened and part is removed
 Molds in this casting operation are called
dies; hence the name die casting
 Use of high pressure (7-35MPa) to force metal
into die cavity is what distinguishes this from
other permanent mold processes

Die Casting Machines

 Designed to hold and accurately close two
mold halves and keep them closed while liquid
metal is forced into cavity
 Two main types:
1. Hot‑chamber machine
2. Cold‑chamber machine

Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid metal
under high pressure into the die
 High production rates - 500 parts per hour not uncommon
 Injection pressure: 7-35MPa
 Applications limited to low melting‑point metals that do not
chemically attack plunger and other mechanical components
 Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

Cycle in hot‑chamber casting: (1) with die closed and plunger

withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber
Because the die material does

not have natural permeability
(like sand has), vent holes at
die cavity needs to be made
Cycle in hot‑chamber casting: (2) plunger forces metal in

chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification.
Cold‑Chamber Die Casting

Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from
external melting container, and a piston injects
metal under high pressure (14-140MPa) into die
cavity
 High production but not usually as fast as
hot‑chamber machines because of pouring step
 Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium
alloys
 Advantage of cold chamber is that high melting
point metals can be casted: Why???

Cycle in cold‑chamber casting: (1) with die closed and ram

withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the chamber

Cycle in cold‑chamber casting: (2) ram forces metal to flow

into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification.

Molds for Die Casting

 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or
maraging steel
 Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory
qualities) are used to make die for casting steel
and cast iron
 Ejector pins are required to remove part from
die when it opens
 Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to
prevent sticking

Advantages and Limitations

 Advantages of die casting:
 Economical for large production quantities
 Good accuracy (±0.076mm)and surface finish
 Thin sections are possible
 Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good
strength to casting
 Disadvantages:
 Generally limited to metals with low metal points
 Part geometry must allow removal from die, so very
complex parts can not be casted
 Flash and metal in vent holes need to be cleaned
after ejection of part
Centrifugal Casting
A family of casting processes in which the mold is
rotated at high speed so centrifugal force
distributes molten metal to outer regions of die
cavity
 The group includes:
 True centrifugal casting
 Semicentrifugal casting
 Centrifuge casting

(a) True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into a rotating mold to produce a tubular part
 In some operations, mold rotation commences after pouring

rather than before
 Rotational axes can be either horizontal or vertical
 Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
 Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal,
etc , but inside shape is (theoretically) perfectly round, due to
radially symmetric forces
Shrinkage allowance is
not considerable factor

Rotational Speed of Mold
E D
UD
CL
T IN
NO
- If GF is very low, the molten

metal will not remain forced
against the mold, rather it will
rain inside cavity
- Therefore, GF must be kept
between 60-80 (based on
experiments)
Example
E D
UDA true centrifugal casting is to be performed
L
Problem:
C
IN
horizontally to make copper tube sections: OD =25cm;
TID= 22.5cm; GF= 65. Find rotational speed.
O
N Solution:
OD =D= 25cm= 0.25m; g= 9.81m/s2; GF=65
On solving we get: 681.7 RPM (rev/min)

(b) Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than
tubular parts
 Molds are designed with risers at center to supply feed metal
 Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections than
at center of rotation
Axes of parts and rotational
axis does not match exactly
Often used on parts in which
center of casting is machined
away, thus eliminating the
portion where quality is lowest
Examples: wheels and pulleys
G factor keeps from 10-15

(c) Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part
cavities located away from
axis of rotation, so that
molten metal poured into
mold is distributed to these
cavities by centrifugal force
 Used for smaller parts
 Radial symmetry of part is
not required as in other
centrifugal casting methods

General Defects: Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely
filling mold cavity
Reasons:
a.Fluidity of molten metal is insufficient
b.Pouring temperature is too low
c.Pouring is done too slowly
d.Cross section of mold cavity is too thin
e.Mold design is not in accordance with Chvorinov’s
rule: V/A at the section closer to the gating system
should be higher than that far from gating system
Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

General Defects: Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a
lack of fusion due to premature (early) freezing
Reasons:
Same as for misrun
Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

General Defects: Cold Shot
Metal splashes during pouring and solid globules
form and become entrapped in casting
Gating system should be

improved to avoid splashing
Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by
solidification shrinkage
Proper riser design can solve this issue
Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

General Casting Defects: Hot Tearing
Hot tearing/cracking in casting occurs when the
molten metal is not allowed to contract by an
underlying mold during cooling/ solidification.
The collapsibility (ability to give way

and allow molten metal to shrink during
solidification) of mold should be
improved
Common defects in sand castings: (e) hot tearing

Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow
Balloon‑shaped gas cavity caused by release of
mold gases during pouring
Low permeability of mold, poor

venting, high moisture content in
sand are major reasons
Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting
Caused by release of gas during

pouring of molten metal.
To avoid, improve permeability &
venting in mold
Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

Sand Casting Defects: Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate
into sand mold or core, causing casting surface to
consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal
Harder packing of sand helps to

alleviate this problem
Reduce pouring temp if possible
Use better sand binders
Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by
sidewise relative displacement of cope and drag
It is caused by buoyancy force of

molten metal.
Cope an drag must be aligned
accurately and fastened.
Use match plate patterns
Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

Sand Casting Defects: Core Shift
Similar to core mold but it is core that is displaced
and the displacement is usually vertical.
It is caused by buoyancy force of

molten metal.
Core must be fastened with chaplet
Common defects in sand castings: (g) core shift

Sand Casting Defects: Sand Wash
An irregularity in the casting surface caused by
erosion of sand mold during pouring.
Turbulence in metal flow during pouring

should be controlled. Also, very high
pouring temperature cause erosion of
mold.
Common defects in sand castings: (h) sand wash

Sand Casting Defects: Scabs
Scabs are rough areas on the surface of casting
due to un-necessary deposit of sand and metal.
It is caused by portions of the mold

surface flaking off during solidification
and becoming embedded in the casting
surface
Improve mold strength by reducing
grain size and changing binders
Common defects in sand castings: (i) scab

Sand Casting Defects: Mold Crack
Occurs when the strength of mold is not sufficient
to withstand high temperatures
Improve mold strength by reducing

grain size and changing binders
Common defects in sand castings: (j) mold crack

Metals for Casting
 Casting alloys can be classified as:
 Ferrous
 Nonferrous

Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron
 Most important of all casting alloys
 Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times
that of all other metals combined
 Several types: (1) white cast iron iron, (2) grey
cast (3) nodular/ductile cast iron (4) malleable
iron, and (5) alloy cast irons
 The ductility of Cast Iron increases from 1-4.
 Typical pouring temperatures  1400C
(2500F), depending on composition

Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel
 The mechanical properties of steel make it an
attractive engineering material
 The capability to create complex geometries
makes casting an attractive shaping process
 Difficulties when casting steel:
 Pouring temperature of steel is higher than
for most other casting metals  1650C
(3000F)
 At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes,
so molten metal must be isolated from air
 Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity

Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Aluminum
 Generally considered to be very castable
 Pouring temperatures low due to low melting
temperature of aluminum
 Tm = 660C (1220F)
 Properties:
 Light weight
 Range of strength properties by heat
treatment
 Easy to machine

Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Copper
Alloys
 Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze
 Properties:
 Corrosion resistance
 Attractive appearance
 Good bearing qualities
 Limitation: high cost of copper
 Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller
blades, pump components, ornamental jewelry

Assignment No. 1
Propose the best suitable casting process to make an aluminum

cup. During selecting a process, keep the following points in view:
1.No of cups= 4
2.Product cost= as low as possible
3.Surface quality= good. Quality is not as important as cost
4.Defects= some defects are acceptable
5.Processing time= not important
Draw an analysis for each major type of casting process with

reference to above conditions. Then choose one casting process
and write a report in its support .

Term Project
Processing of--
• Polymer (choose a polymer type used in industry) &
• Ceramic (choose a ceramic type used in industry)
Students can make groups to work. A group should not compose of

more than 2 students
All projects should include:
- Process introduction, Processing data for at least one product (either
made of polymer or ceramics). Also mention manufacturing method for
that particular product
-To obtain processing data, the students can consult Metals Handbooks
OR any other handbook OR Internet.
- The type of material chosen should be different in each group.
Topic Submission Dead Line: on or before 09- April-2014
Dead Line for Project Submission: 02 weeks before the end of semester

Metal Casting: Weeks 1 - 2

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Metal Casting

EMU - Manufacturing Technology

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 Workers who perform casting are called

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Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in the

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Sand casting mold.

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Difference among pattern, cavity &

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Difference b/w, cavity & core ?

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Turbulence should be kept to a minimum in order to

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1. If sprue area at its entrance is 5cm2, compute metal velocity at sprue

 In order to keep volume flow rate (Q=VA)

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- Because of the chilling action of the

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Shrinkage occurs in 3 steps: a.

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(2) reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity caused by

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 Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid

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1. Like pattern, shrinkage allowances