About A+

•A+ Certification, awarded by CompTIA®

( Computing Technology Industry Association) organization is the
most widely recognized certification in the area of PC hardware
and software technologies.

• To attain A+ certification, one need to pass 2 exams, namely, A+

Core Hardware Technologies (220-201) , and A+ Operating
Systems Technologies(220-202). These exams basically test the
skills in assembling a computer, troubleshooting, and the ability
to work with various operating systems.

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A+ Course Details

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A+ Course Details

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 Session 1- Introduction to Computer

What is a Computer?
A Computer is a electro-mechanical
device which can perform arithmetical and logical
operations, can store huge amount of data, and
can show its processed result through output
devices.

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 Introduction to Computer
History of the Computer:
1. The Abacus is a calculator , developed by Chinese people for add, subtract,
multiply, and divide in around 900 or 1000 A.D.
2. The first computer was the analytical engine which was partially developed
by Charles Babbage in London between 1822 and 1871.
3. The first Electrically driven computer was designed by Dr. Herman Hollerith of
New York in 1889.
4. The first modern digital computer, the ABC ( Atanasoff-Berry computer), was
built in 1939 and 1942. The computer weighted 750 pound and could store
3000bits of data.
The same technology was passed from Atanasoff to john W.
Mauchly , who together with engineer John Presper Eckert , developed the first
large-scale digital computer, ENIAC(Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer). It was used by US army.

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Chapter -4 Computer Architecture

Functional Block Diagram of a Computer:

Processor

ALU CU OUTPUT
INPUT

E.g. Monitor,
E.g. Keyboard,
Printer, Speaker,
Mouse, Mick,
Plotter, etc.
Joystick, Touchpad, MEMORY
Scanner, etc.
CPU

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Chapter -4 Computer Architecture

INPUT DEVICE: These are the devices through which we

can insert data inside the computer for farther processing.

OUTPUT DEVICE: These are the devices through which

we can show the processed result to the out side world.

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Chapter -4 Computer Architecture
CPU( Central Processing Unit): This is the unit which does the
processing job inside the computer. It consists of mainly two more
subunits – Processor and Memory.

Processor: It mainly does the processing job inside the computer. It

consists of two more subunits – ALU and CU.
ALU ( Arithmetic and Logic Unit): It performs the arithmetical and
logical operations of the computer.
Arithmetical Operations- Addition, Subtraction,
Multiplication and Division.
and Logical Operations- AND,OR, NOR, XOR etc.
CU( Control Unit): It does the overall controlling job for the
computer in terms of clock pulses
Memory: These are the devices where data can be stored.

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 Components of a Computer
MONITOR

CPU

SPEAKER

MOUSE

KEYBOARD
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 Front View of a CPU
HDD LED ( RED)
CD-ROM
SWITCH POWER LED(GREEN)

RESET BUTTON

POWER BUTTON

AIR VENTILATION

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Back Panel of a Computer

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 Components of a CPU

•CABINET
•SMPS
•MOTHERBOARD
•PROCESSOR
•MEMORIES

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 SESSION-2 CABINET
The outer casing of the CPU is known as
cabinet.

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 USES OF CABINET

•Protecting the internal components from Dust,

Moisture, RF( Radio Frequencies), etc.
•Providing Cooling provision.
•Keeping all internal Components in Safe Place
and Intact.

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 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CABINET

•Depending on form factor( Shape & Size)

cabinets can be basically classified into 3 types-

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 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CABINET

•Depending on placing on the table Cabinets

are again classified into two type-

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 XT CABINET
•It was originated by IBM in March 8, 1983.

•Discontinued in the year 1987.

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 AT CABINET
•AT Cabinets are further classified into two
types-

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 ATX CABINET
ATX cabinets are again classified in to
different types-

LPX-Low Profile eXtended.

NLX- New Technology eXtended.
WTX- Workstation Technology eXtended.

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 A Comparison Chart of Form Factors.
Form factor Originated Max. size Power handling Notes
(Typical usage, Market
adoption, etc)
Obsolete - see XT bus
XT IBM 1983 8.5 × 11" architecture
216 × 279 mm
Obsolete - see AT bus
AT IBM 1984 12 × 11"–13" architecture
305 × 279–330 mm
Baby-AT ? 8.5" × 10"–13"
216 mm × 254-330 mm
ATX Intel 1996 12" × 9.6"
305 mm × 244 mm
Fewer slots than ATX, so can
microATX 1996 9.6" × 9.6" use smaller PSU
244 mm × 244 mm
Mini-ATX ? 11.2" × 8.2"
284 mm × 208 mm

FlexATX Intel 1999 9.0" x 7.5" Can be smaller than microATX

228.6 × 190.5 mm max.
LPX ? 9" × 11"–13" Used in slimline retail PCs
229 mm × 279–330 mm
Mini-LPX ? 8"–9" × 10"–11" Used in slimline retail PCs
203–229 mm × 254–279 mm
"Coming soon"; requires add-in
NLX Intel 1999 8"–9" × 10"-13.6" card riser
203–229 mm × 254–345 mm
WTX Intel 1998 14" × 16.75" Confidential
355.6 mm × 425.4 mm
Practical for Cabinets

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SMPS-Switch Mode Power Supply

•It is the main power supply section of the

CPU.
•Converts AC to DC.
•Ensures proper voltage rating.
•Regulates power supply.

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ATX SMPS

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 Different Types of SMPS
•Depending on technology and voltage rating
SMPS can be broadly classified into two types-

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 Difference Between AT and ATX SMPS
AT ATX

1. OLD TECHNOLOGY 1. MODERN TECHNOLOGY

2. USES 12 PIN CONNECTOR TO PROVIDE 2. USES 20 PIN CONNECTOR TO PROVIDE

POWER SUPPLY TO MOTHER BOARD. POWER SUPPLY TO MOTHER BOARD.

3. POWER ON/OFF HAPPENS MANUALLY. 3. POWER ON/OFF CAN BE SOFTWARE

CONTROL.

4. THESE ARE ONLY USED WITH AT 4. USED WITH ATX MOTHERBOARD AND
MOTHERBOARD AND CABINET. CABINET.

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Different connectors of AT SMPS

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Different colors of Wires in AT SMPS and
their Voltage Rating .

• Red- +5 v
• Yellow- + 12 v
• Blue- -12v
• Black- GND
• Orange- Power Good.
o White- -5v

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 Different Voltage and uses

• +5 v – Used by all electronic components.

•-5 v – Some ISA Bus slots ( Older system).
•+ 12v – Used by Motors.
•- 12 v- Used by serial ports.
• GND- potential Difference.
• Power good- Supplies +5v to motherboard if
all other supplies are proper.

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AT Mother Board Power connector

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 Other Connector on AT SMPS

•Molex Connectors are used for providing power

supply to HDD,CDROM, FAN etc.
• Mini Plug Connector are used for providing power
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Drive Connector and Color Code

• +12 v is for Drive Motors.

•GND is for potential difference.
•+5v is for electronic components in side the
Drive.

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 AT SMPS Power on process

• From SMPS one Cord Directly goes to the front panel power-on switch of
the Cabinet.
•So Manual Switch ON/OFF is Required.
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Different colors of Wires in ATX SMPS
and their Voltage Rating.
• 3.3v- Used latest CPUs , Memories and AGP cards ,
Where they consume less power compared to older
devices.

•Power On- This pin is used to switch on the SMPS.

In ATX Power on happens via Motherboard.

• +5v Standby- is a small amount of power always

supplied to the Mother Board even the SMPS is off
but main line is on. This allows Mother Board to
start the SMPS when needed like – System is in
Sleep Mode , Wake up Modem Ring or LAN etc.

• +3.3 v sense- is used to sense the +3.3v. It detects

the +3.3v is proper or not and if required it fine
tunes the +3.3v with the help of SMPS.

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 ATX Connectors

MOLEX MINI PLUG

CONNECTOR CONNECTOR

• ATX POWER CONNECTOR- is used to provide power supply to ATX Mother Board.
• ATX 12V CONNECTOR- Is used by processor Voltage Regulator Circuit( p4 onwards).
•MOLEX AND MINI PLUG – Same as AT SMPS.

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 Symptoms on SMPS problem.

• System is Dead.
• System is Restarting as soon as powered
on.
• Power is there but system is not starting.

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 POWER FAILURES
Problem - Description
1)Surges -these are brief, increases in the voltage
sources, originated with the power supply and also
due to lighting strikes. Measured in milliseconds.
2) Spikes-these are very short over voltage conditions.
Spikes are measured in nanoseconds.
3)Sags-these are brief decreases of voltage at the
power source.

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4)Brownouts-If a sag lasts longer than 1 second, then
it is called as a brownout, overloading of a primary
power source can cause brownouts.
5)Blackouts-it is a complete power failure, which can
be caused by the equipment failure or accidental
cutting of power cables. When power returns after
a blackout, there is a power spike and the danger of
a power surge.

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INSTALLING THE SMPS

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Installing the ATX Power
Connector

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 Microprocessor
A Microprocessor is an IC* ( Integrated Circuit) which does the
main processing and controlling job for Computer.
It is also known as Brain of the Computer.

* IC- it is a microscopic circuit which contains huge miniature

transistors and other components like resistors, capacitors etc.
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 A few terminologies related to
Microprocessor.
• BUS – These are the path-ways through which
information passes from one place to other place.
Buses are classified into three types
depending on what type of information they carry.
• Address Bus- These are the Buses which carry
address information.
• Data Bus- Which carries Data.
• Control Bus – Which carries Control signal.
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 A few terminologies related to
Microprocessor.
The Buses are again classified into two types
depending on where they are located-
Internal Bus- The Bus which is internal to the
CPU.
External Bus- The Bus which is External to the
CPU.
• Register- Temporary storage space inside the
CPU to store data for further processing.
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 A few terminologies related to
Microprocessor.
• Clock Speed- It is the maximum no of clock cycles
per second at which the CPU can reliably work.
• Faster the Clock Speed better the performance.
• Clock cycles are basically generated from a
component called crystal.
•It is measured in Hertz(Hz).

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 A few terminologies related to
Microprocessor.
• Cache- It is a kind of static RAM which is faster in
accessing compared to normal DRAM.
It is used in between the CPU and Main
Memory to enhance the CPU performance.
Cache Memories are further classified into
three different types depending on their location-
• Level 1- Internal to CPU(L1).
• Level 2- Outside
• the CPU(L2).
• Level 3- On Mother board(L3).
•PQFP- Plastic Quad Flat Package (Specific for laptops) PLCC-plastic leadless Chip Carrier PGA-pin grid array

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 Generation of CPU

CHIP CLK ADDRESS INTERNAL EXTERNAL NO. OF NEW YEAR PACKAGE USE
NO SPEED BUS DATA BUS DATA BUS TRANSISTOR DEVELOPMENT

4004 740KHz 4 bit 4 bit 4 bit 2,300 First 15,nov DIP Busicom
microprocessor , 71 Calculator

8080 ~ 1 MHz 16 bit 8 bit 8 bit - - 1, Apr, DIP Traffic

1972 control,
missile
cruise etc.

8085 5 MHz 16 bit 8 bit 8 bit 6500 - Mar, DIP Programmi

1976 ng kit

8086 5-10 20 bit 16 bit 16 bit 29000 - Jun 8 , DIP Portable

MHz 1978 compute.

8088 5-8 MHz 20 bit 16 bit 8 bit 29000 - Jun 1, DIP IBM 1st PC
1979

80286 6- 20 16 bit 16 bit 16 bit 1,34,000 Protected Mode Feb1, DIP,PLCC, In IBM pc
MHz 1982 PGA clones

80386 16-33 32 bit 32 bit 32 bit 2,75,000 Sleep mode for Oct 17 PGA, PQFP Used with
SX, MHz laptops , 1985 win95
DX,SL

80486 20- 32 bit 32 bit 32 bit Up to 1.6 8 kb of cache Apr10, PGA,PQFP Desktop
sx,dx,d 100MHz Million memory in DX , 1989 computers
x2.dx3,
dx4,sl
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• On June 6, 1978, Intel introduced its first 16-bit
microprocessor, known as the 8086. It had 29,000 transistors,
16-bit registers, a 16-bit external data bus, and a 20-bit
address bus to allow it to access 1 MB of memory.

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 CPU Pictures

4004 8080 8085 8086

80286
80386-PGA 80386- PQFP 80486- PGA 80486- PQFP

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 Pentium Generation
The Pentium name came from-
Penta (Greek- Five)+ ium ( Latin – Ending).
It is sometimes also referred as 80586
processor.

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 Pentium Generation
The Technologies introduced in Pentium Generation-
• Pipelining- It is an execution engine which processes a complete
instruction with in a single clock pulse.
• Superscalar Architecture- Pentium uses two pipelines which
allows to process more than one instruction per clock pulse. To do this
Pentium uses a architecture which includes-
- one U pipe- Does processing for one complex instruction at a time.
-one V pipe- Does processing for simple instructions.
• Wider Data Bus and Register- Pentium uses 64bit data bus
and register which means it can pull 64 bits of data from main memory in
one fetch and can keep stored in internal register.

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 Pentium I Processor Family
Processor Clock Intro Date(s) Mfg. Process/ Typical Use
Speed(s) Transistors
Intel® Pentium® 233 MHz 2-Jun-97 0.35-micron High-performance
Processor with MMX™ desktops and servers
Technology
Intel® Pentium® 200 MHz Oct. xx, 1996 0.35-micron High-performance
Processor with MMX™ desktops and servers
Technology 166 MHz  
4.5 million
 
Intel® Pentium® 200 MHz 10-Jun-96 0.35-micron High-performance
Processor desktops and servers
3.3 million
Intel® Pentium® 166 MHz Jan. 4, 1996 0.35-micron High-performance
Processor desktops and servers
  3.3 million
Intel® Pentium® 133 MHz Jun-95 0.35-micron High-performance
Processor desktops and servers
3.3 million
Intel® Pentium® 120 MHz Mar. 27, 1995 0.6-micron Desktops and notebooks
Processor
0.35-micron

3.3 million
Intel® Pentium® 100 MHz Mar. 7, 1994 0.6-micron Desktops
Processor
  3.3 million
Intel® Pentium® 75 MHz Oct. 10, 1994 0.6-micron Desktops and notebooks
Processor 3.3 million
Intel® Pentium® 66 MHz Mar. 22, 1993 0.8-micron Desktops
Processor 3.1 million
 

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 Pentium-Pro
Processor Clock Intro Mfg. Cache Bus Speed Typical Use
Speed(s) Date(s) Process/
Transistors
Intel® 200 MHz Jan.xx, 1996 0.35-micron 256KB 66 MHz High-end
Pentium® 180 MHz 512KB desktops,
Pro 5.5 million 1MB workstation
Processor L2 s and
servers.
Intel® 200 MHz Nov. 1, 1995 0.6-micron 256 KB 66 MHz High-end
Pentium® 180 MHz 5.5 million 512 KB desktops,
Pro 166 MHz L2 workstation
Processor 150 MHz s and
servers

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Picture for Pentium Generation

Pentium I Pentium MMX Pentium Pro

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 Pentium II
Processor Clock Intro Date(s) Mfg. Process/ Cache Bus Speed Typical Use
Speed(s) Transistors
Intel® Pentium® II 450 MHz Aug. 24, 1998 0.25-micron 512 KB 100 MHz Business and
Processor consumer PCs; 1-
7.5 million and 2-way servers
and workstations.

Intel® Pentium® II 400 MHz Apr. 15, 1998 0.25-micron 512 KB 100 MHz Business and
Processor 350 MHz consumer PCs; 1-
7.5 million and 2-way servers
and workstations.

Intel® Pentium® II 333 MHz Jan. 26, 1998 0.25-micron 512 KB 66 MHz Business and
Processor consumer PCs; 1-
7.5 million and 2-way servers
and workstations.

Intel® Pentium® II 300 MHz May 7, 1997 0.35-micron 512 KB  66 MHz High-end business
Processor 266 MHz desktops,
233 MHz 7.5 million workstations and
servers.

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Pentium II Models

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Pentium III

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 Pentium III
Clock Intro Date(s) Mfg. Process/ Cache Bus Speed Typical Use
Speed(s) Transistors
Intel®Pentium® III 1 GHz Mar. 8, 2000 0.18-micron 256 KB 100 MHz Business,
Processor 933 MHz 1 GHz Advanced 133 MHz consumer PCs;
866 MHz 28 million Transfer 1- and 2-way
850 MHz Mar. 20, 2000 cache servers and
866 MHz workstations
850 MHz

May 24, 2000

933 MHz
Intel®Pentium® III 733 MHz Oct. 25, 1999 0.18-micron 256 KB Advanced 100 MHz Business,
Processor 700 MHz Transfer 133 MHz consumer PCs;
667 MHz 28 million cache 1- and Processor
650 MHz 2-way servers and
600 MHz workstations
550 MHz
533 MHz
500 MHz
Intel®Pentium® III 600 MHz Aug. 2, 1999 0.25-micron 512 KB 100 MHz Business,
Processor 550 MHz 600 MHz consumer PCs;
500 MHz 9.5 million 1- and 2-way
450 MHz May 17, 1999 servers and
550 MHz workstations

Feb. 26, 1999

500 MHz Confidential
450 Mhz
 Pentium III
Processor Clock Intro Date(s) Mfg. Process/ Cache Bus Speed Core Voltage Wattage Typical Use
Speed(s) Transistors

Mobile Intel® P 1.33 GHz Sept. 16, 2002 0.13-micron 512 KB 133 MHz 1.4V / <1.5 watts Full-size and
entium® III Proc 1.26 GHz L2 cache 1.15V Battery thin & light
essor-M 44 million Battery Optimized mobile PCs
Optimized

Mobile Intel® P 1.20 GHz Oct. 1, 2001 0.13-micron 512 KB 133 MHz 1.4V / <2 watts Full-size and
entium® III Proc 1.13 GHz 1.20 GHz L2 cache 1.15V Battery thin & light
essor-M 1.06 GHz 44 million Battery Optimized mobile PCs
1 GHz Jul. 30, 2001 Optimized
1.13 GHz
1.06 GHz
1 GHz

Mobile Intel® P 933 MHz Jul. 30, 2001 0.13-micron 512 KB 133 MHz 1.15V / <1 watt Battery Full-size and
entium® III Proc 866 MHz L2 cache 1.05V Optimized thin & light
essor-M 28 million Battery mobile PCs
Optimized

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Pentium III

Pentium III

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Celeron

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 Celeron Processors
Intel® Celeron® Processor 533 MHz Jan. 4, 2000 0.25-micron 128 KB 66 MHz Value PCs
500 MHz 533 MHz L2 cache
466 MHz 19 million
433 MHz Aug. 2, 1999
400 MHz 500 MHz
366 MHz
Processor Clock
333 MHz Apr.Intro Date(s)
26, 1999 Mfg. Process/ Cache Bus Typical Use
Speed(s)
300 MHz 466 MHz Transistors Speed

Mar. 22, 1999

433 MHz

Jan. 4, 1999
400 MHz
366 MHz

Aug. 24, 1998

333 MHz

Aug. 24, 1998

300A MHz

Intel® Celeron® Processor 300 MHz June 8, 1998 0.25-micron NA 66 MHz Value PCs
266 MHz 300 MHz
7.5 million
Apr. 15, 1998
266 MHz

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 Celeron Processors

Intel® Celeron® Processor 1.10 GHz Aug. 31, 2001 0.18-micron 128 KB 100 MHz Value PCs
1 GHz 1.10 GHz L2 cache
950 MHz 1 GHz
990 MHz 950 MHz
850 MHz
800 MHz Jul. 2, 2001
900 MHz

May 21, 2001

850 MHz

Jan. 3, 2001
800 MHz
Intel® Celeron® Processor 766 MHz Nov. 13, 2000 0.18-micron 128 KB 66 MHz Value PCs
733 MHz 766 MHz L2 cache
700 MHz 733 MHz
667 MHz
633 MHz June 26, 2000
600 MHz 700 MHz
566 MHz 667 MHz
633 MHz

March 29, 2000

600 MHz
566 MHz

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 Celeron Processors
Intel® Celeron® D Processor 3.06 GHz Nov. 23, 2004 90 nm 256 KB 533 MHz Value and Mobile PCs
345 2.93 GHz 345 L2 cache
340335330325320 2.80 GHz
2.66 GHz Sep. 22, 2004
2.53 GHz 340
2.40 GHz
2.26 GHz June 24, 2004
335
330
325
320
Intel® Celeron® Processor 2.80 GHz Nov. 5, 2003 0.13-micron 128 KB 400 MHz Value and Mobile PCs
2.70 GHz 2.80 GHz L2 cache

Sept. 24, 2003

2.70 GHz
Intel® Celeron® Processor 2.40 GHz Mar. 31, 2003 0.13-micron 128 KB 400 MHz Value PCs
2.30 GHz 2.40 GHz L2 cache
2.20 GHz 2.30 GHz
2.10 GHz
Nov. 20, 2002
2.20 GHz
2.10 GHz
Intel® Celeron® Processor 2 GHz Sept. 18, 2002 0.13-micron 128 KB 400 MHz Value PCs
L2 cache
Intel® Celeron® Processor 1.80 GHz June 12, 2002 0.18-micron 128 KB 400 MHz Value PCs
1.70 GHz 1.80 GHz L2 cache

May 15, 2002

1.70 GHz
Intel® Celeron® Processor 1.40 GHz May 15, 2002 0.13-micron 256 KB 100 MHz Value PCs
1.30 GHz 1.40 GHz L2 cache
1.20 GHz
Jan. 3, 2002
1.30 GHz

Oct. 2, 2001
1.20 GHz

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 Celeron pictures

MENDOCINO - FRONT MENDOCINO- BACK

MENDOCINO CORE

COPERMINE CORE- COPPERMINE CORE

FRONT - BACK

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Pentium IV

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 Pentium IV
Processor Clk. speed Intro Date Mgf. Cache Bus Speed Typical Use
Process/transistors
Intel® Pentium® 4 Process 2.80 GHz Aug. 26, 2002 0.13-micron 512 KB Advanced 533 MHz Desktops and entry-level
or 2.66 GHz 2.80 GHz Transfer L2 cache workstations
2.53 GHz 2.66 GHz 55 million
2.40 GHz
2.26 GHz May 6, 2002
2.53 GHz
2.40 GHz
2.26 GHz
Intel® Pentium® 4 Process 2.60 GHz Aug. 26, 2002 0.13-micron 512 KB Advanced 400 MHz Desktops and entry-level
or 2.50 GHz 2.60 GHz Transfer L2 cache workstations
2.40 GHz 2.50 GHz 55 million
2.20 GHz
2 GHz Apr. 2, 2002
2.40 GHz

Jan. 7, 2002
2.2 GHz

Aug. 27, 2001

2 GHz
Intel® Pentium® 4 Process 2 GHz Aug. 27, 2001 0.18-micron 256 KB Advanced 400 MHz Desktops and entry-level
or 1.90 GHz 2 GHz Transfer L2 cache workstations
1.80 GHz 1.90 GHz 42 million
1.70 GHz
1.60 GHz Jul. 2, 2001
1.50 GHz 1.80 GHz
1.40 GHz 1.60 GHz

Apr. 23, 2001

1.70 GHz

Nov. 20, 2000

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 Pentium IV HT
Hyper Threading- is a technology introduced in Pentium IV processor
which enables the processor to handle multiple threads/ programs
simultaneously with single core of the CPU. Dynamic branch prediction
It virtually appears as two processors with in a singe chip to the
operating system so few operating system like Windows’95 , ‘98 can not work
with these processors.

http://www.intel.com/products/processor_number/chart/pentium4.htm

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 Pentium IV HT
Processor Clock Intro Date(s) Mfg. Process/ Cache Bus Speed Typical Use
Speed(s) Transistors
Intel® Pentium® 4 Proc 3.80 GHz Nov. 15, 2004 90nm 1 MB L2 cache 800 MHz Desktops and entry-
essor supporting HT Te 3.60 GHz 570 level workstations
chnology 3.40 GHz 125 million
3.20 GHz June 21, 2004
570560550540530520 3 GHz 560
2.80 GHz 550
540
530
520

Intel® Pentium® 4 3.40 GHz Feb. 2, 2004 90nm 1 MB L2 cache 800 MHz Desktops and entry-
Processor supporting 3.20E GHz level workstations
HT Technology 3E GHz 125 million
2.80E GHz
Intel® Pentium® 4 3.40 GHz Feb. 2, 2004 0.13-micron 512 KB Advanced 800 MHz Desktops and entry-
Processor supporting 3.20 GHz 3.40 GHz Transfer L2 cache level workstations
HT Technology 2.80C GHz 55 million
2.60C GHz June 23, 2003
2.40C GHz 3.20 GHz

May 21, 2003

2.80 GHz
2.60 GHz
2.40 GHz
Intel® Pentium® 4 Proc 3 GHz Apr. 14, 2003 0.13-micron 512 KB Advanced 800 MHz Desktops and entry-
essor supporting HT Te Transfer L2 cache level workstations
chnology 55 million
Intel® Pentium® 4 Proc 3.06 GHz Nov. 14, 2002 0.13-micron 512 KB Advanced 533 MHz Desktops and entry-
essor supporting HT Te Confidential Transfer L2 cache level workstations
chnology 55 million
 Pentium IV HT
Processor Clock Intro Date(s) Mfg. Process/ Cache Bus Speed Typical Use
Speed(s) Transistors
Intel® Pentium® 4 Pro 3.73 GHz Feb. 21, 2005 90nm 2 MB L2 cache 1066 MHz Gaming and
cessor Extreme Editio Computing
n supporting HT Techn 169 million Enthusiasts
ology

Intel® Pentium® 4 Pro 3.46 GHz Nov. 15, 2004 0.13-micron 2 MB L3 cache; 1066 MHz Gaming and
cessor Extreme Editio 512 KB L2 cache Computing
n supporting HT Techn 178 million Enthusiasts
ology

Intel® Pentium® 4 Pro 3.40 GHz June 21, 2004 0.13-micron 2 MB L3 cache; 800 MHz Gaming and
cessor Extreme Editio 3.20 GHz 3.40 GHz 512 KB L2 cache Computing
n supporting HT Techn (Intel® LGA775 178 million Enthusiasts
ology
  package technology)

Feb. 2, 2004
3.40 GHz

Nov. 3, 2003
3.20 GHz
Intel® Pentium® 4 Pro 3.60 GHz Feb. 21, 2005 90nm 2 MB L2 cache 800 MHz Desktops and entry-
cessor supporting HT T 3.40 GHz 660 level workstations
echnology 3.20 GHz 650 169 million
3 GHz 640
660650640630 630

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 Pentium 64 Bit

It’s a technology where 64 bit processing

happens with the help of 64 bit Data and
Address bus.

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 Pentium Dual Core

Dual Core- is a technology where dual cores are present within a

single chip.

http://www.intel.com/products/processor_number/chart/pentium4.htm

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Other Intel products

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 Intel’s Latest Release

• Intel core 2 Quad Processor.

• Intel core 2 Extreme Processor.

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 Other Processor Manufacturer

• AMD
• Cyrix
• Motorola

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 Processor and their Socket type and No
• Socket1- 80486
• Socket2- 80486
• Socket3- 80486
• Socket4- Intel Pentium 60/66 MHz
• Socket5- Intel Pentium 75-133 MHz
• Socket6- Pentium
• Socket7- Intel Pentium / Pentium MMX
• Socket8- Pentium Pro
• Socket370- Intel Pentium 3 / Celeron
• Socket 423- Intel Pentium 4 ( Willamette Core)
• Socket 478- Intel Pentium 4 / Celeron
• LGA 775- Pentium M/ Celeron M/ Core 2 Duo/ Core 2 Quad (lane grid array)
• Slot 1- Intel Celeron/ Pentium 2/ Pentium 3
•Slot 2- Intel PII Xeon / P III Xeon
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_socket#Intel_Sockets

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 Sockets and Slots

Socket 1 Socket 3 Socket 7 Socket 370

Socket 423 Socket 478 LGA 775

Slot 1

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 Mother Board
Mother Board is the biggest circuit board inside
the CPU cabinet where all other devices inside
the cabinet are connected on or from it.

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 Components on Motherboard

• Connectors and Ports

• Chip sets
• BIOS & CMOS
• CMOS Battery
• CPU Socket/Slots
• I/O Slots
• RAM Slots
• Jumpers / DIP Switches
• Other Controller chips.

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 Connectors and Ports
• Power Connectors
• Keyboard connector
• Serial Ports
• Parallel Port
• Display Port
• IDE Port
• FDD Port
• SATA port
• USB Port
• LAN Port
• PS/2 Port
• Modem Port
• Audio Port

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 Power Connectors

Different types of Power Connectors-

• AT Power Connector- 12 pins ( 6*2) – 1no.
• ATX Power Connector- 20 pins- 1no.
• ATX 12v- 4 pins- 1no.

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 Keyboard Connectors

Different Keyboard Connectors-

• DIN (Dutch Industrial Noum)
• PS/2
• USB

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 Serial Ports

Two Serial Ports-

• COM1- address 3F8- 9 pin D type.
• COM2- address 2F8- 9 pin D type.
Used to connect any serial devices.

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 Parallel Port

Only one parallel port-

• LPT1- address 378- 25 pin D type.

Used to connect any Parallel Device.

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 Display Port

• Display port is a 15 pin D type connector.

• Used to connect Monitor.

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 IDE Port
IDE- Integrated Device Electronics
• It is a 40 pin port.
• Used to connect any IDE device. Like- HDD,
CDROM, DVD ROM, DVD RW, CDRW etc.
• There will two IDE connectors on motherboard-
-IDE1/ Primary
-IDE2/Secondary
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 FDD Port

• It’s a 34 pin port.

• Only one port will be present on the
Motherboard.
• Used to connect FDDs.

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 SATA Ports

• Serial Advanced Technology Attachable.

• Used to attach HDDs with SATA interface.
• 2-4 no's will be present on the motherboard.

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 USB Port

• Universal Serial Bus.

• It’s a another type of serial port.
• Used to connect any USB device.
• 4-6 no’s will be present on the motherboard.

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 LAN Port
• It is used to connect computers with Network.
• It is also known as RJ45 port.
• It will have 8 pins within it.

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 PS/2 Ports

• It’s a 6 pin round shaped connector.

• Two ports will be present on motherboard.
-One for Keyboard ( Violet ).
-One for Mouse ( Green ).

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 Modem Port

• It is also known as RJ11.

• Will be present with Modem.
• Two ports will be there
-One for line in.
-One for Phone.

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 Audio port

It is a combination of 3 ports-
• Line out- Lime color.
• Line in- Blue color.
• Mic- Pink color.

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 Chipsets
• Chipsets are some specialized chips on
Motherboard which are used to control the
communication between Processor, RAM, AGP
and all other I/O devices.
• Mainly there will be a pair of chips on the
Motherboard- North Bridge and South Bridge.

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Chipsets
• North Bridge- In INTEL systems some
times also referred as MCH ( Memory
Controller Hub). Some chips contain Graphic
controller also ( GMCH). Its main job is to
control the communication between
Processor, RAM, AGP, PCI Express, and the
South Bridge. It basically can support one or
two types of Processor and RAM. The link
between North Bridge and South Bridge is
comparatively slower.
• South Bridge- It is also known as ICH (
I/O Controller Hub). It is the another
controller chip on the mother Board
which controls the slower devices like
PCI, USB, IDE, BIOS etc. Its other
functionalities are DMA controller,
Interrupt controller, Real Time
Clock( RTC), CMOS etc.

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 Different Chipset Manufacturer

• Intel
• VIA Technologies
• SIS ( Silicon Integrated System)
• NVIDIA etc.

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 Identifying a chipset

There three different ways to identify a chipset-

1. Directly check the marking on the chip.( Not
recommended because Hit sink will be fixed on
the Chipset.)
2. Check with operating system.(Device Manage
– System Devices.)
3. With software utility. Software

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 BIOS and CMOS
• BIOS stands for BASIC INPUT OUTPUT SYSTEM.
• BIOS is basically a software which is used to be
stored in a ROM chip. So some times referred as
ROM-BIOS.
• In recent motherboards it is stored in a Flash chip.
So time times referred as Flash-BIOS.
• It provides necessary interface between Hardware
and operating system so it is also known as
Firmware.
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 Different types of BIOS chips

• DIP Package.

• Quad Package.

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Different BIOS Manufacturer

• American Megatrends.
• Award Software International.
• Phoenix Technologies.

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 How BIOS works

•Testing the System Hardware.

•Running POST with CMOS Setup Information.
•Booting by Bootstrap Loader.
•Providing BIOS Interrupts and System Service
Routines.
•Searching and activating other BIOS present
in the System.

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 BIOS
• The BIOS (basic input/output system) is a chip on
your system that contains a program that controls
the interface between the CPU and the rest of your
system. The BIOS is read during the power on (boot)
process and sets up the machine to load the
Operating System. It is a EPROM (Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory) chip. This chip
cannot be configured by the user. Some BIOS chips
can be upgraded by using a technique known as
flashing. This is done to allow the BIOS to support
newer hardware.
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 CMOS
• The CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) is
a low power RAM chip that holds information about your
system. Like any RAM chip (and unlike ROM), the chip
needs power to retain its information. This power comes
from the motherboard battery when the PC is powered off.

The CMOS stores info about the particular hardware in your

PC and certain variable settings. This info is read by the
BIOS during the boot process. Which is why they are often
confused

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• The CMOS settings can be accessed during the boot
process. How to access them will vary depending on
the BIOS in the machine. Generally there will be a
message during the boot process to press some key
to enter the Setup. The CMOS settings are usually
described in your computer or motherboard
manual.

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 How the BIOS boots
• The BIOS runs from the PROM, EPROM or, most commonly,
flash memory when the computer is powered on. It
initializes several motherboard components and
peripherals, including:
• The clock generator.
• The processors and caches.
• The chipset (memory controller and I/O controller).
• The system memory.
• All PCI devices (by assigning bus numbers and resources).
• The primary graphics controller.
• Mass storage controllers (such as SATA and IDE controllers).
• Various I/O controllers (such keyboard/mouse and USB).

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Layers :

Computer hardware

System BIOS

Operating system

Application software

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• In most modern BIOS implementations, users select which
device boots first: CD, hard disk, floppy disk, flash keydrive,
and the like. This is particularly useful for installing
operating systems or booting to Live CDs, and for selecting
the order of testing for the presence of bootable media.
• Some BIOSes allow the user to select the operating system
to load (e.g. load another OS from the second hard disk),
though this is more often handled by a second-stage boot
loader.

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• BIOS setup program performs four distinct tasks:
1. Tests the computer's main components by running its POST
(Power-On-Self-Test) program to make sure that they are al
functioning properly.
2. Configures the main components that are part of
the motherboard or that are attached to it so that
the operating system knows what to do with them.
The configuration role was essential to the
operation of a computer, but it is decreasing all the
time as the operating system continues to take over
more and more of this role.

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• 3. - Boots the operating system from the hard disk
drive or from a bootable floppy disk or CD/DVD disc
at start-up.
• 4. - Provides access to some of the computer's
components and features, such as the keyboard
even when the operating system is up and running.
The BIOS is programmed to run a small routine that
handles the keyboard at the behest of the operating
system.
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 Types of RAM
• The following are some common types of RAM:
• SRAM: Static random access memory uses multiple
transistors, typically four to six, for each memory cell but
doesn't have a capacitor in each cell. It is used primarily for
cache.
• DRAM: Dynamic random access memory has memory cells
with a paired transistor and capacitor requiring constant
refreshing.
• FPM DRAM: Fast page mode dynamic random access
memory was the original form of DRAM. It waits through
the entire process of locating a bit of data by column and
row and then reading the bit before it starts on the next bit.
Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 176
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• EDO DRAM: Extended data-out dynamic random access
memory does not wait for all of the processing of the first
bit before continuing to the next one. As soon as the
address of the first bit is located, EDO DRAM begins looking
for the next bit. It is about five percent faster than FPM.
Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 264
MBps.

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• SDRAM: Synchronous dynamic random access memory
takes advantage of the burst mode concept to greatly
improve performance. It does this by staying on the row
containing the requested bit and moving rapidly through
the columns, reading each bit as it goes. The idea is that
most of the time the data needed by the CPU will be in
sequence. SDRAM is about five percent faster than EDO
RAM and is the most common form in desktops today.
Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 528
MBps.

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• DDR SDRAM: Double data rate synchronous
dynamic RAM is just like SDRAM except that it has
higher bandwidth, meaning greater speed.
Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately
1,064 MBps (for DDR SDRAM 133 MHZ).

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• RDRAM: Rambus dynamic random access memory
is a radical departure from the previous DRAM
architecture. Designed by Rambus, RDRAM uses a
Rambus in-line memory module (RIMM), which is
similar in size and pin configuration to a standard
DIMM. What makes RDRAM so different is its use of
a special high-speed data bus called the Rambus
channel. RDRAM memory chips work in parallel to
achieve a data rate of 800 MHz, or 1,600 MBps.

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 General Features of BIOS
•IBM BIOS Compatibility.
•OS Compatibility.
•CPU Support.
•Jumper less Operation.
•Chipset Support.
•Memory Support.
•ACPI/APM Support.
•Drive Support.
•PC-99 Support.
•I/O Support.
•Boot Versatility Support.
•Plug-and-Play Support.
•AGP Support.(Accelerated Graphic Port
•USB Support.
•Security Support.
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 Identification of BIOS
• AMI and AWARD BIOS have unique ID strings which identify
the manufacturer and chipset of the board.
•But Phoenix BIOS, in most cases do not provide such ID
strings.
•The AMI or AWARD BIOS ID appears at the bottom of the
screen when the system is switched on and remains displayed
till the memory count is over.
•Another way to view the BIOS ID strings for a long time is to
shut down or either unplug the keyboard, or hold down a key
when the system is switched on.
•This will cause a keyboard error, and the strings will remain
displayed.
•We can also use diagnostic programs like MSD or DEBUG to
know the essential BIOS details.
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 CMOS
• CMOS stands for Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor.
• In PC-AT286, IBM decided to store the system’s
hardware configuration and other setup parameters in a
small, low power 64-byte non-volatile RAM built inside a
CMOS chip that also contained the RTC of the system.
•The CMOS was made non-volatile by using an onboard
Lithium or Nickel-Cadmium battery to power it when the
system remains switched off.

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 What are the contents of CMOS
•16 bytes of RTC data.
•32 bytes of ISA configuration data.
•16 bytes of BIOS-specific configuration data.
•64 bytes of extended CMOS data.
•Pentium motherboards use 256 bytes to store the
CMOS setup along with an ESCD (Extended System
Configuration Data) information needed by the PC’s
plug-and-play system.

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 Power-On Self Test
• Every time a PC is turned on or reset using the Reset button or
Windows Restart command, the computer is rebooted and reset to
its basic operating condition.
• The POST sends out standardized commands that check every
primary device .
•The POST has two stages:
Test 1 occurs before and during the test of the video.
Test 2 occurs after the video has been tested.

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BIOS Beep Codes during and after
video test
Number of Beep Possible Problem
1 DRAM refresh failure
2 Parity circuit failure
3 Base 64 KB or CMOS RAM failure
4 System timer
5 Processor failure
6 Keyboard controller or Gate A20 error
7 Virtual mode exception error
8 Display monitor write/read test failure
9 ROM BIOS checksum error
10 CMOS RAM shutdown register failure
1 long, 3 short Conventional/extended memory test failure
1 long, 8 short Display test and display vertical and
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horizontal retrace test failure
 Troubleshooting after Beep
Problem Solution

RAM refresh failure Reset and clean the RAM chips.

Parity error RAM bit error Base 64-KB error Replace individual memory chips until the
problem is corrected.

8042 error (keyboard chip) Reset and clean keyboard chip.

Gate A20 error Check operating system. Replace keyboard.

Replace motherboard.

BIOS checksum error Reset ROM chip. Replace BIOS chip.

Video errors Reset video card. Replace video card.

Cache memory error Reset and clean cache chips. Verify cache
jumper settings are correct. Replace cache
chips.

Any other problems Reset expansion cards. Clean motherboard.

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Replace motherboard.
 Numeric Error Codes

Error Code Problem

301 The keyboard is broken or not plugged in.

1701 The hard disk drive controller is bad.

7301 The floppy disk drive controller is bad.

161 The battery is dead.

1101 The serial card is bad.

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 CMOS Battery

• It’s a +3v Lithium Battery which provides

power to hold the CMOS configuration

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 I/O Slots
• I/O Slots are also known as Expansion Slots or
Expansion Buses or Add-on slots.
• It gives the configuration flexibility when the
Devices are connected to the system.

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 Different Expansion Slots

• ISA 8 bit
• ISA 16 bit
• EISA
• MCA
• VESA
• PCI
• AGP
• PCI EXPRESS
• PCMCIA
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 ISA 8 bit
• ISA stands for Industrial Standard Architecture.
• It was used by IBM PC and IBM PC XT with Intel 8086
and 8088 processors in 1980’s.
• 8 bit Data Bus width.
• 62 pins.
• Clock Speed 4.77MHz.
• Data Transfer Rate 2 MB/s.
• One device can be connected with one slot.
• XT machines had total 4 DMA channels. They are
distributed as follows-
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 ISA 8 bit
DMA channel Expansion Standard function
Dynamic RAM
0 No
refresh
1 Yes Add-on cards
Floppy disk
2 Yes
controller
3 Yes Hard disk controller

•Single PIC 8259 chip and 8 Interrupt lines in PC

XT. link

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ISA 8 bit

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 ISA 16 bit
• It was introduced by IBM PC AT machines in1984.
• Data Bus width 16 bit.
• Compatible with ISA 8 bit and 16 bit both.
• Totally 98 pins.
• Clock speed 8.33MHz.
• 7 DMA and 15 IRQ channels.
• Data transfer rate 5-6MB/s ( Theoretically 16 MB/s)

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ISA 16 bit

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 EISA
• EISA stands for Extended Industrial Standard Architecture.
• Introduced by Gang of Nine (The IBM Competitors. These companies
were AST Research, Compaq Computer, Epson, Hewlett-Packard, NEC,
Olivetti, Tandy, WYSE, and Zenith Data Systems. ) in 1988.
• 32 bit Data Bus Width.
• Clock speed 8.33 MHz.
• One Device per slot.
• Compatible with 8 bit, 16 bit ISA and 32bit EISA cards.
• Total 98+ 100 inlay pins.
• Data transfer speed 20MB/s ( Theoretically 33MB/s).

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EISA

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 MCA
• MCA stands for Micro Channel Architecture.
• A proprietary product of IBM.
• It was introduced in 1987 with IBM PS/2 , 80486
Microprocessor.
• Clock speed 10MHz.
• Initially had a Data Bus width of 32 bit but later on to
reduce the cost they introduced 16 bit version too.
• Had a Data transfer rate 40 MB/s ( Theoretically 66
MB/s).
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 VESA
• VESA stands for Video Electronic Standard Association.
• It is also known as VESA Local Bus ( VLB).
• Data Bus width 32 bit.
• Total 112 pins.
• Clock Speed 25-50MHz.
• It had a Brown color extension along with ISA 16 bit slot.
So it is compatible with ISA 8bit, 16bit and VESA cards.
• Data Transfer Rate 100-127MB/s.

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VESA

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 PCI
• PCI stands for Peripheral Component Interconnect.
• Introduced in Mid-1993.
• Data Bus Width 32bit / 64 bit.
• Clock Speed 33/66MHz.
• Data Transfer Rate 133MB/s for 32bit slots and
266MB/s for 64bit slots.
• PCI 2.1(PCI-X) 64bit/66MHz/508MB/s and PCI 2.2(PCI-X)
64bit/66MHz /1024MB/s.
• Total 124 pins.

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PCI

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 PCI EXPRESS
• Very often it is also referred as PCI-e / PCI-E.
• It is available in different speed . Like x1,x2,x4, x8,x16 and x32
( Lane). Each lane is bidirectional and able to transfer 250MB/s
data in one way. So a x32 PCI-e card can have total transfer rate
of-
32(Lanes)* 250(MB/s)*2(Bidirectional)=16GB/s.
• Developed in year 2004 by Intel.
• Lower no of Lane Devices can be supported on higher no of
Lane slot but vice versa is not possible. The no of lane on Device
and slot is negotiated at the time of power on or by software.
• PCI-E 2.0 supports data transfer rate up to 500MB/S per Lane.

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 PCI EXPRESS
PCI-E X4

PCI-E X16

PCI X1

NORMAL PCI

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 AGP
• AGP stands for Accelerated Graphic Port.
• Introduced in year 1997.
• Only used for attaching Graphic Cards.
• AGP has different versions- 1x, 2x, 4x, 8x.
• AGP 1x is a 32bit slot, works at 66MHz, maximum data rate 266MB/s.
• AGP 2x is a 32bit slot, works at 66MHz, maximum data rate 533MB/s.
• AGP 4x is a 32bit slot, works at 66MHz, maximum data rate 1066MB/s.
• AGP 8x is a 32bit slot, works at 66MHz, maximum data rate
2133MB/s.
• AGP has 64bit version also.
• 132 pin connector.

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AGP

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 PCMCIA
• PCMCIA stands for Personal Computer Memory Card International
Association.
• It is also known as PC Card.
• These are basically used with Laptops and Notebook Computers.
• It has different types- Type I, Type II, Type III and Type IV.
• Type I is specifically used for RAM, SDRAM and Flash Memory Cards. It is
an 16bit interface . They are 3.3mm thick.
• Type II is used for many I/O devices like Modem, TV Card and Network
Cards. They can support both 16 or 32 bit. They are 5mm thick.
• Type III is used to connect Hard Disk Drive Cards or Interface cards. They
are 10.5 mm thick. They can support both 16bit and 32bit cards.
• Total 138 pins in two rows.

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 RAM Slots
• DIP
• SIPP
• SIMM 30 PINS
• SIMM 72 PINS
• DIMM
• RIMM

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 DIP
• DIP stands for Dual in-line Package.
• Initially it used to come with 8 pins but later on it started to come with
14-24 pins( any even number).
• These types of RAMs are basically DRAM kind of chip.
• They were being used at the time of 8086 / 8088.
• Those Motherboards used to have sockets/IC Bases where these types
of RAMS used to be fixed.

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 SIPP
• SIPP stands for single in-line Pin
package .
•It is an electronic device package which
has one row of connector pins . It was not
as popular as DIP but it has been used for
packaging RAM chips .

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 SIMM
• It stands for single in line memory module.
• SIM used to comes with two different variants 30 pins and 72 pins.
• 30 pin SIMM has a data bus width of 8 bits(9 bits with parity).
• 72 pin SIMM has a data bus width of 32 bits ( 36 bits with parity).
• 30 pin SIMM had different module size of 256Kb/ 1MB/ 4 MB / 16 MB.
• 72 pin SIMM had different module size of 1MB/ 2MB/4MB/16MB/
32MB/64MB/128MB.
•the earliest SIMM sockets were conventional push-type sockets. These
were soon replaced by ZIF (Zero Insertion Force) sockets
• SIMMs were using EDO( Extended Data out) / FPM( First Page Mode)
kind of RAM.

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 DIMM
• DIMM stands for Dual Inline Memory Module.
• DIMM supports different types of RAM Modules like – SDRAM, DDRRAM,
DDR2, DDR3 etc.
• SIMM had maximum of 32bits data paths where as DIMM had 64bits of
data path to support Intel’s Pentium Processors.
• DIMM slots have pin connectors at both side.
• Different types of DIMM Slots- small outline
Slot Type of RAM No of Pins
DIMM EDO/ FPM 72
SO-DIMM EDO/FPM 72
DIMM SDRAM 100
SO-DIMM SDR SDRAM 144
DIMM SDR SDRAM 168
DIMM DDR SDRAM 184
SO-DIMM DDR& DDR2 200
DIMM DD2 AND FB- DIMM Confidential
240
 DIMM

SDR SDRAM

DDR SDRAM

DDR2 SDRAM

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 RIMM
• RIMM stands for Rambus In-line Memory Module.
• It has 184 pins.
• It supports a speed 400-1066MHz.
• It supports only Rambus DRAMs(RDRAM).
• It was introduced in the 1999.

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 MEMORY
• Memories are the storage devices where Data can be stored.
• In computer memories data is stored in terms Binary forms that is 1’s &
0’s.
• Memories are broadly classified into two different types-

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 MEMORY
PRIMARY SECONDARY
1. These are directly accessible 1. These are not directly
by the CPU. accessible and they are
accessed through I/O
channels.
2. These are primary 2. These are optional.
requirement to a system.
3. It can store a limited 3. These are for Bulk Storage.
amount of Data.

• Depending on the properties Primary and Secondary memories are

classified into different types-

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 PRIMARY MEMORY
• Primary memories are broadly classified in to two types-

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 RAM
• Stands for Random Access Memory.
• Volatile in nature.
• Semiconductor Storage Device.
•Requires periodic refreshing (DRAM, 10-64ms).

DRAM SRAM
1. These are slower in nature. 1. These are faster.
2. Requires periodic refreshing. 2. As long as power is applied need not to refresh.
3. Cheaper. 3. Costlier.
4. Consumes less power. 4. Consumes More power.
5. Typically used as main system 5. Typically used as cache Memory.
Memory.

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 DRAM
• Different types of DRAMs-
• Asynchronous DRAM : It is the basic form of DRAM from which all others are
derived. It has power signal , few Address lines ( Typically 12), few Data lines( 1-4)
and 4 active-low signals( /RAS,/CAS, /WE, /OE).
• VRAM(Video RAM) : These are basically Dual-Ported RAM, one INPUT port and
other OUTpuT port . Both can work simultaneously . The Output port is write
protected. Specifically used in video adapters. But now a days it is almost obsolete
because of SDRAM’s performance and rate.
• FPM DRAM( First Page Mode DRAM): These RAMs are quite faster than normal
DRAMs.
• Extended Data Out RAM( EDO RAM): These are even faster than FPM DRAM by 5%
because they can fetch for new cycle of data while sending out the previous cycle of
Data.
•BEDO( BURST EDO): They could process 4 address locations at one Burst . This is
done by adding an extra memory counter on the memory chip.
• ECC RAM(Error Checking and Correction): These rams are capable of error checking
correcting the RAM information using parity bits.

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 SDR SDRAM
• SDRAM( Synchronous Dynamic RAM): These are synchronized with
system Bus and thus with the Processor. It can accept the incoming
instructions before it has finished the previous processing.
• SDRAMs are again classified in to two different types depending on
Performance. That is- SDR( Single Data Rate) & DDR (Double Data Rate)
• SDR SDRAM: Reads or Writes single word per clock cycle.
• There are different variations of SDRAM- PC66, PC100, PC133 etc.
• It can be fixed with DIMM( 100,144,168) connections.
SDRAM CLOCK SPEED DATA BUS SLOT DATA TRANSFER RATE
WIDTH
PC66 66MHz 64 bit DIMM 533MB/s
168/144
PC100 100MHz 64 bit DIMM 800MB/s
168/144
PC133 133MHz 64 bit DIMM 1064 MB/s
168/144
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 DDR SDRAM
• Reads or Writes two words per clock cycle.
• Reads or Writes on rising and falling edges of the clock cycle.
•DDR RAM many other variations – DDR2 , DDR3 etc.
• DDR2- it has the ability to work at a double speed than a DDR chip
contains.
• DDR3- it can work at triple speed than a chip contains.
• It can be connected with DIMM(184,200,240) connections.
DDR RAM CLOCK SPEED DATA BUS WIDTH SLOT DATA TRANSFER RATE
PC 1600 100MHz 64bit DIMM 1.600GB/s
184/200
PC 2100 133MHz 64bit DIMM 2.133GB/s
184/200
PC 2700 166MHz 64bit DIMM 2.667GB/s
184/200
PC 3200 200MHZ 64bit DIMM 3.200GB/S
184/200
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 RDRAM
• RDRAM stands for Rambus Dynamic Ram.
• It can Read and Write on both rising and falling edges of the clock pulse.
RD RAM CLOCK DATA BUS WIDTH SLOT DATA TRANSFER RATE
SPEED
PC 600 300MHz 16bit RIMM 184 1200MB/s

PC 700 355MHz 16bit RIMM 184 1420MB/s

PC 800 400MHz 16bit RIMM 184 1600MB/s

PC 1066 533MHZ 16bit RIMM 184 2133MB/S

PC 1200 600MHz 16bit RIMM 184 2400MB/s

RIMM 400MHz 32bit RIMM 3200MB/s

3200
RIMM 533MHz 32bit RIMM 4200MB/s
4200
RIMM4800 600MHz 32bit RIMM 4800MB/s

RIMM 800MHz 32bit RIMM 6400MB/s

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 MEMORY MANAGEMENT
Memory Management is the act of managing computer memory.

EXTENDED
MEMORY

1088 KB
HIGHER MEMORY 64 KB
1024 KB UPPER MEMORY AREA
RESERVED
MEMORY 320 KB
EXPANDED 704 KB
MEMORY 64 KB
640 KB

CONVENTIONAL
MEMORY

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0 KB
 CONVENTIONAL MEMORY
• The first 640KB of space in the memory is known as Conventional
Memory.
• It contains several other areas with in it-
• Interrupt Vector Area.
• DOS Area.
• Device Driver Area.
• Command Shell Area.
• TSR Program Area. (Terminate and stay resident)
• User Program Area.
• The IBM PC had a limited addressable space up to 1MB. So this
conventional area was very important.

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 EXPANDED MEMORY
• It is a part of 384 KB of space with in first 1MB of Memory space.
• It was using first 64 KB of space from that area.
• When 80286 came into the market it started supporting Real and
Protected Mode of operation and the programs became more memory
hungry. So they wanted more addressable space from the Memory to
support larger program and to communicate with peripherals.
• This was possible with EMM386.EXE ( for DOS and Windows) memory
manager file from 80386 Microprocessor.

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 RESERVED MEMORY
• This is a part of the first 1 MB space from the memory ( 704 KB-
1024KB).
• This location was divided in to two different area for two different
purpose- BIOS programs for different peripherals and Video Memory.

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 HIGH MEMORY AREA
• This is an area above first 1 MB of the memory up to 1088KB.
• This area is used after 80286 came in to the market.
• It is used to support bigger DOS programs to run in this area.
• It needs a device driver file to work with this area – HIMEM.SYS.

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 EXTENDED MEMORY
• Above HMA rest all space is allocated to Extended Memory Area.
• The total Memory is Divided in to 64 KB of pages.
• Each page is capable of running individual programs to run in Windows
environment for Multi tasking.

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 VIRTUAL MEMORY
• Memory can be addressed that doesn't currently reside in the main
memory and the operating system and the Hardware will load the
required memory in the auxiliary storage memory. This is how it supports
extra main memory virtually.

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 SECONDARY MEMORY
• Secondary memories are for bulk storage in the system.
• These are basically not semiconductor storage devices.
• These memories are optional.
• Depending on memory functionality these memories are broadly
classified into two different types-

Eg. HDD, FDD, ZIP DRIVE, Eg. CDROM, DVDROM etc.

TAPE DRIVE etc.
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 FLOPPY DISK DRIVE
• These are magnetic storage devices.
• These are portable storage devices.
• These were the primary means of storage for OS and other programs.
• FDDs are classified into different types depending on different issues-

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FDD

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FDD

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 FLOPPY DISK

Index Hole

Spindle
Motor grip

Video for floppy

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 Floppy Disk

• Inside the floppy there will be a thin plastic film coated with Ferro oxide
or Cobalt oxide.
• There the data is actually stored.
• It is again divided in to Tracks and Sectors.

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 FLOPPY DISK GEOMETRY
• Track: The concentric circles on the media where the data is actually
stored is known as track.
In a 1.44MB , 3.5 inch floppy there will be 80 Tracks.
• Sector: The subdivision of the Tracks from center towards the edge of the
media is known as Sector.
In a 1.44MB , 3.5 inch floppy there will be 18 Sectors.
• Any Track per sector it contains 512 Bytes.
• Cluster: Combination of multiple Tracks and Sectors. The size may vary
from 4 - 64KB.

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 DISK ORGANIZATION
• A Floppy disk has different areas with in it . Those are-
• DBR( Disk Boot Record)
• FAT( File Allocation Table)
• Root Directory
• Data Area

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 DBR
• It contains the information about bootable files with in the disk( If the
disk is bootable).
• This is placed in Track0 and Sector1.

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 FILE ALLOCATION TABLE
• The file allocation table (FAT) is used to keep track of which clusters are
assigned to each file.
• The FAT also keeps track of which clusters are open and available for use.
When an application needs to create (or extend) a file, it requests more
clusters from the operating system, which finds them in the file allocation
table.
• Two copies of FAT will be present in a disk for redundancy.
• It is just placed after DBR.

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 ROOT DIRECTORY
• It is just placed after two copies of FAT.
• A hierarchical directory structure is used to organize the files that exist on
any disk volume. This "logical tree" is used on almost every file system.

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 DATA AREA
• It is the area where actually data is stored.
• It is placed after root directory.

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 FRONT SIDE OF FDD

Front Bay

LED Floppy Eject

Switch

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BACK SIDE OF FDD

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 INTERNAL COMPONENTS OF FDD
• Motors.
• Read Write Heads.
• Sensors.
• Mechanical Assembly.
• PCB

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 Motors
• Two Motors-
• Spindle Motor:
• Used to rotate the media internally.
• Uses +12v.
• 300 RPM.
• Stepper Motor:
• Used to move the head in to and fro motion.
• Uses +12v.

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 Read Write Heads
• Two Heads for two sides of the floppy.
• Both can perform Read and Write Operation.
• Lower Head is Head-0 and Upper Head is Head-1.

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 Sensors
• Track 0 sensor.
• Index hole Sensor.
• Write Protect Sensor.
• Density Sensor.
• Disk Change Sensor.

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 Writing on the Disk
• To Read and Write into the disk it uses two different algorithms-
• MFM ( Modified Frequency Modulation). pp/np
• RLL ( Run Length Limit). ppp/pnp
• Where ‘1’ represented as PP and ‘0’ represented as NP.

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 INSTALLATION OF FDD
• Maximum two Drives can be fixed in a system.
• One is represented as A and other is B.

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 Troubleshooting of FDD

• Floppy disk fail (40).

• Floppy disk fail (80).
• LED not glowing.
• Continuously LED Glowing.
• Disk write protected.

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 HARD DISK DRIVE
• These are Magnetic Storage Devices.
• These are permanent storage devices.
• These are also known as Fixed Disks.
• It can store huge amount of data.

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 HARD DISK DRIVE
• Different sizes of HDD-
Largest
Standard
Width capacity to Platters (Max)
Name
date (2007)
5.25" FH 146 mm 47 GB[12] 14
5.25" HH 146 mm 19.3 GB[13] 4[14]
3.5" 102 mm 1.2 TB 5
2.5" 69.9 mm 320 GB[15] 3
1.8" (PCMCIA) 54 mm 160 GB[16]
1.8" (ATA-7
53.8 mm
LIF)

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 HARD DISK DRIVE
• Different Types Interfaces of HDD-
• ST-506
• ESDI (Enhanced Small Disk Interface)
• IDE ( Integrated Device Electronics)
• EIDE ( Enhanced IDE)
• SATA ( Serial Advanced Technology Attachable)
• SCSI ( Small Computer System Interface)

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 ST-506
• It was the first 5.25” Hard Disk Drive.
• Introduced in 1980’s by Shugart Technologies ( Seagate Technology).
• The capacity was 5-10MB.
• This type of interface had two connector which used be connected
with controller card. One connector is of 34 pins ( to control the drive)
and other of 20 pins ( to transfer data).
• Data transfer rate 5-7.5 Mb/s.

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 ENHANCED SMALL DISK INTERFACE

• Interface was same like ST-506 that is one 34 pin ( Control signal) and one
20 pin ( Data).
• Data transfer speed was 10, 15 & 20 Mb/s.
• Came into the market in mid-1980’s.

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 INTEGRATED DEVICE ELECTRONICS
• It had different variants and names-
Standard Other Names Transfer Modes Added (MB/s) Maximum disk size Other New Features

22-bit logical block addressing

pre-ATA IDE PIO 0 2.1 GB
(LBA)

PIO 0, 1, 2 (3.3, 5.2, 8.3)

Single-word DMA 0, 1, 2 (2.1, 4.2, 28-bit logical block addressing
ATA-1 ATA, IDE 137 GB
8.3) (LBA)
Multi-word DMA 0 (4.2)

EIDE, Fast ATA, PIO 3, 4: (11.1, 16.6)

ATA-2
Fast IDE, Ultra ATA Multi-word DMA 1, 2 (13.3, 16.6)

ATA-3 EIDE
S.M.A.R.T., Security

AT Attachment Packet Interface

(ATAPI), i.e. support for CD-ROM,
Ultra DMA 0, 1, 2 (16.7, 25.0, 33.3) tape drives etc.,
ATA/ATAPI-4 ATA-4, Ultra ATA/33
aka UDMA/33 Optional overlapped and queued
command set features,
Host Protected Area (HPA)

Ultra DMA 3, 4 (44.4, 66.7)

ATA/ATAPI-5 ATA-5, Ultra ATA/66 80-wire cables
aka UDMA/66

48-bit LBA, Device Configuration

UDMA 5 (100)
ATA/ATAPI-6 ATA-6, Ultra ATA/100 144 PB Overlay (DCO),
aka UDMA/100
Automatic Acoustic Management

UDMA 6 (133) SATA 1.0, Streaming feature set,

ATA/ATAPI-7 ATA-7, Ultra ATA/133 aka UDMA/133 long logical/physical sector feature
SATA/150 set for non-packet devices

Hybrid drive featuring non-volatile

ATA/ATAPI-8 ATA-8 —
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 A FEW TERMINOLOGIES
• PIO(Programmable Input Output): It is a method of transferring data
between CPU and other peripherals like network adapter or Disk storage.
Before DMA it was the only one method of transferring data. It has different
modes they vary in data transfer rate because of cycles.
PIO modes
Maximum transfer rate Standard where spec is
Mode Minimum cycle time
(MB/s) defined

Mode 0 3.3 600 ns ATA-1

Mode 1 5.2 383 ns ATA-1
Mode 2 8.3 240 ns ATA-1
Mode 3 11.1 180 ns ATA-2
Mode 4 16.7 120 ns ATA-2

Mode 5 20 100 ns CompactFlash 2.0

Mode 6 25 80 ns CompactFlash 2.0

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 A FEW TERMINOLOGIES
• DMA( Direct Memory Access): It is an advanced transfer method than
PIO. It has two different modes- Single and Multi.
In Single mode the DMA controller transfers one word(16bit) and
requests the CPU control and in Multi mode once the transfer is began it
will transfer all words.
DMA Modes
Max Transfer Rate
Mode Bits Min cycle time Defining standard
(MiB/s)
Single 0 2.1 16 960 ns ATA-1

Single 1 4.2 16 480 ns ATA-1

Single 2 8.3 16 240 ns ATA-1

Multi 0 4.2 16 480 ns ATA-1

Multi 1 13.3 16 150 ns ATA-2

Multi 2 16.7 16 120 ns ATA-2

Multi 3 20 16 100 ns CompactFlash 2.1

Multi 4 25 16 80 ns CompactFlash 2.1

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 INTEGRATED DEVICE ELECTRONICS
• LBA( Logical Block Addressing):
• It is a scheme of addressing each block in a Hard Disk.
• In modern systems each Block is of 512 or 1024 Bytes.
• It can be a 28 or 48 bit address which results in disk size limit of 128GB or 128
PB.
• It was first introduced with ATA-2.
• Addressing is done with indexing with a number like LBA0, LBA1 and so on.
• Before LBA for addressing each block of hard disk CHS ( Cylinder, Head, Sector)
scheme was used.
• In CHS scheme initially there was a limitation in addressing large disks. That is ,
maximum it could support 1024 cylinders , 16 Heads and 63 sectors.
• With those values it could maximum support 1024*16*63*512Bytes=504MB.
• Later on because of advanced BIOS feature they could virtualized the no of
Head from 16 to 255 and they could address maximum 7.8GB of HDD. This
scheme is known as ECHS( Extended cylinder-Head-Sector).

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 SMART
• Self-Monitoring, Analysis, and Reporting Technology, or
S.M.A.R.T., is a monitoring system for computer hard disks to detect
and report on various indicators of reliability, in the hope of
anticipating failures.

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IDE CABLE AND INTERFACE

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 SATA
• Stands for Serial ATA.
• Mainly designed for communicating between CPU and Hard Disk Drives.
• As because it is a serial link so longer cables can be supported.
• Cables are thinner so better air ventilation inside the cabinet.
• Faster communication; 1.5Gb/s, 3Gb/s and 6Gb/s.
• Interface uses a 7 pin connector for data and 15 pin connector for power.
• One device per port can be connected.

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 SCSI
• Stands for Small Computer System Interface.
• Mainly used in server computers.
• This interface can support a variety devices like HDD, Optical Drives,
Scanners, Printers etc.
• It supports more number of devices per connector in a Daisy Chain.
• The same SCSI adapter can support both internal and external devices.
• A SCSI adapter uses its own BIOS and firmware to talk to it’s devices.
• There a Variety of SCSI devices-

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 SCSI
Maximum
Alternative Specification Width Length
Interface Connector Clock[3] Throughput[
names document (bits) (single Length LVD Length HVD Devices[6]
4]
ended)[5]
IDC50;
SCSI-1 SCSI-1 Centronics 8 5 MHz 5 MB/s 6m NA 25m 8
C50
IDC50;
Fast SCSI SCSI-2 Centronics 8 10 MHz 10 MB/s 1.5-3 m NA 25m 8
C50
2 x 50-pin
Fast-Wide SCSI-2; (SCSI-2);
16 10 MHz 20 MB/s 1.5-3 m NA 25m 16
SCSI SCSI-3 SPI 1 x 68-pin
(SCSI-3)
Ultra SCSI Fast-20 SCSI-3 SPI IDC50 8 20 MHz 20 MB/s 1.5-3 m NA 25m 8
Ultra Wide
SCSI-3 SPI 68-pin 16 20 MHz 40 MB/s 1.5-3 m NA 25m 16
SCSI
Ultra2 SCSI Fast-40 SCSI-3 SPI-2 50-pin 8 40 MHz 40 MB/s NA 12m 25m 8
68-pin;
Ultra2 Wide 80-pin
SCSI-3 SPI-2 16 40 MHz 80 MB/s NA 12m 25m 16
SCSI (SCA/SCA-
2)
68-pin;
80-pin
Ultra3 SCSI Ultra-160 SCSI-3 SPI-3 16 40 MHz DDR 160 MB/s NA 12m NA 16
(SCA/SCA-
2)
68-pin;
Ultra-320 80-pin Confidential
16 80 MHz DDR 320 MB/s NA 12m NA 16
SCSI (SCA/SCA-
 RPM
• Rotation Per Minute.
• It defines the speed of the spindle Motor inside the HDD.
• It can be of different types- 3600, 5400, 7200 & 10000.

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 Internals of a HDD
• Platters
• Motor
• Voice Coil
• Air Filter
• R/W Heads
• PCB

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 A FEW TERMINOLOGIES
• WRITE PRECOMPENSATION:
• All sectors store 512 Bytes of data.
• The sectors at the outer side are more longer than the sectors at the
inner side.
• So, earlier HDDs were facing difficulty to store data. Because of that
some compensation has to be made to avoid the difficulty.
• For that some value has to be set in BIOS specifying that from which
Track compensation to start.
• But in modern disk that is auto detected.

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 A FEW TERMINOLOGIES
• LANDING ZONE:
• This is the area where head is parked when HDD stops working.
• Actually this area contains no data.
• In modern systems that is placed at the outer side of the disk.

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 INSTALLATION OF HDD
• Physical connectivity.
• Jumper setting.
• Primary Master, Primary Slave, Secondary Master and Secondary Slave
with IDE port and Jumper setting.
• CMOS configuration.

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INSTALLATION OF HDD

PRACTICALS

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 PARTITIONING
Partition: Partitions are logical divisions of a hard drive. A computer
might have only one physical hard drive (called hard drive 0), but it
can have anywhere from 1 to 24 logical drives, identified as C to Z.
Partitions exist for two reasons:
1. To divide the disk into several drive letters to make it easier to
organize data files. Some users separate data, programs, and
operating system files onto different drives.
2. To accommodate more than one operating system.
3. To support large Disk.
4. For data security.
• Different types of Partitions:
• Primary Partition.
• Extended Partition.
• Logical Partition.

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 FORMATTING
• Disk formatting is the process of preparing a hard disk or other storage
medium for use.
• There two different types of Formatting.
Low-Level : Low-level formatting means creating all the sectors, tracks,
cylinders, and head information on the drive, and this is the third step in
installing hard disk drives; generally, it applies only to older drives. Low-
level formatting by the end user has virtually been eliminated with
today's drives (it's done at the factory).
A low-level format performs three simultaneous functions:
1.It creates and organizes the sectors, making them ready to accept data.
2.It sets the proper interleave (records the sector header, trailer
information, and inter sector and inter track gaps).
3.It establishes the boot sector.

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 FORMATTING
High-Level: The high-level format is simply called "format" (the
program used to perform a high-level format is called
FORMAT.COM). This is the same format command used to prepare
floppy disk drives.
The high-level format performs two major functions:
• It creates and configures the file allocation tables (Fats).
• It creates the root directory, which is the foundation on which files
and subdirectories are built.

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PRACTICALS

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 HCNE
Core Computer Hardware

Printers

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 Introduction
•Ever since PCs were launched, printers and monitors have been two most
popular output devices.
•Often we need to have a permanent copy of important copy important
documents and send it to another place. In such situations, printer is the only
solution.
•Printers give a hardcopy of the result on the paper, which can be viewed, filed,
and used at a later stage.
•A parallel or serial interface links a printer with the computer. Commands and
data from the computer are sent to through the cable interface. Present day
printers send their status and identification information to the computer through
the same interface, i.e. modern PC to computer communication id bidirectional.

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 Classification of Printers
There are several ways to classify printers based on
following parameters:
•Printing Mechanism.
•Type of characters printed on the paper.
•Number of characters printed at a time.
•Print Quality.
•Type of interface.
•Print Direction.

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 Print Mechanism
Based on printing mechanism, printers are
categorized as follows:
•Impact Printers.
•Non-Impact Printers.

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 Types of Characters Printed on Paper

On the basis of continuity / discontinuity in the

character impression on paper, there are two
broad categories of Printers:
•Fully formed character printer.
•Bit Image Printer.

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 Number of characters printed at a time

Based on this parameter we have three types of

printers:
•Character Printer.
•Line Printer.
•Page Printer.

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 Print Quality

This parameter gives us three types of printers:

•Draft Quality Printers.
•Letter Quality Printers.
•Near Letter Quality Printers.

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 Types of Interface

•Parallel Interface Printers.

•Serial Interface Printers.

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 Print Direction

•Unidirectional Printer.
•Bi-directional Printer.

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 Dot Matrix Printers
•Dot Matrix Printers (DMPs) have been one most popular printers
in the computer industry because of their simple operation, low
cost, low maintenance, low operating expense, ruggedness and
easy serviceability.
•A unique feature of DMPs is their ability to print different types of
text fonts as well as graphics format on almost any type of paper
without changing the print-head setup.
•DMP printers can print in both Draft and NLQ modes.
• These are Impact Printers.
• These are Bit Image Printers.
• Connected with Parallel Interface or Network Interface.
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What are the advantages of DMP ?

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Let’s talk about some disadvantages.

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 Types of Dot Matrix Printers
Dot Matrix Printers can be classified in
different ways based on different
parameters:
•Number of Pins in the Print Head.
•Number of Printing Columns.
•Color of Printing.

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 Construction and Working of DMPs
A typical DMP has four major subassemblies:
•Power Supply Unit.
•Printer Controller Circuitry.
•Printer Controller Microprocessor.
•Reset Circuitry.
•Buffered RAM.
•ROM.
•Carriage Motor Control Logic.
•Print Head Control Logic.
•PC Interface.
•Control Panel
•Electro-Mechanical Print Mechanism ( Print Head).
• Sensors
• Home Position Sensor
• Paper Sensor

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 Inkjet Printers
•Although Inkjets were available in the 1980s, it was only in the
1990s that prices dropped enough to bring the technology to the
common PC buyers.
•Inkjet technologies have made rapid technological advances in
recent years with each new product on the market showing
improvements in performance, usability and output quality.
•With the process of refinement continuing, prices of Inkjet printers
are also showing a steady downward trend.
• These are Non-Impact Printers.
• These are Bit-Image Printers.
• These can provide both Black and Colour Print outs.
• Mostly they come with USB Interface.

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 Inside an Inkjet Printer
•Printer Head Assembly.
•Print Head.
•Ink Cartridges.
•Print Head Stepper Motor.
•Belt.
•Stabilizer Bar.
•Paper Feed Assembly.
•Paper Tray/Feeder.
•Paper Feed Stepper Motor.
•Power Supply.
•Control Circuitry.
•Interface Port.
• Sensors
• Paper Sensor
• Home Sensors

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 Types of Inkjet Technology

•Thermal Inkjet Technology.

•Piezo-electric Inkjet Technology.

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 DISPLAY SYSTEMS
Under Display system in a computer there are
Major two components-
• Display Card.
• Monitor.

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 Display Card

• It is a device which generates the output

Images for Display Devices ( Monitors).
• They are also known as Display Adapter, Video
Adapter, Video Card or Graphic Accelerator
Cards.

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 Display Card

Different types of Display cards-

Text Graphics MDA: Monochrome Display
Year Colors Memory
Mode Mode Adapter.
CGA: Colour Graphic Adapter.
MDA 1981 80*25 - 1 4 KB HGA: Hercules Graphic adapter.
EGA: Enhanced Graphic
CGA 1981 80*25 640*200 16 16 KB Adapter.
MCGA: Multi Colour Graphic
HGC 1982 80*25 720*348 1 64 KB Adapter.
VGA: Video Graphic Adapter.
EGA 1984 80*25 640*350 16 256 KB SVGA: Super Video Graphic
Adapter.
XGA: Extended Graphic
IBM 8514 1987 80*25 1024*768 256 - Adapter.

MCGA 1987 80*25 320*200 256 -

VGA 1987 720*400 640*480 256 256 KB

SVGA 1989 80*25 1024*768 256 2 MB

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1024*768 65,536 1 MB
 Display Card
Different Motherboard Interface for Display Cards-
Bus Width (bits) Clock rate (MHz) Bandwidth (MB/s) Style
ISA XT 8 4,77 8 Parallel
ISA AT 16 8,33 16 Parallel
MCA 32 10 20 Parallel
EISA 32 8,33 32 Parallel
VESA 32 40 160 Parallel
PCI 32 - 64 33 - 100 132 - 800 Parallel
AGP 1x 32 66 264 Parallel
AGP 2x 32 133 528 Parallel
AGP 4x 32 266 1000 Parallel
AGP 8x 32 533 2000 Parallel
PCIe x1 1*32 25 / 50 100 / 200 Serial
PCIe x4 1*32 25 / 50 400 / 800 Serial
PCIe x8 1*32 25 / 50 800 / 1600 Serial
PCIe x16 1*32 25 / 50 1600 / 3200 Serial

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 Display Cards
BIOS
V R
R A
A M
M GPU D
A
C

Components on a Display Card-

•VRAM: Video RAM. It holds the information which has to be displayed on the Monitor. It might be
shared from the main RAM module or might be dedicated on Display Card.
•GPU: Graphic Processing Unit. It is a dedicated processing unit for the Display Card. Who's main job
is to processing normal, 2D and 3D images and controlling overall operation of the Display Card.
•BIOS: It contains the Basic Program to control the basic operation of the Display Card and provides
instructions to communicate between system and the Display Card.
•RAMDAC: Random Access Memory Digital-Analog Converter. It is responsible for converting the
computers Digital signal to Analog signal for Monitor.

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 Display Card
Outputs from a Display Card -

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 Display Card
Signals going out from a Display Card-
5. GND 2. GREEN
HSYNC BLUE (HSYNC) 4. NC 3. BLUE
1. RED
GREEN
VSYNC
RED
7. GGND

14.VSYNC

6. RGND

SGND RGND
11. NC
GGND 10. GND
BGND 15.SCL 9. 5V 8. BGND 12. SDA

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 Display Card

PRACTICALS FOR INSTALLING AND

CONFIGURING DISPLAY CARDS.

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 MONITOR
• It is the primary Display Unit.
• Its basically a interface between the computer
system and user.
• Monitor gets the information from computer
system via Display card.
• It shows the soft copy of the output.

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 OPTICAL DRIVES
• These are Secondary Storage Devices to store huge amount of data.
• They use optical properties to read data from the media.
• They use portable storage media.

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 DIFFERENT TYPES OF OPTICAL DRIVES
• CD-ROM.
• CD-RW.
• DVD ROM(CD-R+DVD-R).
• COMBO DRIVE( CD-R+RW+DVD-R).
• DVD-RW ( CD-R+RW & DVD-R+RW).

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 DIFFERENT INTERFACES USED FOR
OPTICAL DRIVES
• EIDE(ATAPI)-Internal Only.
• SCSI( Small Computer System Interface)- Internal and External.
• USB- External only.

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 CD –ROM
• Stands for Compact Disc Read Only Memory.
• These are basic optical storage devices.
• These are basically a polycarbonate media where data is stored in terms
of PITs and LANDs. A reflective coating of Silver or aluminum is also
provided.
• It uses spiral tracks. Tracks are numbered from 1 and the inner most
track is Track 1. A 650MB CD has 22,188 tracks.
• It can be available in different capacities and different physical sizes-
CD-ROM Data
Physical size Audio Capacity
Capacity
12 cm (standard) 74–80 min 650–703 MB
8 cm (mini-CD) 21–24 min 185–210 MB
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 CD ROM

Front and Back side of CDROM Drive.

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 INSIDE THE CDROM DRIVE
• Motors ( Spindle and Stepper).
• Lens assembly.
• PCB.
• Mechanical Assembly.

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CDROM DRIVE SPEED AND ACCESS TIME
• Performance of the CDROM Drive depends on two values-
• Speed: Refers to the data transfer rate. Represented by X. X means
150kbps. To determine the speed of the CDROM Drive multiply the Value
with X. Like 2X means 300kbps is the speed for the drive.
• Access Time: It refers to the time taken to move the head over half the
tracks. Typically access time is 200-400ms. Lesser the value better the
performance.

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 INSTALLATION OF CDROM DRIVE
• Installation CDROM drive –
• Physical Installation.
• CMOS configuration.
• Under DOS environment.
• Under Windows .

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 INSTALLATION OF CD BURNING
SOFTWARES
•NERO BURNING SOFTWARE.
• WINDOWS XP HAS BUILTIN SUPPORT.

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 DVD
• Stands for Digital Versatile Disk or Digital Video Disk.
• Theoretically it can store up to 17GB.
• Data can be stored in multiple layers and multiple sides.
• Dimension of PITs are smaller compared to CD.
• Tracks are more closer than CD.
• So it needs a more powerful lens assembly.

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 DVD ROM SPEED
• In case of DVD sped is measured with X values.
• In case of DVD X=1352.54kbps.
DVD Transfer Rate Transfer Rate Transfer Rate Equivalent CD-R/CD-RW
Read/Write bytes/sec KB/sec MB/sec read/ write speed
Speed
1x 1,385,000 1,352.54 1.32 9x
2x 2.770,000 2,705.08 2.64 18x
3x 4,155,000 4,057.62 3.96 27x
4x 5,540,000 5,410.16 5.28 36x
5x 6,925,000 6,762.70 6.60 45x
6x 8,310,000 8,115.23 7.93 54x
8x 11,080,000 10,820.31 10.57 --
10x 13,850,000 13,525.39 13.21 --
12x 16,620,000 16,230.47 15.85 --
16x 22,160,000 21,640.63 21.13 --

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 Project
• Best PC Intel based
• Best Value PC
• Best PC AMD based
• Best Laptop
• Best Value Laptop

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Circuit Diagram for SMPS

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