Chapter 4: Network Layer

Chapter goals:
 understand principles behind network layer
services:
 network layer service models
 forwarding versus routing
 how a router works
 routing (path selection)
 broadcast, multicast
 instantiation, implementation in the Internet

Network Layer 4-1

Chapter 4: Network Layer
4. 1 Introduction 4.5 Routing algorithms
4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
datagram networks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
4.3 What’s inside a
router 4.6 Routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
4.7 Broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-2

Network layer
 transport segment from sending to receiving host application
 on sending side encapsulates segments into transport
datagrams network
data link
 on rcving side, delivers segments to transport physical
layer network network
 network layer protocols in every host, router network
data link data link
physical physical
 router examines header fields in all IP datagrams data link
passing through it physical network network
data link data link
physical physical

network network
data link data link
physical physical
network
data link
physical
application
network transport
data link network
network
physical data link
network data link
physical
data link physical
physical

Network Layer 4-3

Two Key Network-Layer Functions

 forwarding: move analogy:

packets from router’s
 routing: process of
input to appropriate
router output planning trip from
source to dest
 routing: determine
 forwarding: process
route taken by
packets from source of getting through
to dest. single interchange

 routing algorithms

Network Layer 4-4

Interplay between routing and forwarding

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-5

Datagram networks
 no call setup at network layer
 routers: no state about end-to-end connections
 no network-level concept of “connection”
 packets forwarded using destination host address
 packets between same source-dest pair may take different
paths

application
application
transport
transport
network
data link 1. Send data 2. Receive data network
data link
physical
physical

Network Layer 4-6

Datagram Forwarding
table
routing algorithm 4 billion IP addresses, so
rather than list individual
destination address
local forwarding table
dest address output list range of addresses
address-range 1 3 link (aggregate table entries)
address-range 2 2
address-range 3 2
address-range 4 1

IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1

3 2

Network Layer 4-7

Datagram Forwarding table
Destination Address Range Link Interface

11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

through 0
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

through 1
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

through 2
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111

otherwise 3

Q: but what happens if ranges don’t divide up so nicely?

Network Layer 4-8
Datagram or VC network: why?
Internet (datagram) ATM (VC)
 data exchange among  evolved from telephony
computers  human conversation:
 “elastic” service, no strict
timing req.
 strict timing, reliability
requirements
 “smart” end systems
(computers)  need for guaranteed
 can adapt, perform control, service
error recovery  “dumb” end systems
 simple inside network,  telephones
complexity at “edge”  complexity inside
 many link types network
 different characteristics
 uniform service difficult

Network Layer 4-9

ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol

 used by hosts & routers to

communicate network-level Type Code description
information 0 0 echo reply (ping)
3 0 dest. network unreachable
 error reporting:
3 1 dest host unreachable
unreachable host, network, 3 2 dest protocol unreachable
port, protocol 3 3 dest port unreachable
 echo request/reply (used 3 6 dest network unknown
by ping) 3 7 dest host unknown
 network-layer “above” IP: 4 0 source quench (congestion
 ICMP msgs carried in IP control - not used)
datagrams 8 0 echo request (ping)
9 0 route advertisement
 ICMP message: type, code plus
10 0 router discovery
first 8 bytes of IP datagram
11 0 TTL expired
causing error
12 0 bad IP header

Network Layer 4-10

Traceroute and ICMP
 Source sends series of  when ICMP message
UDP segments to dest arrives, source calculates
 first has TTL =1 RTT
 second has TTL=2, etc.  traceroute does this 3
 unlikely port number times
 When nth datagram arrives Stopping criterion
to nth router:  UDP segment eventually
 router discards datagram arrives at destination host
 and sends to source an  destination returns ICMP
ICMP message (type 11, “port unreachable” packet
code 0)
(type 3, code 3)
 ICMP message includes
 when source gets this
name of router & IP
address ICMP, stops.

Network Layer 4-11

Chapter 4: Network Layer
4. 1 Introduction 4.5 Routing algorithms
4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
datagram networks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
4.3 What’s inside a
router 4.6 Routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 Broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-12

Chapter 4: Network Layer
4. 1 Introduction 4.5 Routing algorithms
4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
datagram networks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
4.3 What’s inside a
router 4.6 Routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 Broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-13

Interplay between routing, forwarding

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-14

Graph abstraction
5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
Graph: G = (N,E)
x 1
y

N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }

E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

Remark: Graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts

Example: P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections

Network Layer 4-15

Graph abstraction: costs
5
• c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3
v w 5
2 - e.g., c(w,z) = 5
u 2 1 z
3 • cost could always be 1, or
1 2 inversely related to bandwidth,
x 1
y
or inversely related to
congestion

Cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

Question: What’s the least-cost path between u and z ?

Routing algorithm: algorithm that finds least-cost path

Network Layer 4-16

Routing Algorithm classification
Global or decentralized Static or dynamic?
information?
Static:
Global:
 all routers have complete  routes change slowly
topology, link cost info over time
 “link state” algorithms
Dynamic:
Decentralized:
 routes change more
 router knows physically-
connected neighbors, link quickly
costs to neighbors  periodic update
 iterative process of
computation, exchange of info
 in response to link
with neighbors cost changes
 “distance vector” algorithms

Network Layer 4-17

Chapter 4: Network Layer
4. 1 Introduction 4.5 Routing algorithms
4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
datagram networks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
4.3 What’s inside a
router 4.6 Routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 Broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-18

A Link-State Routing Algorithm

Dijkstra’s algorithm Notation:

 net topology, link costs  c(x,y): link cost from node
known to all nodes x to y; = ∞ if not direct
 accomplished via “link neighbors
state broadcast”
 D(v): current value of cost
 all nodes have same info
of path from source to
 computes least cost paths dest. v
from one node (‘source”) to
all other nodes  p(v): predecessor node
 gives forwarding table along path from source to v
for that node  N': set of nodes whose
 iterative: after k iterations, least cost path definitively
know least cost path to k known
dest.’s

Network Layer 4-19

Dijsktra’s Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u
5 then D(v) = c(u,v)
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'

Network Layer 4-20

Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z)
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z)
0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞
1 uw 6,w 5,u 11,w ∞
2 uwx 6,w 11,w 14,x
3 uwxv 10,v 14,x
4 uwxvy 12,y
5 uwxvyz x
9

Notes: 5 7
4
 construct shortest path
8
tree by tracing
predecessor nodes 3 w z
u y
2
 ties can exist (can be
broken arbitrarily) 3
7 4
v
Network Layer 4-21
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

Network Layer 4-22

Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (2)
Resulting shortest-path tree from u:

v w
u z
x y

Resulting forwarding table in u:

destination link
v (u,v)
x (u,x)
y (u,x)
w (u,x)
z (u,x)
Network Layer 4-23
 Dijkstra’s algorithm, discussion
Algorithm complexity: n nodes
 each iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N
 n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
 more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)

Oscillations possible:
 e.g., link cost = amount of carried traffic

1 A A A A
1+e 2+e 0 0 2+e 2+e 0
D 0 0 B D 1+e 1 B D B D 1+e 1 B
0 0
0 e 0 0 1 1+e 0 e
1
C C C C
1
e
… recompute … recompute … recompute
initially
routing
24
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
datagram networks  Distance Vector

25
Distance Vector Algorithm
Bellman-Ford Equation (dynamic programming)
Define
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y

Then

dx(y) = min
v
{c(x,v) + dv(y) }

where min is taken over all neighbors v of x

26
Bellman-Ford example
5
3
Clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z B-F equation says:
3
1 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
2
1
xy
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
Node that achieves minimum is next
hop in shortest path ➜ forwarding table

27
Distance Vector Algorithm
 Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to y
 x maintains distance vector Dx = [Dx(y): y є N ]
 node x:
 knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v)
 maintains its neighbors’ distance vectors.
For each neighbor v, x maintains
Dv = [Dv(y): y є N ]

28
Distance vector algorithm (4)
Basic idea:
 from time-to-time, each node sends its own
distance vector estimate to neighbors
 when x receives new DV estimate from neighbor,
it updates its own DV using B-F equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

 under minor, natural conditions, the estimate Dx(y)

converge to the actual least cost dx(y)

29
Distance Vector Algorithm (5)
Iterative, asynchronous: Each node:
each local iteration caused
by:
 local link cost change wait for (change in local link
cost or msg from neighbor)
 DV update message from
neighbor
Distributed: recompute estimates
 each node notifies
neighbors only when its DV
changes if DV to any dest has
 neighbors then notify changed, notify neighbors
their neighbors if
necessary

30
 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
node x table = min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
cost to cost to
x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0
node y table
cost to
x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞
x z
from

y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞
node z table
cost to
x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 71 0
time
31
 Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)} Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
node x table = min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3
from

from

from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y table
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from
from

from
y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node z table
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z

x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
z 71 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
32
 Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes: 1
 node detects local link cost change y
4 1
 updates routing info, recalculates x z
distance vector 50
 if DV changes, notify neighbors

t0 : y detects link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its

neighbors.
“good
t1 : z receives update from y, updates its table, computes
news
new least cost to x , sends its neighbors its DV.
travels
fast” t2 : y receives z’s update, updates its distance table. y’s least
costs do not change, so y does not send a message to z.

33
Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes:
 good news travels fast
 bad news travels slow - “count to infinity” problem! 60
 44 iterations before algorithm stabilizes: see text
y
Poisoned reverse:
 If Z routes through Y to get to X :
4 1
 Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is infinite (so Y won’t route to X via Z)
x z
50
 will this completely solve count to infinity problem?

34
Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
Message complexity Robustness: what happens if
 LS: with n nodes, E links, O(nE) router malfunctions?
msgs sent LS:
 DV: exchange between  node can advertise incorrect
neighbors only link cost
 convergence time varies  each node computes only its
own table
Speed of Convergence
 LS: O(n2) algorithm requires
DV:
O(nE) msgs  DV node can advertise
incorrect path cost
 may have oscillations
 each node’s table used by
 DV: convergence time varies others
 may be routing loops • error propagate thru
 count-to-infinity problem network

35
Chapter 4: Network Layer
4. 1 Introduction 4.5 Routing algorithms
4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
datagram networks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing

4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 Routing in the

 Datagram format
Internet
 RIP
 IPv4 addressing
 OSPF
 ICMP
 BGP
4.7 Broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-36

Interconnected ASes

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
1d AS1  forwarding table
configured by both
intra- and inter-AS
Intra-AS
Routing
Inter-AS
Routing routing algorithm
algorithm algorithm
 intra-AS sets entries
Forwarding for internal dests
table
 inter-AS & intra-As
sets entries for
external dests
Network Layer 4-37
 Inter-AS tasks
AS1 must:
 suppose router in AS1
receives datagram 1. learn which dests are
destined outside of reachable through
AS1: AS2, which through
AS3
 router should
forward packet to 2. propagate this
gateway router, but reachability info to all
which one? routers in AS1
job of inter-AS routing!
3c
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other
1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-38

 Example: Setting forwarding table in router 1d
 suppose AS1 learns (via inter-AS protocol) that subnet
x reachable via AS3 (gateway 1c) but not via AS2.
 inter-AS protocol propagates reachability info to all internal
routers
 router 1d determines from intra-AS routing info that
its interface I is on the least cost path to 1c.
 installs forwarding table entry (x,I)

3c … x
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other
1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-39

Example: Choosing among multiple ASes
 now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that
subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
 to configure forwarding table, router 1d must
determine which gateway it should forward packets
towards for dest x
 this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!

3c … x …
3b
3a …
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other
1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
?
Network Layer 4-40
Example: Choosing among multiple ASes
 now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that
subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
 to configure forwarding table, router 1d must
determine towards which gateway it should forward
packets for dest x.
 this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!
 hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of
two routers.

Use routing info Determine from

Learn from inter-AS Hot potato routing: forwarding table the
from intra-AS
protocol that subnet Choose the interface I that leads
protocol to
x is reachable via gateway to least-cost gateway.
determine
multiple gateways that has the Enter (x,I) in
costs of least-cost
smallest least cost forwarding table
paths to each
of the gateways

Network Layer 4-41

Chapter 4: Network Layer
4. 1 Introduction 4.5 Routing algorithms
4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
datagram networks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
4.3 What’s inside a
router 4.6 Routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 Broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-42

Intra-AS Routing

 also known as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP)

 most common Intra-AS routing protocols:

 RIP: Routing Information Protocol

 OSPF: Open Shortest Path First

 IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (Cisco

proprietary)

Network Layer 4-43

 RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)
 included in BSD-UNIX distribution in 1982
 distance vector algorithm
 distance metric: # hops (max = 15 hops), each link has cost 1
 DVs exchanged with neighbors every 30 sec in response message (aka advertisement)
 each advertisement: list of up to 25 destination subnets (in IP addressing sense)

from router A to destination subnets:

u v subnet hops
w u 1
A B
v 2
w 2
x x 3
z C D y 3
y z 2
Network Layer 4-44
RIP: Example

z
w x y
A D B

C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-45
RIP: Example A-to-D advertisement
dest next hops
w - 1
x - 1
z C 4
…. … ... z
w x y
A D B

C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
A 5
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-46
RIP: Link Failure and Recovery
If no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
 routes via neighbor invalidated
 new advertisements sent to neighbors
 neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if
tables changed)
 link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire net
 poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops
(infinite distance = 16 hops)

Network Layer 4-47

RIP Table processing

 RIP routing tables managed by application-level

process called route-d (daemon)
 advertisements sent in UDP packets, periodically
repeated
routed routed

Transport Transprt
(UDP) (UDP)
network forwarding forwarding network
(IP) table table (IP)
link link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-48

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
 “open”: publicly available
 uses Link State algorithm
 LS packet dissemination
 topology map at each node
 route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm

 OSPF advertisement carries one entry per neighbor

router
 advertisements disseminated to entire AS (via
flooding)
 carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather than TCP
or UDP

Network Layer 4-49

OSPF “advanced” features (not in RIP)
 security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to
prevent malicious intrusion)
 multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path in
RIP)
 for each link, multiple cost metrics for different
TOS (e.g., satellite link cost set “low” for best effort
ToS; high for real time ToS)
 integrated uni- and multicast support:
 Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology data
base as OSPF
 hierarchical OSPF in large domains.

Network Layer 4-50

Hierarchical OSPF
boundary router
backbone router

backbone
area
border
routers

Area 3

internal
routers
Area 1
Area 2

Network Layer 4-51

Hierarchical OSPF
 two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
 link-state advertisements only in area
 each nodes has detailed area topology; only know
direction (shortest path) to nets in other areas.
 area border routers: “summarize” distances to nets
in own area, advertise to other Area Border routers.
 backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
 boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.

Network Layer 4-52

Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto
inter-domain routing protocol
 “glue that holds the Internet together”
 BGP provides each AS a means to:
 eBGP: obtain subnet reachability information from
neighboring ASs.
 iBGP: propagate reachability information to all AS-
internal routers.
 determine “good” routes to other networks based on
reachability information and policy.
 allows subnet to advertise its existence to rest of
Internet: “I am here”

Network Layer 4-53

 BGP basics
 BGP session: two BGP routers (“peers”) exchange BGP
messages:
 advertising paths to different destination network prefixes
(“path vector” protocol)
 exchanged over semi-permanent TCP connections
 when AS3 advertises a prefix to AS1:
 AS3 promises it will forward datagrams towards that prefix
 AS3 can aggregate prefixes in its advertisement

3c
BGP
3a message
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other
1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-54

BGP basics: distributing path information
 using eBGP session between 3a and 1c, AS3 sends prefix
reachability info to AS1.
 1c can then use iBGP do distribute new prefix info to all routers in
AS1
 1b can then re-advertise new reachability info to AS2 over 1b-to-
2a eBGP session
 when router learns of new prefix, it creates entry for
prefix in its forwarding table.

eBGP session
3a iBGP session
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other
1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-55

Path attributes & BGP routes
 advertised prefix includes BGP attributes
 prefix + attributes = “route”
 two important attributes:
 AS-PATH: contains ASs through which prefix advertisement
has passed: e.g., AS 67, AS 17
 NEXT-HOP: indicates specific internal-AS router to next-
hop AS. (may be multiple links from current AS to next-hop-
AS)
 gateway router receiving route advertisement uses
import policy to accept/decline
 e.g., never route through AS x
 policy-based routing

Network Layer 4-56

BGP route selection
 router may learn about more than 1 route
to destination AS, selects route based on:
1. local preference value attribute: policy
decision
2. shortest AS-PATH
3. closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
4. additional criteria

Network Layer 4-57

BGP messages
 BGP messages exchanged between peers over TCP
connection
 BGP messages:
 OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and
authenticates sender
 UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws old)
 KEEPALIVE: keeps connection alive in absence of
UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
 NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg;
also used to close connection

Network Layer 4-58

BGP routing policy
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:
Y

 A,B,C are provider networks

 X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
 X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
 X does not want to route from B via X to C
 .. so X will not advertise to B a route to C

Network Layer 4-59

BGP routing policy (2)
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:
Y

 A advertises path AW to B
 B advertises path BAW to X
 Should B advertise path BAW to C?
 No way! B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAW since neither
W nor C are B’s customers
 B wants to force C to route to w via A
 B wants to route only to/from its customers!

Network Layer 4-60

Why different Intra- and Inter-AS routing ?

Policy:
 Inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic
routed, who routes through its net.
 Intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions needed
Scale:
 hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update
traffic
Performance:
 Intra-AS: can focus on performance
 Inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance

Network Layer 4-61

Chapter 4: summary
4. 1 Introduction 4.5 Routing algorithms
4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
datagram networks  Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
4.3 What’s inside a
router 4.6 Routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
 RIP
 Datagram format
 OSPF
 IPv4 addressing
 BGP
 ICMP
 IPv6

Network Layer 4-62