Electrical Machines

EE-260

Instructor: Dr Alina Mirza

Department of Electrical Engineering, Military College of Signals
National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST)
Assumptions to Convert a Real Transformer
into Ideal Transformer
1. The core must have no hysteresis or Real
eddy current.
2. The Magnetization curve must be
an ideal one.
3. The leakage flux in the core must be
zero, (i.e. all the flux in the core
couples both the windings).
4. The resistance of the transformer
winding must be zero. Ideal

2
 The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
The losses that occur in real transformers have to be accounted for in any
accurate model of transformer behavior. The major losses are:
1. Copper Losses( I2R): The resistive heating losses in the primary and
secondary winding of the transformer. They are proportional to the
square of the current in the winding.
2. Eddy Current Losses: These are resistive heating losses in the core and
are proportional to the square of the voltage applied to the transformer.
3. Hysteresis losses: These are associated with the rearrangement of the
magnetic domains in the core during each half cycle and are nonlinear
function of applied voltage.
4. Leakage Flux(φLP φLS): The fluxes which escape the core and pass only
through one of the transformer winding. These escaped fluxes produce
a self inductance in the primary and secondary coil.
 The Exact Equivalent Circuit Model
(cont…
1.Copper Losses
The resistive copper losses are modeled by placing a resistance R P in
the primary and RS in the secondary winding of the transformer.
 The Exact Equivalent Circuit Model
(cont…
2. Leakage Flux
The flux which escapes the core and passes only through one of the transformer
winding.
d LP d LS
eLP (t )  N P & eLS (t )  N s
dt dt
 LP  (  N P )iP &  LS  (  N S )iS

d di p
eLP (t )  N p (  N P )iP  N p 
2 LP: leakage inductance of primary coil
dt dt
di p LS:leakage inductance of secondary coil
eLP (t )  L p LP  N P2 
dt
d di Therefore, Leakage flux will be
eLS (t )  N S (  N S )iS  N S 2  S modeled by primary and
dt dt
secondary inductances.
diS
eLS (t )  LS LS  N S2 
dt
 The Exact Equivalent Circuit Model
(cont…
Leakage flux modeled by primary and secondary
inductances LP and LS.
 Review The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer

Excitation current, Io= Iex= Ic + IM (Vector sum)

Core-loss current IC = Ih+e Magnetization current IM

(current required to make up (current required to produce
for hysteresis and eddy current flux in the core) - Inductive
losses) - Resistive Ic VP
No-Load Current
I0 Mutual Flux 
qo
VS Open
VP VP
(No-Load)
IM
Io
Note: The eddy currents will be maximum  Ic = Ih+e = Core loss  VP
when the core flux is passing through zero
(ieddy leads  by 900 ). Why? IM  
 The Exact Equivalent Circuit Model
(cont…
3. (Eddy Current +Hysteresis Losses): The core loss current, ih+e, is proportional
to voltage applied to the core and is in phase with voltage. Therefore, can be
modeled by Rc across primary.
4. The Magnetization Current: Is proportional to the voltage applied to the core
(in unsaturated region) and is lagging the applied voltage by 90o. So it can be
modeled by a reactance connected across the winding, represented by X M.
 The Exact Equivalent Circuit Model (cont..

 The XM & RC represent the excitation effect which includes the core loss
current (eddy + hysteresis) and the magnetization current.

 The XM & RC are placed inside, after LP and RP, because the voltage applied
to the core is input voltage less the internal voltage drop of the winding.
 Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer
(cont…
• To analyze practical circuits containing transformers, it is important to
convert the entire circuit to a single voltage level.
• Therefore, the circuit must be referred either to primary or to its
secondary side.
Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer
(cont..

Transformer Model Referred to its Primary Voltage

Transformer Model Referred to its Secondary Voltage

 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
IO is small (at rated voltage IO=3-5% of rated current) compare to IP and
IS/a. WHY ?
RC & XM >>RP & XP
What makes RC (K) of very large value ? Core Lamination
What happens if the core is not properly laminated?
Hence assume IP=IS/a & the T/F circuit can be approximated as
IP RP jXP IS/a a2 RS a2 jXS

L lP IO
IC IM T/F model:
VP secondary is
RC
aVS
jXM referred to the
primary

Fig 2-18(a) Approximate T/F model referred to primary side

 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of a
Transformer
The excitation branch has a very small current compared to the load current, so
small that under normal circumstance it causes a completely negligible voltage drop
in RP and XP. Therefore, the excitation branch is moved to the front of the
transformer

a) Approximate Transformer Model b) Approximate Transformer Model Referred

Referred to Primary Side to Secondary Side
 Simplified Equivalent Circuit of a
Transformer
• Excitation branch adds complexity. However, current through this branch is
very small, as compared to the load current.
• It causes negligible voltage drop in the Rp and Xp and hence can be neglected.

Rp Xp
ReqP  R p  a 2 Rs X eqP  X p  a 2 X s ReqS  2
 Rs X eqS  2
 Xs
a a
Determining Transformer Model’s Parameters
The parameter of the transformer model i.e., the values of resistances and inductances can be
experimentally determined using two simple tests: The open circuit test and the short circuit test.
1.The Open Circuit Test: One of the winding is open circuited, and a full load rated voltage is
applied to the other side.
• This measurement is normally done on the low voltage side of transformer)
 (a). The Open Circuit Test
Rp & Xp are too small as compared to Rc and Xm. Approximately all the voltage drops across
the excitation impedance

Convenient to consider admittance

of the excitation branch and then
compute Rc and Xm.

Conductance of the core- loss resistor

The total excitation admittance is:

Susceptance of the magnetizing inductor

1 1
YE  j
Rc XM
 (a). The Open Circuit Test (cont…
Magnitude of YE referred to primary The admittance is

side
I OC
YE   
VOC
The P.F. for real transformer is always I OC
YE    cos 1 PF
lagging. Therefore: I lags V by θ VOC
Y E  A- jB

Finally RC and XM can be obtained

 (b) Short Circuit Test
• In this test the low voltage terminals of the transformer are short circuited.
• Apply a variable voltage source to high voltage side. Fairly low voltages are
applied on this side and are adjusted such that current in short circuited
winding is equal to rated current.
• Caution: Make sure to keep the applied voltage at a safe level, otherwise
you could burn the transformer’s winding.
• (this measurement is normally done on the high voltage side of transformer)
 (b) Short Circuit Test (cont…
• The input voltage, current, and power are measured.
• Negligible current flows through the excitation branch as the input
voltage is very low.
• Ignoring the excitation current, voltage drop can be attributed to series
elements in the circuit.

Magnitude and angle of the series impedances The series impedance ZSE is :
referred to the primary side of the transformer
is
VSC 0 VSC
Z SE    
VSC I SC    I SC
Z SE 
I SC
PSC P Z SE  Req  jX eq
PF  cos      cos 1 sc
VSC I SC I SCVSC
Z SE  ( RP  a 2 Rs )  j ( X P  a 2 X S )
Example 2-2:
The equivalent circuit impedance of a 20 kVA, 8000/240 V. 60 HZ transformer
are to be determined. The open circuit test was performed on the secondary
side of the transformer, and short circuit test was performed on the primary
side of the transformer, and the following data were taken. Find the impedance
of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary side, and sketch the
circuit.

Open-circuit test (on Short-circuit test (on primary)

secondary)
Voc= 240 V Vsc= 489 V

Ioc=7.133 A Isc= 2.5 A

Poc= 400 W Psc= 240 W

Example 2.2

2
1
Example 2.2

2
2
1. Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
Due to series impedance in the transformer,
the output voltage of the transformer varies
with the load even if input voltage remains
constant.

Full-load voltage regulation is a quantity that compares the output voltage of the
transformer at no load with the output voltage at full load
VS ,nl  VS , fl
VR   100%
VS , fl
Since at no load: VS  VP / a • Low voltage regulation means smaller
winding impedance.

• For an ideal transformer, VR = 0 %

23
 2. The Transformer Phasor Diagram
Fig 2-26 (page 101) Vector Dig
Lagging Power Factor IS -
VReq VjXeq
L Lagging
VP =ReqIS =XeqIS VS o Power Factor
a a Load
d

Phase relation
VP
between IS & VReq ?
Phase relation a
 VRe q  VjXeq  VS
between IS & VXeq ?
VS is assumed to be at
VP/a angle 0o ( VS-). All
other voltages & currents
are compared to this
reference
VReq
VjXeq
VS
IS VP/a > VS
Vp/a  Vsfl
% VR   100  Positive
?
Vsfl 24
Fig 2-27(a) Vector Dig 2. The Transformer Phasor Diagram
Unity Power Factor
IS (cont...
-
VReq VjXeq
L
VP =ReqIS =XeqIS o Unity
VS Power Factor
a a
d Load

VP
a
 VRe q  VjXeq  VS

VP/a

eq
V jX
VP/a > VS
Vp/a  Vsfl
% VR   100  ?
V Re
q IS VS
Fida Muhammad (Air University) Vsfl
Positive 25
Fig 2-27(a) Vector Dig
2. The Transformer Phasor Diagram
Leading PF
I  (cont… S

VReq VjXeq L
VP o Leading
=ReqIS =XeqIS VS
a Power Factor
a Load
d

VP
a
 VRe q  VjXeq  VS
VjXeq

VP/a
VP/a <VS
Vp/a  Vsfl
% VR   100  ?Negative
IS

Vsfl
VReq

VS 26
 3. Transformer Efficiency
e efficiency is given by:
Pout
 100%
Pin
Pout
 100%
Pout  Plosses

From the transformer equivalent circuit efficiency can be easily calculated

The power losses comprise At any given load efficiency can be

– Copper losses calculated as:
– Hystersis losses Pout  Vs I s Cos s
– Eddy current losses
Vs I s Cos s
  100
The efficiency for a power transformer is Pcu  Pcore  Vs I s Cos
between 0.9 to 0.99. 27
Example 2-5:
A 15 kVA, 2300/230-V transformer is to be tested to determine its excitation
branch components, its series impedance and its voltage regulation. The test
data listed in the table have been taken from the primary side of the
transformer.
The data have been taken by using the
connections shown in the following
Figures.
Open-ckt test Short-ckt test
Voc=2300 V Vsc=47 V

Ioc=0.21 A Isc=6.0 A

Poc= 50 W Psc= 160 W

2
Example 2-5:
a. Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the
high-voltage side.
b. Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the low-
voltage side.
c. Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging power
factor, 1.0 power factor, and at 0.8 leading power factor.
d. Plot the voltage regulation as load is increased from no load to
full load at power factors of 0.8 lagging, 1.0, and 0.8 leading.
e. What is the efficiency of the transformer at full load with a
power factor of 0.8 lagging?
Example 2-5: (Solution)
a.
The open-circuit impedance angle

The excitation admittance

The elements of the excitation

branch referred to the primary are

3
 Example 2-5: (Solution)
The short-circuit impedance angle

The equivalent series impedance

The series elements referred to The transformer equivalent circuit referred

the primary its primary side

31
Example 2-5: (Solution)
b. To find the equivalent circuit referred to the low-voltage side, the impedance is
divided by a2.
Since a = Np/Ns = 10, the resulting values are

The transformer equivalent circuit referred

its secondary side
6
Example 2-5: (Solution)
c.
Full -load current on the secondary side

From the circuit

The Voltage regulation is

7
Example 2-5: (Solution)

The Voltage regulation is

8
Example 2-5: (Solution)
c.
At PF = 1.0, current Is = 65.2 L 0° A

9
Example 2-5: (Solution)

10
Example 2-5: (Solution)
Plot of voltage regulation versus load
d.

11
Example 2-5: (Solution)
e.

To find the efficiency of the transformer. first calculate its losses.

The copper losses are:

The core losses are

The output power at 0.8 leading PF

12
PROBLEM
 Assignment 2
• Types of Transformers and their
application