Chapter 8

Relevant Costs for Decision Making

Learning Objective 1

Identify relevant and

irrelevant costs and
benefits in a decision.
Relevant Costs and Benefits

A relevant cost is a cost that differs

between alternatives.

A relevant benefit is a benefit that

differs between alternatives.
Identifying Relevant Costs
An avoidable cost is a cost that can be
eliminated, in whole or in part, by choosing
one alternative over another. Avoidable costs
are relevant costs. Unavoidable costs are
irrelevant costs.

Two broad categories of costs are never relevant in

any decision. They include:
 Sunk costs.
 A future cost that does not differ between the
alternatives.
Decision Making: A Two-Step Process

Step 1 Eliminate costs and benefits that do not differ

between alternatives.
Step 2 Use the remaining costs and benefits that
differ between alternatives in making the
decision. The costs that remain are the
differential, or avoidable, costs.
Different Costs for Different Purposes
Costs that are
relevant in one
decision situation
may not be relevant
in another context.
Thus, in each
decision situation,
the manager must
examine the data at
hand and isolate the
relevant costs.
Identifying Relevant Costs
Cynthia, a Boston student, is considering visiting her friend in New York.
She can drive or take the train. By car, it is 230 miles to her friend’s
apartment. She is trying to decide which alternative is less expensive
and has gathered the following information.
Automobile Costs (based on 10,000 miles driven per year)
Annual Cost Cost per
of Fixed Items Mile
1 Annual straight-line depreciation on car $ 2,800 $ 0.280
2 Cost of gasoline 0.100
3 Annual cost of auto insurance and license 1,380 0.138
4 Maintenance and repairs 0.065
5 Parking fees at school 360 0.036
6 Total average cost $ 0.619

$45
$45 per
per month
month ×× 88 months
months $2.70 per gallon ÷ 27 MPG

$24,000
$24,000 cost
cost –– $10,000
$10,000 salvage
salvage value
value ÷ 5 years
Identifying Relevant Costs
Automobile Costs (based on 10,000 miles driven per year)
Annual Cost Cost per
of Fixed Items Mile
1 Annual straight-line depreciation on car $ 2,800 $ 0.280
2 Cost of gasoline 0.100
3 Annual cost of auto insurance and license 1,380 0.138
4 Maintenance and repairs 0.065
5 Parking fees at school 360 0.036
6 Total average cost $ 0.619

Additional Information
7 Reduction in resale value of car per mile of wear $ 0.026
8 Round-tip train fare $ 104
9 Benefits of relaxing on train trip ????
10 Cost of putting dog in kennel while gone $ 40
11 Benefit of having car in New York ????
12 Hassle of parking car in New York ????
13 Per day cost of parking car in New York $ 25
Identifying Relevant Costs
Which costs and benefits are relevant in Cynthia’s
decision?

The cost of the The annual cost of

car is a sunk cost insurance is not
and is not relevant. It will remain
relevant to the the same if she drives
current decision. or takes the train.

However, the cost of gasoline is clearly relevant if she

decides to drive. If she takes the train, the cost would
not be incurred, so it varies depending on the decision.
Identifying Relevant Costs
Which costs and benefits are relevant in Cynthia’s
decision?

The cost of The monthly school

maintenance and parking fee is not
repairs is relevant. In relevant because it
the long-run these must be paid if Cynthia
costs depend upon drives or takes the
miles driven. train.

At this point, we can see that some of the average cost

of $0.619 per mile are relevant and others are not.
Identifying Relevant Costs
Which costs and benefits are relevant in Cynthia’s
decision?

The decline in resale The round-trip train

value due to additional fare is clearly relevant.
miles is a relevant If she drives the cost
cost. can be avoided.

Relaxing on the train is The kennel cost is not

relevant even though it relevant because
is difficult to assign a Cynthia will incur the
dollar value to the cost if she drives or
benefit. takes the train.
Identifying Relevant Costs
Which costs and benefits are relevant in Cynthia’s
decision?

The cost of parking in

New York is relevant
because it can be
avoided if she takes
the train.

The benefits of having a car in New York and

the problems of finding a parking space are
both relevant but are difficult to assign a
dollar amount.
Identifying Relevant Costs
From a financial standpoint, Cynthia would be better
off taking the train to visit her friend. Some of the
non-financial factors may influence her final decision.
Relevant Financial Cost of Driving
Gasoline (460 @ $0.100 per mile) $ 46.00
Maintenance (460 @ $0.065 per mile) 29.90
Reduction in resale (460 @ $0.026 per mile) 11.96
Parking in New York (2 days @ $25 per day) 50.00
Total $ 137.86

Relevant Financial Cost of Taking the Train

Round-trip ticket $ 104.00
 Total and Differential Cost Approaches
The management of a company is considering a new labor saving
machine that rents for $3,000 per year. Data about the company’s
annual sales and costs with and without the new machine are:
Situation Differential
Current With New Costs and
Situation Machine Benefits
Sales (5,000 units @ $40 per unit) $ 200,000 $ 200,000 -
Less variable expenses:
Direct materials (5,000 units @ $14 per unit) 70,000 70,000 -
Direct labor (5,000 units @ $8 and $5 per unit) 40,000 25,000 15,000
Variable overhead (5,000 units @ $2 per unit) 10,000 10,000 -
Total variable expenses 120,000 105,000 -
Contribution margin 80,000 95,000 15,000
Less fixed expense:
Other 62,000 62,000 -
Rent on new machine - 3,000 (3,000)
Total fixed expenses 62,000 65,000 (3,000)
Net operating income $ 18,000 $ 30,000 12,000
 Total and Differential Cost Approaches
As you can see, the only costs that differ between the
alternatives are the direct labor costs savings and the
increase in fixed rental costs.
Situation Differential
Current With New Costs and
Situation Machine Benefits
Sales (5,000 units @ $40 per unit) $ 200,000 $ 200,000 -
Less variable expenses:
We
Direct materials canunits
(5,000 efficiently analyze the
@ $14 per unit) decision 70,000
70,000 by -
Direct labor (5,000 units @ $8 and $5 per unit)
looking at the different costs 40,000 and revenues 25,000 15,000
Variable overhead (5,000 units @ $2 per unit) 10,000 10,000 -
Total variable expenses and arrive at the same 120,000 .
solution 105,000 -
Contribution margin 80,000 95,000 15,000
Less fixed expense: Net Advantage to Renting the New Machine
Decrease in direct labor costs (5,000 units @ $3 per unit) $ 15,000
Other 62,000 62,000 -
Increase in fixed rental expenses (3,000)
Rent on newNet machine
annual cost saving from renting the new machine
- $
3,000
12,000
(3,000)
Total fixed expenses 62,000 65,000 (3,000)
Net operating income $ 18,000 $ 30,000 12,000
Total and Differential Cost Approaches
Using the differential approach is desirable for
two reasons:
1. Only rarely will enough information be
available to prepare detailed income
statements for both alternatives.
2. Mingling irrelevant costs with relevant costs
may cause confusion and distract attention
away from the information that is really
critical.
Learning Objective 2

Prepare an analysis
showing whether a
product line or other
business segment
should be added or
dropped.
Adding/Dropping Segments
One of the most important
decisions managers make
is whether to add or drop a
business segment.
Ultimately, a decision to
drop an old segment or
add a new one is going to
hinge primarily on the To assess this
impact the decision will impact, it is
have on net operating necessary to
income. carefully analyze
the costs.
Adding/Dropping Segments

Due to the declining popularity of

digital watches, Lovell Company’s
digital watch line has not reported a
profit for several years. Lovell is
considering discontinuing this
product line.
A Contribution Margin Approach
DECISION RULE
Lovell should drop the digital watch
segment only if its profit would
increase.

Lovell will compare the contribution

margin that would be lost to the costs
that would be avoided if the line was to
be dropped.
Adding/Dropping Segments
Segment Income Statement
Digital Watches
Sales $ 500,000
Less: variable expenses
Variable manufacturing costs $ 120,000
Variable shipping costs 5,000
Commissions 75,000 200,000
Contribution margin $ 300,000
Less: fixed expenses
General factory overhead $ 60,000
Salary of line manager 90,000
Depreciation of equipment 50,000
Advertising - direct 100,000
Rent - factory space 70,000
General admin. expenses 30,000 400,000
Net operating loss $ (100,000)
Adding/Dropping Segments
Segment Income Statement
Digital Watches
Sales $ 500,000
An
Less:An investigation
investigation
variable expenses has
has revealed
revealed thatthat the
the fixed
fixed
Variable
general manufacturing
factory costs and
overhead $ 120,000
fixed general
general factory
Variable shipping costs
overhead and fixed
5,000
general
administrative
administrative expenses
Commissions expenses will will not
not be
be affected
75,000 affected by
by
200,000
dropping
dropping the
Contribution the digital
digital watch
margin watch line.
line. The
The fixed
fixed general
general
$ 300,000
factory
Less: overhead
overhead and
fixed expenses
factory and general
general administrative
administrative
General factory overhead $ 60,000
expenses
expenses
Salary
assigned
of line assigned
to this product
manager to this product
would be
90,000 would be
reallocated
reallocated
Depreciation to
to other
of equipment other product
product
50,000lines.
lines.
Advertising - direct 100,000
Rent - factory space 70,000
General admin. expenses 30,000 400,000
Net operating loss $ (100,000)
Adding/Dropping Segments
Segment Income Statement
Digital Watches
Sales $ 500,000
Less: variable expenses
The
The equipment
equipment
Variable used to
to manufacture
usedcosts
manufacturing manufacture
$ 120,000
digital
digital
Variable watches
watches
shipping has
costshas no
no resale
resale5,000
value
value or
Commissions or alternative
alternative use.
use. 75,000 200,000
Contribution margin $ 300,000
Less: fixed expenses
General factory overhead $ 60,000
Salary of line manager 90,000
Should
Should Lovell
Depreciation of equipment Lovell retain
retain or
50,000 or drop
drop
Advertising - direct the
the digital
digital watch
100,000segment?
watch segment?
Rent - factory space 70,000
General admin. expenses 30,000 400,000
Net operating loss $ (100,000)
A Contribution Margin Approach
Contribution Margin
Solution
Contribution margin lost if digital
  watches are dropped $ (300,000)
Less fixed costs that can be avoided
Salary of the line manager $ 90,000
Advertising - direct 100,000
Rent - factory space 70,000 260,000
Net disadvantage $ (40,000)

RRe
ettaai
inn
Comparative Income Approach

The Lovell solution can also be obtained

by preparing comparative income
statements showing results with and
without the digital watch segment.

Let’s look at this second approach.

 Comparative Income Approach
Solution
Keep Drop
Digital Digital
Watches Watches Difference
Sales $ 500,000 $ - $ (500,000)
Less variable expenses: -
Manufacturing expenses 120,000 - 120,000
Shipping 5,000 - 5,000
Commissions 75,000 - 75,000
Total variable expenses 200,000 - 200,000
Contribution margin 300,000 - (300,000)
Less fixed expenses:
General factory overhead 60,000
Salary of line manager 90,000
Depreciation 50,000 IfIf the
the digital
digital watch
watch
Advertising - direct 100,000
Rent - factory space 70,000
line
line is is dropped,
dropped, thethe
General admin. expenses 30,000 company
company loses
loses
Total fixed expenses 400,000 $300,000
$300,000 in in
Net operating loss $ (100,000)
contribution
contribution margin.
margin.
 Comparative Income Approach
Solution
Keep Drop
Digital Digital
Watches Watches Difference
Sales $ 500,000 $ - $ (500,000)
Less variable expenses: -
Manufacturing expenses 120,000 - 120,000
Shipping 5,000 - 5,000
Commissions 75,000 - 75,000
Total variable expenses 200,000 - 200,000
Contribution margin 300,000 - (300,000)
Less fixed expenses:
General factory overhead 60,000 60,000 -
Salary of line manager 90,000
Depreciation 50,000
Advertising - direct On the
the other
On 100,000 other hand,
hand, thethe general
general
Rent - factory space factory
factory overhead
overhead would
70,000 would bebe the
the
General admin. expenses 30,000
Total fixed expenses
same
same under
under both
400,000 both alternatives,
alternatives,
Net operating loss so
so itit is
$ (100,000) is irrelevant.
irrelevant.
 Comparative Income Approach
Solution
Keep Drop
Digital Digital
Watches Watches Difference
Sales $ 500,000 $ - $ (500,000)
Less variable expenses: -
The salary
Manufacturing expensesThe salary120,000
of
of the product- line
the product line 120,000
Shipping manager
manager would would5,000disappear,
disappear, - soso 5,000
Commissions itit is relevant 75,000
to the -
decision. 75,000
Total variable expenses
is relevant to
200,000
the decision.
- 200,000
Contribution margin 300,000 - (300,000)
Less fixed expenses:
General factory overhead 60,000 60,000 -
Salary of line manager 90,000 - 90,000
Depreciation 50,000
Advertising - direct 100,000
Rent - factory space 70,000
General admin. expenses 30,000
Total fixed expenses 400,000
Net operating loss $ (100,000)
 Comparative Income Approach
Solution
Keep Drop
Digital Digital
Watches Watches Difference
Sales $ 500,000 $ - $ (500,000)
The
The
Less depreciation
expenses: is
depreciation
variable is aa sunk
sunk cost.
cost. Also,
Also, remember
remember
- that
that
Manufacturing expenses 120,000 - 120,000
the
the equipment
equipment has
has nono resale
resale value
value or
or alternative
alternative use,
use,
Shipping 5,000 - 5,000
so
so the
Commissionsthe equipment
equipment and and the depreciation
depreciation -expense
the75,000 expense75,000
associated
associated
Total variable with
with itit are
expenses are irrelevant
200,000 to
irrelevant to the
the decision.
decision.
- 200,000
Contribution margin 300,000 - (300,000)
Less fixed expenses:
General factory overhead 60,000 60,000 -
Salary of line manager 90,000 - 90,000
Depreciation 50,000 50,000 -
Advertising - direct 100,000
Rent - factory space 70,000
General admin. expenses 30,000
Total fixed expenses 400,000
Net operating loss $ (100,000)
 Comparative Income Approach
Solution
Keep Drop
Digital Digital
Watches Watches Difference
Sales $ 500,000 $ - $ (500,000)
Less variable expenses: -
Manufacturing expenses 120,000 - 120,000
Shipping The
The complete 5,000 comparative
complete comparative
- 5,000
Commissions income
income statements
75,000
statements reveal
-
reveal that
that 75,000
Total variable expenses 200,000 - 200,000
Contribution margin Lovell
Lovell would
300,000earn
would earn $40,000
$40,000
- of
of (300,000)
Less fixed expenses: additional
additional profit
profit by
by retaining
retaining thethe
General factory overhead 60,000 60,000 -
digital
digital watch
watch line.
line.
Salary of line manager 90,000 - 90,000
Depreciation 50,000 50,000 -
Advertising - direct 100,000 - 100,000
Rent - factory space 70,000 - 70,000
General admin. expenses 30,000 30,000 -
Total fixed expenses 400,000 140,000 260,000
Net operating loss $ (100,000) $ (140,000) $ (40,000)
Beware of Allocated Fixed Costs
Why should we keep the
digital watch segment
when it’s showing a
$100,000 loss?
Beware of Allocated Fixed Costs

The answer lies in the

way we allocate
common fixed costs
to our products.
Beware of Allocated Fixed Costs

Including unavoidable Our allocations can

common fixed costs make a segment
makes the product line look less profitable
appear to be unprofitable. than it really is.
Learning Objective 3

Prepare a make or buy

analysis.
The Make or Buy Decision
When a company is involved in more than one
activity in the entire value chain, it is
vertically integrated. A decision to carry out
one of the activities in the value chain
internally, rather than to buy externally from
a supplier is called a “make or buy” decision.
Vertical Integration- Advantages

Smoother flow of
parts and materials

Better quality
control

Realize profits
Vertical Integration- Disadvantage
Companies may fail to
take advantage of
suppliers who can
create economies of
scale advantage by
pooling demand from
numerous companies.

While the economics of scale factor can be

appealing, a company must be careful to retain
control over activities that are essential to
maintaining its competitive position.
The Make or Buy Decision: An
Example
Essex Company manufactures part 4A that is used
in one of its products. The unit product cost of
this part is:

Direct materials $ 9
Direct labor 5
Variable overhead 1
Depreciation of special equip. 3
Supervisor's salary 2
General factory overhead 10
Unit product cost $ 30
The Make or Buy Decision
• The special equipment used to manufacture part
4A has no resale value.
• The total amount of general factory overhead,
which is allocated on the basis of direct labor
hours, would be unaffected by this decision.
• The $30 unit product cost is based on 20,000
parts produced each year.
• An outside supplier has offered to provide the
20,000 parts at a cost of $25 per part.

Should
Should we
we accept
accept the
the supplier’s
supplier’s offer?
offer?
The Make or Buy Decision
Cost
Per
Unit Cost of 20,000 Units
Make Buy
Outside purchase price $ 25 $ 500,000

Direct materials (20,000 units) $ 9 180,000

Direct labor 5 100,000
Variable overhead 1 20,000
Depreciation of equip. 3 -
Supervisor's salary 2 40,000
General factory overhead 10 -
Total cost $ 30 $ 340,000 $ 500,000

The avoidable costs associated with making part 4A include direct

materials, direct labor, variable overhead, and the supervisor’s salary.
The Make or Buy Decision
Cost
Per
Unit Cost of 20,000 Units
Make Buy
Outside purchase price $ 25 $ 500,000

Direct materials (20,000 units) $ 9 180,000

Direct labor 5 100,000
Variable overhead 1 20,000
Depreciation of equip. 3 -
Supervisor's salary 2 40,000
General factory overhead 10 -
Total cost $ 30 $ 340,000 $ 500,000

The
The depreciation
depreciation of
of the
the special
special equipment
equipment represents
represents aa sunk
sunk
cost.
cost. The
The equipment
equipment has
has no
no resale
resale value,
value, thus
thus its
its cost
cost and
and
associated
associated depreciation
depreciation are
are irrelevant
irrelevant to
to the
the decision.
decision.
The Make or Buy Decision
Cost
Per
Unit Cost of 20,000 Units
Make Buy
Outside purchase price $ 25 $ 500,000

Direct materials (20,000 units) $ 9 180,000

Direct labor 5 100,000
Variable overhead 1 20,000
Depreciation of equip. 3 -
Supervisor's salary 2 40,000
General factory overhead 10 -
Total cost $ 30 $ 340,000 $ 500,000

Not
Not avoidable;
avoidable; irrelevant.
irrelevant. IfIf the
the product
product is
is
dropped,
dropped, itit will
will be
be reallocated
reallocated toto other
other products.
products.
The Make or Buy Decision
Cost
Per
Unit Cost of 20,000 Units
Make Buy
Outside purchase price $ 25 $ 500,000

Direct materials (20,000 units) $ 9 180,000

Direct labor 5 100,000
Variable overhead 1 20,000
Depreciation of equip. 3 -
Supervisor's salary 2 40,000
General factory overhead 10 -
Total cost $ 30 $ 340,000 $ 500,000

Should we make or buy part 4A?

Given that the total avoidable costs are less than the cost of
buying the part, Essex should continue to make the part.
Opportunity Cost

An opportunity cost is the benefit that is

foregone as a result of pursuing some
course of action.
Opportunity costs are not actual cash outlays
and are not recorded in the formal accounts
of an organization.
Learning Objective 4

Prepare an analysis
showing whether a
special order should be
accepted.
Key Terms and Concepts
A special order is a one-time
order that is not considered
part of the company’s normal
ongoing business.

When analyzing a special

order, only the incremental
costs and benefits are
relevant.
Since the existing fixed
manufacturing overhead costs
would not be affected by the
order, they are not relevant.
Special Orders
 Jet Inc. makes a single product whose normal
selling price is $20 per unit.
 A foreign distributor offers to purchase 3,000 units
for $10 per unit.
 This is a one-time order that would not affect the
company’s regular business.
 Annual capacity is 10,000 units, but Jet Inc. is
currently producing and selling only 5,000 units.
Should Jet accept the offer?
Special Orders

$8 variable cost
 Special Orders
If Jet accepts the special order, the incremental
revenue will exceed the incremental costs. In other
words, net operating income will increase by $6,000.
This suggests that Jet should accept the order.

Increase in revenue (3,000 × $10) $ 30,000

Increase in costs (3,000 × $8 variable cost) 24,000
Increase in net income $ 6,000

Note: This answer assumes that the fixed costs are

unavoidable and that variable marketing costs must be
incurred on the special order.
Quick Check 
Northern Optical ordinarily sells the X-lens for
$50. The variable production cost is $10, the
fixed production cost is $18 per unit, and the
variable selling cost is $1. A customer has
requested a special order for 10,000 units of the
X-lens to be imprinted with the customer’s logo.
This special order would not involve any selling
costs, but Northern Optical would have to
purchase an imprinting machine for $50,000.
(see the next page)
Quick Check 
What is the rock bottom minimum price below
which Northern Optical should not go in its
negotiations with the customer? In other words,
below what price would Northern Optical actually
be losing money on the sale? There is ample
idle capacity to fulfill the order and the imprinting
machine has no further use after this order.
a. $50
b. $10
c. $15
d. $29
Quick Check 
What is the rock bottom minimum price below
which Northern Optical should not go in its
negotiations with the customer? In other words,
below what price would Northern Optical actually
be losing money on the sale? There is ample
idle capacity to fulfill the order and the imprinting
machine Variable
has no further use after
production this order.
cost $100,000
a. $50 Additional fixed cost + 50,000
b. $10 Total relevant cost $150,000
c. $15 Number of units 10,000
d. $29 Average cost per unit= $15
Learning Objective 5

Determine the most

profitable use of a
constrained resource.
Key Terms and Concepts
When a limited resource of
some type restricts the
company’s ability to satisfy
demand, the company is said
to have a constraint.

The machine or process

that is limiting overall
output is called the
bottleneck – it is the
constraint.
Utilization of a Constrained Resource
• Fixed costs are usually unaffected in these
situations, so the product mix that maximizes the
company’s total contribution margin should
ordinarily be selected.
• A company should not necessarily promote those
products that have the highest unit contribution
margins.
• Rather, total contribution margin will be maximized
by promoting those products or accepting those
orders that provide the highest contribution margin
in relation to the constraining resource.
Utilization of a Constrained Resource:
An Example
Ensign Company produces two products and
selected data are shown below:
Utilization of a Constrained Resource:
An Example
• Machine A1 is the constrained resource and
is being used at 100% of its capacity.
• There is excess capacity on all other
machines.
• Machine A1 has a capacity of 2,400 minutes
per week.

Should
Should Ensign
Ensign focus
focus its
its efforts
efforts on
on
Product
Product 11 or
or Product
Product 2?2?
Quick Check 

How many units of each product can be

processed through Machine A1 in one
minute?
Product 1 Product 2
a. 1 unit 0.5 unit
b. 1 unit 2.0 units
c. 2 units 1.0 unit
d. 2 units 0.5 unit
Quick Check 

How many units of each product can be

processed through Machine A1 in one
minute?
Product 1 Product 2
a. 1 unit 0.5 unit
b. 1 unit 2.0 units
c. 2 units 1.0 unit
d. 2 units 0.5 unit
Quick Check 
What generates more profit for the company,
using one minute of machine A1 to process
Product 1 or using one minute of machine A1 to
process Product 2?
a. Product 1
b. Product 2
c. They both would generate the same profit.
d. Cannot be determined.
Quick Check 
What generates more profit for the company,
using one minute of machine A1 to process
Product 1 or using one minute of machine A1 to
process Product 2?
a. Product 1
b. Product 2
c. They bothminute
With one would of
generate
machinetheA1,
same profit.
Ensign could
d. Cannot
make 1 be determined.
unit of Product 1, with a contribution
margin of $24, or 2 units of Product 2, each with a
contribution margin of $15 per unit.
2 × $15 = $30 > $24
Utilization of a Constrained Resource
The key is the contribution margin per unit of the
constrained resource.

Ensign should emphasize Product 2 because it

generates a contribution margin of $30 per minute
of the constrained resource relative to $24 per
minute for Product 1.
Utilization of a Constrained Resource
The key is the contribution margin per unit of the
constrained resource.

Ensign
Ensign can
can maximize
maximize its
its contribution
contribution margin
margin
by
by first
first producing
producing Product
Product 22 to
to meet
meet customer
customer
demand
demand and
and then
then using
using any
any remaining
remaining
capacity
capacity to
to produce
produce Product
Product 1.
1. The
The
calculations
calculations would
would bebe performed
performed as as follows.
follows.
Utilization of a Constrained Resource
Let’s see how this plan would work.
Alloting
AllotingOur
Our Constrained
ConstrainedResource
Resource(Machine
(MachineA1)
A1)

Weekly
Weeklydemand
demandfor
for Product
Product 22 2,200
2,200 units
units
Time
Timerequired
requiredper
per unit
unit ×× 0.50
0.50 min.
min.
Total
Totaltime
timerequired
requiredtotomake
make
Product
Product 22 1,100
1,100 min.
min.
Utilization of a Constrained Resource
Let’s see how this plan would work.
Alloting
AllotingOur
Our Constrained
ConstrainedResource
Resource(Machine
(MachineA1)
A1)

Weekly
Weeklydemand
demandfor
for Product
Product 22 2,200
2,200 units
units
Time
Timerequired
requiredper
per unit
unit ×× 0.50
0.50 min.
min.
Total
Totaltime
timerequired
requiredtotomake
make
Product
Product 22 1,100
1,100 min.
min.

Total
Totaltime
timeavailable
available 2,400
2,400 min.
min.
Time
Timeused
usedtotomake
makeProduct
Product 22 1,100
1,100 min.
min.
Time
Timeavailable
availablefor
for Product
Product 11 1,300
1,300 min.
min.
Utilization of a Constrained Resource
Let’s see how this plan would work.
Alloting
AllotingOur
Our Constrained
ConstrainedResource
Resource(Machine
(MachineA1)
A1)

Weekly
Weeklydemand
demandfor
for Product
Product 22 2,200
2,200 units
units
Time
Timerequired
requiredper
per unit
unit ×× 0.50
0.50 min.
min.
Total
Totaltime
timerequired
requiredtotomake
make
Product
Product 22 1,100
1,100 min.
min.

Total
Totaltime
timeavailable
available 2,400
2,400 min.
min.
Time
Timeused
usedtotomake
makeProduct
Product 22 1,100
1,100 min.
min.
Time
Timeavailable
availablefor
for Product
Product 11 1,300
1,300 min.
min.
Time
Timerequired
requiredper
per unit
unit ÷÷ 1.00
1.00 min.
min.
Production
Productionof ofProduct
Product 11 1,300
1,300 units
units
Utilization of a Constrained Resource
According to the plan, we will produce 2,200
units of Product 2 and 1,300 of Product 1.
Our contribution margin looks like this.

Product 1 Product 2
Production and sales (units) 1,300 2,200
Contribution margin per unit $ 24 $ 15
Total contribution margin $ 31,200 $ 33,000

The total contribution margin for Ensign is $64,200.

Learning Objective 6

Determine the value of

obtaining more of the
constrained resource.
Value of a Constrained Resource
Increasing the capacity
of a constrained
resource should lead to
increased production
and sales.

How much should

Ensign be willing to pay
for an additional minute
of A1 machine time?
Value of a Constrained Resource
The additional machine time would be used to
make more units of Product 1, which had a
contribution margin per minute of $24.

Ensign should be willing to pay up to $24

per minute. This amount equals the
contribution margin per minute of machine
time that would be eared producing more
units of Product 1.
Quick Check 
Colonial Heritage makes reproduction colonial
furniture from select hardwoods.
Chairs Tables
Selling price per unit $80 $400
Variable cost per unit $30 $200
Board feet per unit 2 10
Monthly demand 600 100

The company’s supplier of hardwood will only

be able to supply 2,000 board feet this month. Is
this enough hardwood to satisfy demand?
a. Yes
b. No
Quick Check 
Colonial Heritage makes reproduction colonial
furniture from select hardwoods.
Chairs Tables
Selling price per unit $80 $400
Variable cost per unit $30 $200
Board feet per unit 2 10
Monthly demand 600 100

The company’s supplier of hardwood will only

be able to supply 2,000 board feet this month. Is
this enough hardwood to satisfy demand?
a. Yes
b. No (2  600) + (10  100 ) = 2,200 > 2,000
Quick Check 
Chairs Tables
Selling price per unit $80 $400
Variable cost per unit $30 $200
Board feet per unit 2 10
Monthly demand 600 100

The company’s supplier of hardwood will only

be able to supply 2,000 board feet this month.
What plan would maximize profits?
a. 500 chairs and 100 tables
b. 600 chairs and 80 tables
c. 500 chairs and 80 tables
d. 600 chairs and 100 tables
Quick Check 
Chairs Tables
Selling price per unit $80 Chairs Tables
$400
Variable cost per unit price
Selling $30 $200$ 80 $ 400
Board feet per unit 2 10
Monthly demand
Variable cost
600 100
30 200
Contribution margin $ 50 $ 200
Board feet
The company’s supplier 2
of hardwood will only 10
CM per
be able to supply 2,000 boardfeet
board foot this$month.
25 $ 20
What plan would maximize profits?
a. 500 chairs and 100 tables of chairs
Production 600
Board
b. 600 chairs and 80 feet required
tables 1,200
Board
c. 500 chairs and 80 feet remaining
tables 800
Board
d. 600 chairs and 100 feet per table
tables 10
Production of tables 80
Quick Check 
As before, Colonial Heritage’s supplier of hardwood
will only be able to supply 2,000 board feet this
month. Assume the company follows the plan we
have proposed. Up to how much should Colonial
Heritage be willing to pay above the usual price to
obtain more hardwood?
a. $40 per board foot
b. $25 per board foot
c. $20 per board foot
d. Zero
Quick Check 
The additional
As before, wood
Colonial wouldsupplier
Heritage’s be used of to make
hardwood
will tables.
only be able to supply
In this 2,000board
use, each board feet
footthis
of
month. Assume
additional woodthe willcompany follows
allow the the plan
company towe
earn
have proposed. Up to how much should Colonial
an additional $20 of contribution margin and
Heritage be willing to pay above the usual price to
obtain more hardwood? profit.
a. $40 per board foot
b. $25 per board foot
c. $20 per board foot
d. Zero
Managing Constraints
It is often possible for a manager to increase the capacity of a
bottleneck, which is called relaxing (or elevating) the
constraint, in numerous ways such as:
1. Working overtime on the bottleneck.
2. Subcontracting some of the processing that would be done
at the bottleneck.
3. Investing in additional machines at the bottleneck.
4. Shifting workers from non-bottleneck processes to the
bottleneck.
5. Focusing business process improvement efforts on the
bottleneck.
6. Reducing defective units processed through the bottleneck.
Learning Objective 7

Prepare an analysis
showing whether joint
products should be sold
at the split-off point or
processed further.
Joint Costs
• In some industries, a number of end
products are produced from a single raw
material input.
• Two or more products produced from a
common input are called joint
joint products.
products
• The point in the manufacturing process
where each joint product can be
recognized as a separate product is
called the split-off
split-off point.
point
Joint Products
For example,
Oil in the petroleum
refining industry,
a large number
Common of products are
Joint
Input
Production Gasoline extracted from
Process crude oil,
including
gasoline, jet fuel,
Chemicals
home heating oil,
lubricants,
asphalt, and
Split-Off
various organic
Point chemicals.
Joint Products
Joint costs
are incurred
up to the Oil
Separate Final
split-off point Processing Sale

Common
Joint Final
Production Gasoline
Input Sale
Process

Separate Final
Chemicals
Processing
Sale

Split-Off Separate
Point Product
Costs
The Pitfalls of Allocation
Joint costs are traditionally
allocated among different
products at the split-off point.
A typical approach is to allocate
joint costs according to the
relative sales value of the end
products.
Although allocation is needed for
some purposes such as balance
sheet inventory valuation,
allocations of this kind are very
dangerous for decision making.
 Sell or Process Further
Joint costs are irrelevant in decisions regarding
what to do with a product from the split-off point
forward. Therefore, these costs should not be
allocated to end products for decision-making
purposes.

With respect to sell or process further decisions, it is

profitable to continue processing a joint product
after the split-off point so long as the incremental
revenue from such processing exceeds the
incremental processing costs incurred after the
split-off point.
 Sell or Process Further: An Example
• Sawmill,
Sawmill, Inc.
Inc. cuts
cuts logs
logs from
from which
which unfinished
unfinished
lumber
lumber andand sawdust
sawdust are are the
the immediate
immediate jointjoint
products.
products.
• Unfinished
Unfinished lumber
lumber is is sold
sold “as
“as is”
is” or
or processed
processed
further
further into
into finished
finished lumber.
lumber.
• Sawdust
Sawdust can can also
also bebe sold
sold “as
“as is”
is” to
to gardening
gardening
wholesalers
wholesalers or or processed
processed further
further into
into “presto-logs.”
“presto-logs.”
Sell or Process Further
Data about Sawmill’s joint products includes:
Per Log
Lumber Sawdust
Sales value at the split-off point $ 140 $ 40

Sales value after further processing 270 50

Allocated joint product costs 176 24
Cost of further processing 50 20
Sell or Process Further
Analysis of Sell or Process Further
Per Log
Lumber Sawdust

Sales value after further processing $ 270 $ 50

Sales value at the split-off point 140 40
Incremental revenue 130 10
Cost of further processing
Profit (loss) from further processing
Sell or Process Further
Analysis of Sell or Process Further
Per Log
Lumber Sawdust

Sales value after further processing $ 270 $ 50

Sales value at the split-off point 140 40
Incremental revenue 130 10
Cost of further processing 50 20
Profit (loss) from further processing $ 80 $ (10)
Sell or Process Further
Analysis of Sell or Process Further
Per Log
Lumber Sawdust

Sales value after further processing $ 270 $ 50

Sales value at the split-off point 140 40
Incremental revenue 130 10
Cost of further processing 50 20
Profit (loss) from further processing $ 80 $ (10)

The lumber should be processed

further and the sawdust should be
sold at the split-off point.
 Activity-Based Costing and Relevant
Costs
ABC can be used to help identify potentially relevant
costs for decision-making purposes.

However, managers should

exercise caution against reading
more into this “traceability” than
really exists.

People have a tendency to assume that if a cost is traceable to a

segment, then the cost is automatically avoidable, which is untrue.
Before making a decision, managers must decide which of the
potentially relevant costs are actually avoidable.
End of Chapter 12