Unit 4

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MICROWAVE TUBES

Cavity Resonators

A cavity resonator, is one in which the


waves exist in a hollow space inside the
device. Acoustic cavity resonators in
which sound is produced by air vibrating
in a cavity with one opening, are known
as Helmholtz resonators.
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The cavity has interior surfaces
which reflect a wave of a specific
frequency. When a wave that is
resonant with the cavity enters, it
bounces back and forth within the
cavity, with low loss. As more
wave energy enters the cavity, it
combines with and reinforces
the standing wave, increasing its
intensity

An illustration of the electric and


magnetic field of one of the possible
modes in a cavity resonator.
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A standing wave in a rectangular cavity resonator.

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Rectangular cavity resonators

Starting from a rectangular waveguide of cross section ‘a’ by ‘b’ metres, we


can add short circuit walls in the y-z planes, along the direction of
propagation.
This gives a rectangular box whose resonant frequency is given by ‘f’

where (f*) = c = 3*10^8, and

1/[]^2 = {m/2a}^2 + {n/2b}^2 + {p/2d}^2

Here, there are m half wavelength loops along x, n half wavelength loops
along y, and p half wavelength loops along d. It is possible for just one only of
the loop numbers m, n, and p to take the value zero.

The spacings of the walls are d along z, b along y, and a along x. We see
there are many modes of a rectangular cavity. d
a
b

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Conventional Vacuum Tube

 The efficiency of conventional tubes is largely independent of frequency up to


a certain limit. When frequency increases beyond that limit, several factors
combine to rapidly decrease tube efficiency.
 Tubes that are efficient in the microwave range usually operate on the theory
of VELOCITY MODULATION, a concept that avoids the problems encountered
in conventional tubes.
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Frequency Limitations of Conventional Tubes

 Three characteristics of ordinary vacuum tubes become increasingly important


as frequency rises.
 These characteristics are interelectrode capacitance, lead inductance, and
electron transit time.
 The INTERELECTRODE CAPACITANCES in a vacuum tube, at low or
medium radio frequencies, produce capacitive reactances that are so large that
no serious effects upon tube operation are noticeable. However, as the
frequency increases, the reactances become small enough to materially affect
the performance of a circuit
 For extremely high-frequency applications (above 1 GHz), the interelectrode
capacitances and transit-time delays of standard electron tube construction
become prohibitive.
 Transit time effects
 GBW product

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For example,
 1-picofarad capacitor has a reactance of 159,000
ohms at 1 megahertz. If this capacitor was the
interelectrode capacitance between the grid and
plate of a tube, and the rf voltage between these
electrodes was 500 volts, then 3.15 milliamperes of
current would flow through the interelectrode
capacitance. Current flow in this small amount
would not seriously affect circuit performance.
 On the other hand, at a frequency of 100
megahertz the reactance would decrease to
approximately 1,590 ohms and, with the same
voltage applied, current would increase to 315
milliamperes

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Microwave tubes
 A high-vacuum tube designed for operation in the
frequency region from approximately 3000 to 300,000
MHz.

 Two considerations distinguish a microwave tube from


vacuum tubes used at lower frequencies:

--- the dimensions of the tube structure in relation to the


wavelength of the signal that it generates or amplifies,
and the time during which the electrons interact with the
microwave field.

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Microwave tubes
 In the microwave region wavelengths are in the order of
centimeters; resonant circuits are in the forms of
transmission lines that extend a quarter of a wavelength
from the active region of the microwave tube.

 With such short circuit dimensions the internal tube


structure constitutes an appreciable portion of the circuit.
For these reasons a microwave tube is made to form part
of the resonant circuit.

 Leads from electrodes to external connections are short,


and electrodes are parts of surfaces extending through
the envelope directly to the external circuit that is often a
coaxial transmission line or cavity

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 At microwaves the period of signal is in the range of 0.001-1
nanosecond. Only if transit time is less than a quarter of the signal
period do significant numbers of electrons exchange appreciable
energy with the signal field.

 Transit time is reduced in several ways. Electrodes are closely


spaced and made planar in configuration, and high interelectrode
voltages are used.

 Tubes designed by the foregoing principles are effective for


wavelengths from a few meters to a few centimeters. At shorter
wavelengths different principles are necessary.

 To obtain greater exchange of energy between the electron beam


and the electromagnetic field several alternative designs have
proved practical.

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 Instead of collecting the electron beam at a plate formed
by the opposite side of the resonant circuit, the beam is
allowed to pass into a field-free region before reacting
further with an external circuit.

 The electron cloud can be deflected by a strong static


magnetic field so as to revolve and thereby react several
times with the signal field before reaching the plate. (
Klystron; Magnetron.)

 Instead of producing the field in one or several resonant


circuits, the field can be supported by a distributed
structure along which it moves at a velocity comparable to
the velocity of electrons in the beam.

 The electron beam is then directed close to this structure


so that beam and field interact over an extended interval
of time. (Traveling-wave tube.)
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However, there seems to be no end to the
creative ways in which tubes may be
constructed,

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MW TUBES
• Klystron Amplifier
• Klystron Oscillator
• Magnetron Oscillator
• Cross Field Amplifier (CFA)
• TWT Amplifier
• Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO)

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Applications of high power devices at millimeter wave frequency
range

 Radar (long-range and high resolution)


 Communication (high information density)
 Electronic warfare
 Directed energy weaponry
 Material processing
 Waste remediation
 Ozone generation
 Atmospheric purification of admixtures like freons
that destroy ozone layer

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Microwave Tubes

Linear Beam Devices Cross Field Devices

Magnetron CFA

Resonant Cavity slow-wave structure (non-resonant)

Klystron Forward Wave Backward Wave


Amplifier
Helix TWT BWA BWO

Reflex
Klystron
Coupled Cavity
TWT

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MICROWAVE SOURCES

High Power Microwave Tubes


1. Cross Field Devices : Orthogonal Electric and Magnetic
fields:- Magnetron, CFA -- As Low power amplifiers in
coherent MTI, pulse compression radar, Pulse Doppler
2. Linear Beam Devices: Continuous electron beam in the
interaction region :- Klystron, TWT.
RF conversion efficiency = ratio of RF power output
available to the dc power input
RF conversion efficiency of RF Power sources : 10% to
60%
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Two of the researchers instrumental in the initial development of
the IOT, a pair of brothers named Sigurd and Russell Varian
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Inductive Output Tube (IOT)
• It was discovered in 1939 that a toroidal cavity made of
conductive material called a cavity resonator
surrounding an electron beam of oscillating intensity
could extract power from the beam without actually
intercepting the beam itself.

• The oscillating electric and magnetic fields associated


with the beam "echoed" inside the cavity, in a manner
similar to the sounds of traveling automobiles echoing in
a roadside canyon, allowing radio-frequency energy to
be transferred from the beam to a waveguide or coaxial
cable connected to the resonator with a coupling loop.

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This input resonator acted as a pair of inductive grids to alternately "bunch" and
release packets of electrons down the drift space of the tube, so the electron
beam would be composed of electrons traveling at different velocities. This
"velocity modulation" of the beam translated into the same sort of amplitude
variation at the output resonator, where energy was extracted from the beam.
The Varian brothers called their invention a klystron.
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Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier

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It is not uncommon to see a klystron with a beam current of 25
THOUSAND VOLTS (that’s 25KV) at 5 Amps. Now if'n I done my
math correctly, P=IE, so Power Out = 25,000 multiplied by 5. This
tube would have a beam power of 125,000 Watts.

You don't have to touch anything! There is so much electrical


potential built up in the surrounding air that your hair stands on
end just being around that sort of voltage.

the beam must be carefully guided up through the drift tube until
it reaches it's final resting place. This is usually done with
electromagnetic coils. Magnet supply voltages are commonly in
the 200 Volt range.

New and recent development of a special type of klystron using


fixed permanent magnets, called a PPM Focused Klystron which
was able to obtain power levels on the order of 50 Megawatts.
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Super power Klystron used at the Canberra Deep
Space Communications Complex Multi-cavity Klystron
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Electrons emitted from the heated cathode travel through the cavity grids
toward the repeller plate, then are repelled and returned back the way they
came (hence the name reflex) through the cavity grids. Self-sustaining
oscillations would develop in this tube, the frequency of which could be
changed by adjusting the repeller voltage. Hence, this tube operated as a
voltage-controlled oscillator.
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Reflex Klystron

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As a voltage-controlled oscillator, reflex klystron tubes served commonly as
"local oscillators" for radar equipment and microwave receivers
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 Initially developed as low-power devices whose output required
further amplification for radio transmitter use, reflex klystron design
was refined to the point where the tubes could serve as power devices
in their own right.

 Reflex klystrons have since been superseded by semiconductor


devices in the application of local oscillators, but amplification
klystrons continue to find use in high-power, high-frequency radio
transmitters and in scientific research applications.

 Reflex oscillators are used as signal sources from 3 to 200 GHz.


They are also used as the transmitter tubes in line-of-sight radio relay
systems and in low-power radars

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Magnetron tube
• One microwave tube performs its task so well and so cost-
effectively that it continues to reign supreme in the competitive
realm of consumer electronics: the magnetron tube.

• This device forms the heart of every microwave oven, generating


several hundred watts of microwave RF energy used to heat food
and beverages, and doing so under the most grueling conditions for
a tube: powered on and off at random times and for random
durations.

• Magnetron tubes are representative of an entirely different kind of


tube than the IOT and klystron. Whereas the latter tubes use a
linear electron beam, the magnetron directs its electron beam in a
circular pattern by means of a strong magnetic field:

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Magnetic flux runs perpendicular to the plane of the circular electron path.
In other words, from the view of the tube shown in the diagram, you are
looking straight at one of the magnetic poles.

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A cross-sectional diagram of a resonant cavity magnetron. Magnetic field
is perpendicular to the plane of the diagram
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Magnetic flux runs perpendicular to the plane of the circular electron path.
In other words, from the view of the tube shown in the diagram, you are
looking straight at one of the magnetic poles.

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• Cavity resonators are used as microwave-frequency "tank
circuits," extracting energy from the passing electron beam
inductively.

• Like all microwave-frequency devices using a cavity


resonator, at least one of the resonator cavities is tapped
with a coupling loop:

• A loop of wire magnetically coupling the coaxial cable to


the resonant structure of the cavity, allowing RF power to
be directed out of the tube to a load.

• In the case of the microwave oven, the output power is


directed through a waveguide to the food or drink to be
heated, the water molecules within acting as tiny load
resistors, dissipating the electrical energy in the form of
heat.
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• Magnetrons have been used since the 1940s as pulsed
microwave radiation sources for radar tracking.

• Because of their compactness and the high efficiency


with which they can emit short bursts of megawatt peak
output power, they have proved excellent for installation
in aircraft as well as in ground radar stations.

• In continuous operation, a magnetron can produce a


kilowatt of microwave power which is appropriate for
rapid microwave cooking.

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Magnetron with magnet in Magnetron with section removed
its mounting box. The (magnet is not shown)
horizontal plates form a
Heatsink, cooled by airflow
from a fan

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Health hazards
Among more speculative hazards, at least one in particular is well
known and documented.

As the lens of the eye has no cooling blood flow, it is particularly prone to
overheating when exposed to microwave radiation. This heating can in turn
lead to a higher incidence of cataracts in later life. A microwave oven with
a warped door or poor microwave sealing can be hazardous.

There is also a considerable electrical hazard around magnetrons, as they


require a high voltage power supply. Operating a magnetron with the
protective covers and interlocks bypassed should therefore be avoided.

Some magnetrons have ceramic insulators with a bit of beryllium oxide


The beryllium in this ceramic is a serious chemical hazard if crushed and
inhaled, or otherwise ingested. Single or chronic exposure can lead to
berylliosis, an incurable lung condition. In addition, beryllia is listed as a
confirmed human carcinogen by the IARC; therefore, broken ceramic
insulators or magnetrons should not be directly handled.

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Traveling Wave Tube (TWT)

􀂃 The traveling wave tube (TWT) is an electron tube used for amplification at
microwave frequencies – generally identified as frequencies between 500
MHz and 300 GHz or to wavelengths measured from 30 cm to 1 mm.

􀂃 The TWT is not a new device. Its remarkable capabilities and some of its
potential applications have been known for nearly 60 years.

􀂃 It was invented during the latter part of World War II by an Austrian refugee,
Dr. Rudolf Kompfner, while working on microwave tubes for the British
Admiralty.

􀂃 Power generation capabilities range from watts to megawatts.

􀂃 For helix TWTs, bandwidths may be as high as two octaves or more and
power levels of tens to hundreds of watts

􀂃 For coupled-cavity TWTs, bandwidths in the 10 – 20% range are common


with power levels in the megawatt levels.
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Components of a TWT

 At the left of this diagram is an electron gun assembly.


 The cathode, when heated, emits a continuous stream of electrons.
 These electrons are drawn through an aperture in the anode and are
then focused into a well-defined cylindrical beam by a magnetic field.
 The beam is thereby caused to travel inside the slow-wave circuit for
the length of the tube.
 The electrons are finally collected and their kinetic energy is dissipated
in the form of heat in the collector.
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Wave – Beam Interaction

􀂃 At the same time that the cylindrical electron beam is moving along the length
of the tube axis, the RF signal to be amplified is fed into the slow-wave structure
consisting, in this case, of a coiled wire called a helix.

􀂃 The RF energy travels along the helix wire at the velocity of light. However,
because of the helical path, the energy progresses along the axial length of the
tube at a considerably lower axial velocity, determined primarily by the pitch and
diameter of the
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Specific Applications and TWT Design Trade-Offs

The design of a TWT originates with the requirements to provide certain


amounts of gain and power over a certain frequency band

These considerations lead to trade-offs that affect each of the major


subassemblies of the TWT. Those considerations include:

Type of slow-wave circuit to be used in meeting the power and bandwidth


requirements, including the selection of cathode voltage and current to be
used in meeting those requirements.

It is important to note that the higher thermal dissipation capability in


coupled-cavity TWT circuits can provide two orders of magnitude and
greater power output capability than available from TWTs having helix
circuits, at the penalty of increased size and weight;

Method to be employed for focusing the electron beam;

Method to be used for varying the beam current, including the method
used for turning the TWT on and off as well as any modulation required
during TWT operation;
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contd…
• Operating life requirements;
• Environmental conditions under which the
TWT will operate (ambient pressure,
ambient temperature, shock and vibration
levels, etc.);
• Type of cooling available;
• Size and weight limitations;
• Cost.

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Crossed-Field Amplifier
• A (CFA) is a specialized vacuum tube, first introduced in the mid-1950s and
frequently used as a microwave amplifier in very-high-power transmitters.

• A CFA has lower gain and bandwidth than other microwave amplifier tubes
(such as klystrons or traveling wave tubes); but it is more efficient and
capable of much higher output power.

• Peak output powers of many megawatts and average power levels of tens of
kilowatts can be achieved, with efficiency ratings in excess of 70 percent

• The electric and magnetic fields in a CFA are perpendicular to each other
("crossed fields"). This is the same type of field interaction used in a
magnetron; as a result, the two devices share many characteristics (such as
high peak power and efficiency) and they have similar physical appearances.
However, a magnetron is an oscillator and a CFA is an amplifier; a CFA's RF
circuit (or slow-wave structure) is similar to that in a coupled-cavity TWT.

• Raytheon engineer William C. Brown's work to adapt magnetron principles to


create a new broadband amplifier is generally recognized as the first CFA,
which he called an Amplitron. Other names that are sometimes used by
CFA manufacturers include Platinotron or Stabilotron.

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Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO)

• A backward wave oscillator (BWO), also called carcinotron (a


trade name for tubes manufactured by CSF, now Thales) or
backward wave tube, is a vacuum tube that is used to generate
microwaves up to the terahertz range. It belongs to the traveling
wave tube family. It is an oscillator with a wide electronic tuning
range.

• An electron gun generates an electron beam that is interacting with


a slow-wave structure. It sustains the oscillations by propagating a
traveling wave backwards against the beam. The generated
electromagnetic wave power has its group velocity directed
oppositely to the direction of motion of the electrons. The output
power is coupled out near the electron gun.

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Longevity of MW Tubes

Predictions have been propagating since the 1960s that microwave


tubes would have to be displaced by microwave solid-state devices.
This displacement has occurred only at the low-power and
receiving circuits level of electronic systems.
Microwave power tubes continue to perform as the only choice for
high-power transmitters and are expected to maintain this dominant
role throughout the next generation and beyond.
Microwave techniques have been increasingly adopted in many
electronic systems, such as airborne radar systems, space-borne
military defense, missile guidance systems, and space
communications links.

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Tube Parameters Affecting Performance

 Power vs. Frequency


 Efficiency
 Harmonics
 Intermodulation Distortion
Gain Flatness, Phase Linearity, and Group Delay
 Noise Figure
 Noise Power Output and Carrier–to–Noise Ratio
 Dynamic Range for Linear Operation

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Noise Figure

 Noise figure (F) is the degradation in the signal-to-noise S/N ratio


 Si and Ni are the input signal and noise levels , So and No are the output
signal and noise levels
 Na is the noise added by the amplifier and Ga is the gain of the Amplifier
 Since the input noise level is usually thermal nose, the primary source of
noise in a TWT/tube is related to the density and electron velocity variations
with the electron beam.
 The level of the noise power is related to the number of electrodes in the
gun, the size of the electron gun, and its beam optics.

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Carrier – to – Noise Ratio

 Ratio of the TWT output carrier at a defined operating


point (commonly saturation) and the surrounding TWT
noise density.
 C/N is the carrier – to – noise ratio (dB-Hz).
 Pout is the single carrier output power in dBm
 F is the TWT noise figure in dB
 Gnoise is the gain of the noise in the TWT
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Conventional Microwave Tubes

Increase of the operating frequency of conventional microwave tubes


RF power output becomes limited due to
 DC power dissipation
 RF losses
 Attainable electron current density
 Heat transfer (restricting the average power capability)
 Material breakdown (arcing) (restricting the peak power capability)
 Difficulty of fabricating tiny parts

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Unconventional high power microwave tubes
operable in the millimetre-wave frequency band
for instance, gyro-devices

Gyro-klystron, application in a linear accelerator


limited bandwidth
cavity-type interaction structures
Gyro-travelling-wave tube (gyro-TWT)
wider bandwidth
propagating waveguide interaction structure
For the communication purpose
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there is need to broaden the bandwidth of a gyro-TWT
Better measure is transmitter system efficiency = ratio
of RF power available from the transmitter to the total
power needed to operate the transmitter.

The total power includes the power to generate the


electrons at the cathode, the power to generate any EM
fields required containing the electron beam, the power
required to cool the device, any other power needed for
the proper operation.

For maximum efficiency most high power RF sources


operate saturated (completely On or completely Off with
no intermediate levels) – generates rectangular pulse like
waveform.

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Many times highly shaped transmitted waveforms
(amplitude tapered or shaped pulse to reduce time side lobes
in pulse compression radars, to minimise RF interference to
others) need to be generated – efficiency of tubes is less.

Life time of RF tubes is many tens of thousands of hours.


Lack of proper coolants, fans, blowers and damaged of
mishandled RF connectors reduce the MTBF of tubes.

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Tube Output Power

November 22, 2021 52


Klystrons

 It has high gain and good efficiency


 Capable of higher average and peak power than most
other tubes.
 Wide bandwidth, long life, low interpulse noise, good
stability for doppler processing.

TWT

 Slightly less power, less gain, less efficiency than Klystron.


 Wide bandwidth at modest power levels.

Peak Power : up to 30 MW, Average power : 700 KW


Gain : 30 - 70 dB, Efficiency : 15 – 60 %
Bandwidth : 1 – 8 % (Klystron), 15 – 60 % (TWT)
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Magnetron

 It is an oscillator, smaller in size and utilizes lower


voltages
 Limited average power, poor noise and stability
characteristics.

CFA

 Capable of high power, good efficiency, wide bandwidth,


relatively low power gain
 Generally noisier and less stable than other RF sources.

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TWT/SSPA Output Power Comparison

November 22, 2021 55


Solid State Transistor Amplifiers

 Wider Bandwidth, operate at low voltages, ease of


maintenance
 Inherently of low power so that a large number of
devices can be combined to generate sufficient high power.
 For good efficiency they should be operated at high duty
cycles.

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The Reality

Vacuum Devices are:

Fragile Robust

Short-lived Long-lived

Unreliable Reliable

Inefficient Efficient

November 22, 2021 57


Gunn Diode

• Definition
• History
• Construction
Definition:

Such type of semiconductor device which have only N type doped


(semiconductor) material, is called “Gunn Diode.”

It’s a unique component.

Gunn Diode is also known as:

Transferred Electron Device (TED).


Microwave Semiconductor Device.
Symbols for Circuit Diagram:
History:
Gunn diode was invented by a Physicist, John
Battiscombe Gunn, in 1963, in IBM.
Transferred Electron Effect was first published by:
Ridley and Watkins in 1961.
Further work by Hilsum in 1962,
Finally J.B. Gunn, observed it, using GaAs
semiconductor, in 1963.
Construction:

Gunn diodes are fabricated from a single piece of n-type


semiconductor,

Source Material:

Tri-methylgallium and arsenic (10% in H2).

Most Common Materials :

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)


and Indium Phosphide (InP).
Three main areas:

Top/Upper Area,
Middle Area,
Bottom Area.

Middle area (Active layer) has a doping level between


1014 cm-3 to 1016 cm-3 .
Substrate has doping
density
n = 1.3x10 ^18 cm-³.

Thickness varies according to the


frequency required.
Metal contacts consist of three layers, namely a
80 nm layer of AuGe sandwiched between two
layers of 10 nm of Ni.

Additional AuGe is evaporated on the


existing contacts to a depth of 0.7μm.
Use Of Gold.
Its relative stability,
and high conductivity.

Requirements:

The material must be defect free , and it must also


have a very uniform level of doping.

 
Types of Materials Used For Gunn Diodes
To Get Different Frequencies:

Gallium arsenide for frequencies up


to 200 GHz,

Gallium nitride can reach up to 3 THz.


Gunn Diode

Negative
Resistance
In Gunn Diode
• GaAs (Galliam Arsenide ) has a property of
negative resistance.
• The negative resistance in Gunn diode is
due to
(a) electron transfer to a less mobile energy
level
(b) high reverse bias
(c) electron domain formation at the
junction
• (b) High reverse bias

• (c) Electron domain formation at the


junction
Effect of Negative resistance
on current
Gunn Diode

Gunn Effect
Gunn diode which has a
negative dynamic resistance.
Graph Between Resistance
And Voltage
• As a result we arrange that average
voltage on the Gunn diode is as illustrated
in figure. The diode is said to be biased
into the negative resistance region.
Change in Energy

R= RL + r(V)

When r >0

The energy of any oscillation


tends to be
reduced by resistive dissipation.
When r < 0
• The oscillation energy tends to be
increased.

• According to law of conservation of energy

• The amount of energy at r > 0 = The


amount of energy at r < 0
Graph Between Resistance And
Current
• Real Gunn devices have a
response time which varies with
the applied voltage, hence we can
electronically tune the oscillation
frequency by slightly adjusting the
bias voltage
BARITT DIODES
Introduction
Barrier injected transit time diodes
Long drift regions
The carriers traversing the drift regions are
generated by minority carrier injection from
forward biased junctions instead of being
extracted from the plasma of an avalanche
region
P-n-p, p-n-v-p, p-n-metal and metal-n-metal
For a p-n-v-p baritt diode the forward biased p-
n junction emits holes into the v region. These
holes drift with saturation velocity through the v
region and are collected at the p contact.

The diode exhibits a negative resistance for


transit angles between π and 2 π.
Characteristics
Much less noisy than IMPATT diodes.
Noise figures are as low as 15 dB with Si
BARITT amplifiers.
Narrow Bandwidth and power outputs limited to
a few milliwatts.
Principle of operation
A crystal n-type Si wafer with 11 Ω-cm
resistivity and 4 x 1014 per cubic cm doping is
made of a 10-um thin slice.
The wafer is sandwiched between two PtSi
Schottky barrier contacts of about 0.1 um
thickness.
The energy band diagram at thermal
equilibrium is shown.

For the PtSi-Si-PtSi structure =


0.85 eV.
The hole barrier height for the forward
biased contact is about 0.15 eV
Fig c shows the energy band diagram when a
voltage is applied.
The mechanisms responsible for oscillations
are derived from:
1.The rapid increase of the carrier injection
process caused by decreasing potential barrier
of the forward biased metal semiconductor
contact.
2.An apparent 3π/2 transit angle of the injected
carrier that traverses the semiconductor
depletion region.
The rapid increase
in terminal current
with applied
voltage (above 30
V) is caused by
thermionic hole
injection into the
semiconductor as
the depletion layer
of the reverse-
biased contact
reaches through
the entire device
thickness.
The critical voltage is given by
The current increase is not due to avalanche
multiplication, as is apparent from the
magnitude of the critical voltage and its
negative temperature coefficient.
At 77 K the rapid increase is stopped at a
current of about 10-15 A.
TRAPATT
DIODE
Introduction
 Trapped Plasma Avalanche Triggered Transit
mode
 Prager
 High efficiency microwave generator capable of
operating from several hundred MHz to several
GHz
 n+ -p -p+ or (p+ -n –n+)
 The doping of the depletion region is such that
the diodes are well “punched through” at
breakdown; i.e the dc electric field in the
depletion region just prior to breakdown is well
above saturated drift velocity level.
Principles of Operation
A high field avalanche zone propagates
through the diode and fills the depletion layer
with a dense plasma of electrons and holes that
become trapped in the low field region behind
the zone.
Voltage and Current waveforms
At point A the electric field is uniform
throughout the sample and its magnitude is
large but less than the value required for
avalanche breakdown.
The current density is

At the instant of time at point A, the diode


current is turned on.
The charge carriers present are those due to
thermal generation,
hence the diode initially charges up like a
linear capacitor, driving the magnitude of
electric field above the breakdown voltage.
When a sufficient number of carriers are
generated, the particle current exceeds the
external current and the electric field is
depressed throughout the depletion region,
causing the voltage to decrease.
(B to C)
(B to C) During this time interval the electric
field is sufficiently large for the avalanche to
continue, and a dense plasma of electrons and
holes are created.
Some of the electrons and holes drift out of the
ends of the depletion layer, the field is further
depressed and “traps” the remaining plasma.
The voltage decreases to point D.
A long time is required to remove the plasma
because the total plasma charge is large
compared to the charge per unit time in the
external current.
At point E the plasma is removed, but a
residual charge of electrons remains in one end
of the depletion layer and a residual charge of
holes in the other end.

As the residual charge is removed, the voltage


increases (E to F).
At F, all the charge that was generated
internally has been removed.
From point F to G, the diode charges up again
like a fixed capacitor.
At G, the diode current goes to zero for half a
period and the voltage remains constant at VA
until the current comes back on and the cycle
repeats
The electric field expression
Thus the time t at which the electric field
reaches Em at a given distance x into the
depletion region is

Differentiating w r t time t
- nominal transit time of the diode in
the high field.
Therefore the TRAPATT mode is still a transit-
time mode
That is the time delay of carriers in transit (time
between injection and collection) is utilized to
obtain a current phase shift favorable for
oscillation.

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