Ultra structure

of cells
• Through innovations in the field of microscopy,
scientists have been able to develop a better
understanding of cell types and cellular structures.
Cells were originally categorised as two main types:
prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
• Note: Further work, which is discussed later, by Carl
Woese and others classified all life on Earth into
three domains: Bacteria (which are prokaryotic),
Archaea and Eukaryota (the eukaryotes).
 Most important difference between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are:
• Eukaryotic cells have a complex system of
membrane-bound organelles that divides the
cell into numerous enclosed regions – known
as compartmentalisation.
While Prokaryotes do not have any membrane-
bound organelles
 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Substructures in the cell

Organism has organs, Cells have organelles

Specialized to perform for specific functions

 Prokaryotes Cell respiration, protein synthesis…

Include Bacteria Physically separated from each other for higher efficiency
Conditions (e.g. pH) may be optimum for function A, but not for function
No nucleus B

No membrane-bound organelles inside cell

 Eukaryotes Nucleus Mitochondrion

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Fungi, Plants and Animals Golgi apparatus Lysosomes
Microtubules and centrioles
Nucleus
Presence of membrane-bound structures inside cell
 Ultrastructure of cells

• The protoplasm ( cytoplasm and the nucleus

combined)
• Intracellular (inside the cell) membranes
• organelles
 Ultra structure
• https://sketchfab.com/models/201f60a85d07
4c3ba4ce4048a3d7c2e8

• It’s the detailed organization of the cell only

visible under electron microscope
Ultrastructure of Eukaryotic cells – animal cells
 The nucleus
• Largest organelle
• About 10-20 µm
• Can be seen with a light
microscope
• Has a double membrane
• Has nucleic acids (DNA and
RNA)
 Ultrastructure of Animal Cells

Nucleus
“The Brain of the Cell” (pl. nuclei)
 Controls the activities of the cell

 One nucleus per eukaryotic cell

There are exceptions (e.g. muscle cells)

 Contains most genetic information = DNA

Chromosomes
Visible only at onset of cell division
Otherwise dispersed: chromatin

 Surrounded by a double membrane

= Nuclear envelope

Inner membrane encloses nucleoplasm

Cell has cytoplasm, Nucleus has nucleoplasm

 has Nuclear pores (100 nm diameter)

allows RNA out, proteins in

Has a Nucleolus (pl. nucleoli)

One or more per cell
Synthesis of ribosomal RNAs –ribosomes!
Chromatin and Chromosomes
Packed inside the nucleus of every human cell is nearly 1.8 meters of DNA, which is
subdivided into 46 individual molecules, one for each chromosome and each about 3.8 cm
long.
Collecting all this material into a microscopic cell nucleus is an extraordinary feat of
packaging. For DNA to function when necessary, it can't be haphazardly crammed into the
nucleus or simply wound up like a ball of string. Consequently, during interphase, DNA is
combined with proteins and organized into a precise, compact structure, a dense string-like
fiber called chromatin, which condenses even further into chromosomes during cell
division.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lrykaX8V
Xrg
 Nucleolus
• An area within the nucleus that is responsible
for producing ribosomes. Made up of proteins
and RNA.
 In the space below, draw a fully labelled diagram of a
nucleus, as seen using an electron microscope.(4)
Drawing (max 2):
• 1. {double membrane / nuclear
envelope} obvious ;
• 2. nuclear pores shown ;
• 3. (1 or more) nucleoli present ;
Labels (max 2):
• 4. (nuclear) envelope / double
membrane / {inner / outer}
(nuclear) membrane ;
• 5. (nuclear) pore ;
• 6. nucleolus ;
• 7. correct reference to
chromatin /nucleoplasm ;
mitochondrion

Structure:
• rod-shaped organelle
• Double membrane (outer and inner)
• Inner membrane folds into cristae to
increase SA for cellular respiration (since
enzymes needed for it are found on the
inner membrane)
• Filled with a fluid matrix
• Has 70s ribosomes
• Has circular DNA in the matrix
• Note: has stalked particle
Function:
• cellular (aerobic) respiration occurs
producing ATP
 Mitochondrion
(pl. mitochondria)

“The Powerhouse of the Cell”

 Site of aerobic cellular respiration

The more the cell needs energy, the more 1 mm
numerous the mitochondria in the cell
e.g. muscle cells

 Aqueous solution inside = Matrix

Inner membrane folded: cristae (sing. Crista)

Contain their own DNA and ribosomes

(so used to be prokaryote?)

It also contains a small amount of DNA

called mitochondrial (mt)DNA. They can
produce their own enzymes and
reproduce themselves.
 Their number in a cell gives a good idea about the activity and function of the cell
example: cells that need little energy have few mitochondria – fat cells – storage only
while energy demanding cells such as liver and muscle cells have a lot of mitochondria

Has its own DNA - circular such as

prokaryotes
Which suggests that they where
originally eubacteria (living inside
other organisms) living symbiotically
inside cells – endosymbiotic theory

Symbiosis is any type of a close and long-term biological

interaction between two different biological organisms
 Endosymbiotic theory
• Some scientists believe that mitochondria evolved
from prokaryotic organisms. They think that a
prokaryotic organism entered a single-celled
eukaryotic organism and lived inside it. The two
organisms evolved to become dependent on each
other.
 Where do Mitochondria and Chloroplasts come from ?
Evidence in favor of the endosymbiosis theory is that mitochondria and
chloroplasts:

 Have appropriate size to be descendants of bacteria

 Have inner membranes similar to those of prokaryotic

plasma membranes

 Replicate by splitting, as prokaryotes do

 DNA is circular and different from the DNA of the cell's nucleus

 Have 70s ribosomes similar to prokaryotic ribosomes

In the space below, draw and label a diagram to show the
structure of a mitochondrion.(4)

• Drawing mark
1. two membranes drawn with
inner membrane folded ;
• Labelling marks
2. outer membrane and {inner
membrane / cristae} ;
• Any two from:
3. inter-membrane space;
4. matrix ;
5. stalked particles
6. (circular)DNA ;
7. (70S)ribosomes ;
• Give two similarities between the structure of a
mitochondrion and the structure of a prokaryotic
organism.(2)

• 1. (loop of) DNA ;

• 2. (70S / small) ribosomes ;
• IGNORE answers about features that they
don’t have
 centrioles Structure:
• A pair of cylinders (hollow
rods)at right angles
• Nine triplets of microtubules
• Near the nucleus
• Involved in cell division
Function: They divide upon
mitosis, then pull apart and
produce spindle fibres (sets of
overlapping protein microtubules )

Only in animal cells

Centrioles = Short hollow cylinders
25 nm wide
Made of polymers of tubulin
 Ribosomes
• No membrane!
Structure:
• Built of 2 subunits large and small.
• Made of ribosomal RNA and
protein
• Has 2 types 70s and 80s
• (note: 70s were also discovered
inside mitochondria and
chloroplasts which further
supports?????
Function: • In 80s the ratio of RNA :
• Where protein synthesis occurs by
translation
protein is 1:1 while in
70s it’s 2:1
 Ribosomes

 Ribosome = rRNAs + Proteins

RNAs made in Nucleolus
Exported to the cytoplasm
Proteins added to rRNAs in cytoplasm

 Made of two subunits

 Not surrounded by own membrane

 Free ribosomes = in the cytoplasm/matrix

OR
Bound ribosomes: on the membrane of the
Rough ER of Eukaryotes

Eukaryotes have “80S” ribosomes

Prokaryotes, Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
have “70S” ribosomes
 Endoplasmic reticulum
• A 3D network of cavities
surrounded by a single
membrane (cisternae ).
• Involved in transport
and synthesis of
important chemicals.
• 2 types: rER and sER
• 80s Ribosomes are
attached
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

 Network of flattened sacs = cisternae

 Rough ER (RER): Ribosomes bound/attached to it

 Smooth ER (SER): no ribosomes

 Outer nuclear membrane is continuous with RER’s membrane

 RER’s membrane is continuous with SER’s membrane

 RER: Ribosomes make proteins

These proteins are processed inside RER
Packaged into transport vesicles
Made from pinching some of the RER’s membrane
Transport vesicles migrate to Golgi

 SER: Synthesis of fatty acids, phospholipids and steroids

Some are packaged into transport vesicles
Made from pinching some of the SER’s membrane
Transport vesicles migrate to Golgi
And storage/release of Ca2+ in muscles in/out of cytoplasm
Describe the role of the rough endoplasmic reticulum in a cell.(3)

• 1. protein synthesis /
translation by ribosomes;
• 2. to fold the protein into
3D shape/ tertiary
structure ;
• 3. protein transport /move
into the lumen of rER;
• 4. to package the protein
into vesicles ;
 Compare and contrast the structure of the rough endoplasmic reticulum with
the structure of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.(2)

• 1. both consist of
{membrane bound
sacs / cisternae } ;
• 2. in both the
{ cisternae / eq } are
interconnected / eq ;
• 3. rER has 80s
ribosomes and sER does
not ;
 How do we know about the structure and
function of ER?
• Electron microscope • Providing the cell with
radioactive chemical
substance that are a
building block for
specific chemicals\
molecules then find out
where they appear in
the cell.
Golgi apparatus
 Golgi (apparatus/body)

1843-1926
 Network of flattened sacs = cisternae

 “First” cisterna made up from transport

vesicles from both ER cis face trans face

 cis face: on the ER side

 trans face: on the cell membrane side

 cis face receives transport vesicles Transport Secretory

 Process of lipids/ proteins from SER/RER vesicles vesicles

 Pinching on trans face: make secretory vesicles

Some enzyme-containing vesicles may become lysosomes

 Secretory vesicles migrate to cell membrane

 Membrane of SV fuse with cell membrane

 Proteins/lipids are secreted out of cell

• Structure:
1. stacks of cisternae /
flattened sacs / fluid- filled
sacs
2. (cisternae) have curved
shape ;
3. Of different sizes
(decreasing in size) • A dense golgi apparatus
4. Secretory vesicles ; is found in secretory
5. smooth membranes / no cells.
ribosomes
 RER, SER and Golgi

Proteins that eventually be secreted: made by ribosomes on RER

Other proteins: made by free ribosomes
video
 Describe the function of this organelle. (3)
1. modification of { proteins / enzymes } ;
2. detail of modification e.g. addition of carbohydrate, production
of { glycoprotein / glycolipid } ;
3. packaging of { proteins / enzymes } (by the Golgi apparatus) ;
4. idea of production of { secretory vesicles / lysosomes } ;
5.Which fuse with cell surface membrane / for exocytosis
2. ALLOW addition of sugars or lipids, or reference to glycosylation

• The structure labelled Y in the photograph is a secretory vesicle

that contains protein. Describe the role of this vesicle in the cell.
• 1. idea that these vesicles move from Golgi (body) to the cell
(surface) membrane ;
• 2. idea that the (secretory) vesicle fuses with cell (surface)
membrane ;
• 3. by exocytosis ;
 Describe the roles of the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the
Golgi apparatus in the modification and secretion of enzymes by
these cells.(5)

1. the enzyme is transported (through the cell / cytoplasm) in the rER ;

2. in the rER enzyme is folded; e.g. forms {3-D shape, secondary / tertiary structure }
3. enzyme being packaged into (transport) vesicles (by the rER) to { move to / fuse with }
the Golgi apparatus ;
4. description of modification ; ACCEPT e.g. addition / removal of sugars, glycosides,
carbohydrate, or activation of enzyme
5. enzyme being transferred in (secretory) vesicles from the Golgi apparatus to the cell
(surface) membrane ;
6. vesicles (containing enzyme) fuse with cell (surface) membrane / exocytosis ;
 Structure:
Lysosome • Dark spherical bodies
• Contains a mixture of hydrolytic
enzymes
• Surrounded by a single membrane
• Function:
Can fuse with cell membrane to
release the extra cellular enzymes
( digestion), or fuse with vacuoles to
destroy /digest their content
(involved in phagocytosis), and they
are involved in apoptosis – autolysis,
and digestion of worn out organelles
 Lysosomes
“Lysis” = process to destroy
“Soma” = Body

 Lysosome = organelle to destroy

 Small vesicles produced from RER or Golgi

1 µm
 Contain hydrolytic enzymes Nucleus

Proteases, lipases, DNAses, RNAses…

 Worn-out organelles: autolysis

 Viruses, bacteria: phagocytosis
Lysosome

Two reasons to isolate hydrolytic

enzymes in lysosomes
pH of cytoplasm =7
 Lysosomes

Two reasons to isolate hydrolytic enzymes in lysosomes

pH of cytoplasm =7
pH of lysosome = 4.8

1. Enzymes in lysosome work best at pH 4.8

2. Enzymes in lysosome would destroy all

Cytoplasm, organelles, cell membrane…
Proteins in a cell can be made radioactive by supplying the cell with
radioactive AA. The movement of radioactive protein within the cell can be
traced over time.
In an investigation it was found that the quantity of radioavtivity in the
protein that entered the Golgi apparatus was less than that the supplied to
the cell. Suggest three reasons for this difference.

1. some (amino acids) do not enter the cell ;

2. some amino acids are not used (in protein synthesis) ;
3. some protein is {elsewhere in the cell / on ribosome / in
RER / in cytoplasm / in mitochondria / in vesicles / in nucleus} ;
4. not modified ;
5. some {metabolised } ;
6. some has been ejected from cell ;
7. radioactive decay / decrease ;