Nervous System-2022-23 Asi̇st

Neurons+glia cells
© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

1- In this unit, we will learn;
N A.The Structure and B. Nerve Signals and
E Function of Nervous System Their Transmission
R
V
O
U
S
C. An Overview of Human D.The Human Brain
S Nervous Systems
Y
S
T
E
M
Characteristics of the nervous system
Nervous system can receive, integrate, and respond

in tenths of a second--extremely fast--
1. Receives information from many sources
simultaneously
2. Integrates information (processes, compiles,
makes sense of this information)
3. Can initiate specific responses such as muscle
contraction, glandular secretion, conscious control
over movement

Nervous System Has Two Principal Parts
 Central nervous system (CNS)
– Components: brain and
spinal cord
– Functions: receives,
processes, and transfers
information
 Peripheral nervous system
(PNS)
– Components: nerves
outside CNS
Sensory division: carries
information from internal and
external environment toward
the CNS
Motor division: carries
information away from CNS to
muscles and glands
Neuron(nerve cells) are the fundamental units of
nervous system

Longest
nerve

 Receptor: specialized cells that can stimulate
signals
 Stimulus: any factor that causes a nerve signal

Impulse: Electrical and chemical changes/ signal in
neuron
Effector organ: Organ that responds ( muscle or glands)

Neuron is the main unit of nervous system
 Types of neurons
– Sensory neurons: neurons found
in the PNS that receive stimuli
neurons that and transmit
information to the CNS
– Interneurons: neurons that
transmit information between
components of the CNS
– Motor neurons: neurons found in
the PNS that transmit information
from the CNS to effector organs.
(The cell body of motor neuron is in
CNS and it’s axon is in PNS.)

(Afferent/sensory neurons)
(interneurons)
(Efferent/motor neurons)

(CNS)
(PNS)
(PNS)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I7wfDenj6CQ
A ganglion is a group
of neuron cell bodies in
the PNS

LOCAL ANESTHESIA
blocks the sensory neurons from the affected part
of your body, so that pain signals cannot be
transmitted to your brain.
SEIZURE/PARALYSIS
Results from injury to

interneurons in central
nervous system.

BOTOX
When botulinum toxin is injected, it blocks certain
signals coming from interneurons to motor neurons
that make muscles contract.

 Three parts of the neuron
– Cell body: main part of the cell, has the nucleus and most of the
cytoplasm and organelles
*It contains nissl bodies:RER, mitochondria, ribosome,golgi…. no centrosome!
* Neurofibrils play a role in the transport of proteins and other substances within the cytoplasm of neuron.
– Dendrites: small, slender extensions of the cell body, which receive
incoming information
– Axon: long, slender extension, specialized to conduct electrical
impulses away from the cell body

New data: Neurons in hippocampus can divide

 A typical axon has hundreds or thousands of branches, each
with a synaptic terminal at the very end.
 The junction between a synaptic terminal and another cell is
called a synapse, or relay point.
 At a synapse, electrical or chemical signals are transmitted to
other neurons or effector cells.
(Axon bulbs)

*Direction of signal:
DendriteAxon

Neurons are the functional units of nervous
systems

Nerve tissue= neurons+glial cells
GLIAL CELLS
• make up 80% of nervous system cells.
• support and protect nervous system. They don’t
transmit action potentials.

• Myelin sheath,can be made by
oligodendrocyte or schwann cell, is
a lipid-rich insulating material often
wraps an axon along most of its
length, analogous to the plastic
insulation that covers many
electrical wires.
• The gaps between Schwann cells
are called nodes of Ranvier, an
adaptation that increases the speed
of signals along an axon.
*Saltatory conduction: leaping
pattern of impulse
A nerve signal begins as a change in the membrane
potential
Action potential(impulse): A change in the membrane
voltage with the help of Na-K pomps. That transmits a
nerve signal along an axon.

Action Potentials Are All-or-None and Self-Propagating
All-or-none :
– If threshold(triggering point) is achieved in a neuron,
an action potential is always the same in speed and
voltage. It continues to propagate itself in the next
region of the axon and moves like a wave with
constant speed and amplitude.

Nerve (Bundle) is
made up of different neurons
and action potentials of
neurons in bundle can be
different.

The factors that affect speed(velocity) of conduction
 Amount of miyelin sheat:
Myelinated neurons have faster conductions (because
of saltatory conduction)

Axon diameter: Thick axon faster transmission
because of less resistance facing the ion flow.

Temperature
The higher the temperature the faster the conductance.

Because ions and enzymes work faster at a high (not cold)
temperature.

* SPEED of action potential is always the SAME for a
particular neuron, can be different in different neurons
* STRENGHT,DURATION,FREQUENCY of stimuli generate
different impulses.Stronger stimuli generate more action
potentials/unit time.

COMMUNICATION AT SYNAPSES

 Synapse: special junction between the sending
(presynaptic) cell and a target cell
 Target cell: another neuron, muscle cell, or gland
Synaptic transmission
– From AXON of sending (presynaptic neuron) across
synaptic cleft to DENDRITE of receiving (postsynaptic)
target
– Involves release and diffusion of chemical
neurotransmitter (slower than electrical
conduction)

Chemical synapses enable complex information
to be processed
 A neuron may receive information via

neurotransmitters from hundreds of other
neurons, connecting at thousands of synaptic
terminals to any areas that are not myelinated,
including dendrites and cell bodies.
 The inputs can be highly varied because each
sending neuron may secrete a different quantity or
kind of neurotransmitter.

Neurotransmitters Exert Excitatory or Inhibitory
Effects
 Excitatory neurotransmitter
– Increases the likelihood of a response
 Inhibitory neurotransmitter
– Decreases the likelihood of a response
One neurotransmitter may excite or inhibit different neurons.

LET’S THINK ABOUT THE CHANGES DURING
IMPULSE CONDUCTION:
1.Glucose
2.Oxygen
3.Carbondioxide
4.ATP
5.Heat

The amount of
1.GLUCOSE

The amount of…
2.OXYGEN
3.CARBONDIOXIDE
4.ATP
5.HEAT

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYTEM
AND
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous System Has Two Principal Parts
 Central nervous system (CNS)
– Components: brain and
spinal cord
– Functions: receives,
processes, and transfers
information
 Peripheral nervous system
(PNS)
– Components: nerves outside
CNS
– Sensory division: carries
information toward the CNS
– Motor division: carries
information away from CNS

Figure 11.1
CNS
Brain
Sensory (input) Spinal Motor (output)

cord
Signals Signals from Signals from PNS Somatic division Autonomic division
from external skin, tendons, internal organs (control of skeletal (autonomic control of
environment and muscles muscle) smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle, and glands)
Parasympathetic Sympathetic

Figure 11.13 Hair
Right ventricle Skull
Scalp
Left ventricle
Skull
Dura mater
Arachnoid Meninges
Pia mater
Brain tissue
Third ventricle Cerebrospinal

fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid
Meninges
Fourth ventricle Spinal canal

CNS protection
Spinal cord 1.Bone: skull and vertebrae
Right ventricle Left ventricle

2.Meninges: protective membranes
*Dura mater , (sert zar)
*Arachnoid ,
(örümceksi zar)
*Pia mater (ince zar)

Third
ventricle
Cerebral
aqueduct
3.Cerebrospinal fluid: Shock absorber, ion
Fourth balance, substance exchange (between
ventricle
arachnoid and pia mater, surrounds brain and
spinal cord)
a) Anterior view. b) Sagittal view.
THE HUMAN BRAIN

The Brain Processes and Acts on Information
 Brain: command center of the body
 Three major anatomical/functional divisions
– Forebrain: receives, integrates sensory input,
determines complex behavior
– Midbrain: coordinates muscle groups and responses
to sight and sound
– Hindbrain: coordinates basic, automatic, and vital
tasks

Forebrain
1. Cerebrum (hemispheres/cerebral cortex):
Left and right hemispheres connected by nerve bundle
called corpus callosum to share information
(nasırlı cisim)

Cerebral cortex is divided in to 4 different lobes
Frontal Lobe: Ön Lop

Parietal: Yan Lop
Occipital: Arka Lop
Temporal: Şakak Lop
Not active during sleep

Central sulcus between frontal lobe and parietal lobe.
(Rolando yarığı)
Motor neurons and sensory neurons locate on anterior and posterior

sides of central sulcus.

The outer layer :grey matter( cell bodies & dendrites)
The inner layer: white matter( myelinated axons)

2. Diencephalon
a. Hypothalamus: Regulation of homeostasis

Carbohydrate and fat metabolism, blood pressure, body
temperature, control of pituitary gland, sleep-wake cycle…

b. Thalamus: Receiving, processing, and transfer center of
senses (except sense of smell/olfaction) Not active during sleep

 c. Epithalamus: Secretion of melatonin by
the pineal gland. (Melatonin is a hormone
that regulates our circadian rhythm, sleep
and wake cycle.)

Aziz Sancar (born 8 September 1946) is a Turkish
molecular biologist specializing in DNA repair, cell
cycle checkpoints, and circadian clock. In 2015, he
was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry along with
Tomas Lindahl and Paul L. Modrich for their
mechanistic studies of DNA repair.

Midbrain
• Coordinates movements of the head related to vision and hearing

reflexes
• Controls movement of eyes and size of pupils
• Regulation of muscle tone

Hindbrain
a. Pons
– Coordinates the flow of information
between the cerebellum and higher
brain centers
– Aids medulla oblongata in regulating
respiration
– Controls the swallowing and vomiting
together with medulla oblangata.

Hindbrain
b. Medulla oblongata
– Connects to spinal cord
– Controls vital automatic functions of internal organs
– Cardiovascular center: regulates heart rate and blood
pressure
– Respiratory center: adjusts respiration in response to
CO2 and O2 levels
– Center of sneezing, swallowing, coughing reflexes…
– Regulates the carbohydrate metabolism in liver.

Motor nerves cross over in medulla oblongata
Right forebrain controls left side of body
Left forebrain controls right side of body

 The outer layer :white matter
The inner layer: gray matter
 BRAIN STEM: Midbrain+Pons+ Medulla oblongata

Hindbrain
c. Cerebellum
– Coordinates basic body movements
– Coordinates balance
(works with eyes and ears)
- The outer layer: Gray matter
- The inner layer: White matter

1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
B. SPINAL CORD

Figure 11.14
Spinal cord Gray matter

Dorsal horn
Central canal
Ventral horn
White matter
Ganglion
Pia mater c) A transverse slice of the cord,
showing white and gray matter.
Nerve
Arachnoid Meninges
Intervertebral disc
Dura mater
Vertebra
Spinal cord
a) The spinal cord lies b) A closer look at the spinal cord and
within the vertebral its relationship with a vertebra, including
column. a superior view of the vertebra.

SCOLIOSIS

The Spinal Cord
1.Carries signals between the the body and brain.
2.The spinal cord also acts as a minor coordinating
center responsible for reflexes *
*Reflex is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus.
• Stores and replicates sequences of skilled movements

Examples
Driving
Dancing
Swimming
Knitting
Tying a shoe
Using a keyboard

The Spinal Cord

Sensory nerves genereally cross over in spinal cord
while carrying signals coming from PNS.

The outer layer : white matter (contains axons of motor and
sensory neurons)
The inner layer: gray matter ( contains cell bodies of motor and
inter neurons, axon terminals of sensory neurons and blood
vessels)

- There are two types of reflexes which are in
BORN AND CONDITIONAL REFLEXES.
- Born reflexes: are automatic instinctive

unlearned reactions to different stimuli.
• Stepping,
• Sucking
• Knee jerk reflex

- Conditioned reflex: is an automatic response to a
stimulus which differs from that initially causing
the response but which has become associated
with it by repetition

REFLEX ARC
Sensory neurons interneurons motor neurons
(dorsal root) (gray matter) (ventral root)

Interneurons (gray)
stimulate specific motor
neurons on both sides
of the body and send
To brain
signals to the brain.
Dorsal root (sensory)
Cell body of
sensory neuron
Ventral root
(motor)
Sensory Spinal cord
neurons carry
the signal to
the spinal cord.
Motor neuron Motor neuron
Effector
Flexor reflex: muscles Crossed extensor
withdraws the (thigh) reflex: extends
right leg. the left leg.
A painful stimulus is
applied to the right foot.

Knee-jerk Reflex
sensory neuronsmotor neurons

2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Ganglion: group of
neuron cell bodies in the
peripheral nervous system
Peripheral Nervous System Relays Information
between Tissues and CNS
Nerve
• Contains axons of many neurons wrapped together in a

protective sheath
• Carries information to and from the CNS
Cranial nerves
• 12 pairs
• Connect directly to brain
Spinal nerves
• 31 pairs
• Connect to spinal cord
In somatic nervous
system,the cell bodies
of neurons are in brain
and spinal cord

Figure 11.12 SYMPATHETIC DIVISION PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
Dilates Constricts
pupil pupil
Decreases Increases
salivation salivation
Cranial
nerves
Increases Decreases
respiration respiration
rate rate
Increases Thoracic Decreases

heart rate nerves heart rate
Constricts Dilates
blood blood
vessels vessels
Inhibits Stimulates
digestive digestive
processes processes
Lumbar
nerves
Inhibits Stimulates
digestive digestive
Sacral
processes processes
nerves
Relaxes Contracts
bladder Stimulates bladder
muscles secretion of muscles
epinephrine
and nor-
epinephrine
Inhibits Causes salt and Stimulates

defecation water retention defecation
Ganglion Synapse between neurons
DISORDERS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Trauma
– Physical injury to brain or spinal cord
– Concussion
– Blow to the head, possibly leading to unconsciousness
– Disruption of electrical activity in the brain
– Risk of subdural hematoma
– Spinal cord injuries
– Impairment of sensation and function below site of
injury

Infections: Caused by viruses or bacteria that manage to
pass through the blood-brain barrier
Encephalitis
Inflammation of the brain caused by viral infection

Rabies
Viral disease spread by bite or saliva of infected animal
Infectious virus spreads from bite to brain via sensory
neurons

Meningitis
Inflammation of the meninges caused by viral or
bacterial infection

Disorders of the Nervous System
Epilepsy
Recurring episodes of abnormal electrical activity
(seizures)

Alzheimer’s disease
Most common cause of dementia
Accumulation of abnormal protein,
Progressive memory lapses and dementia

Figure 11.21
a) A PET scan of a healthy brain. Areas of highest b) A PET scan of a patient with Alzheimer’s
brain activity appear red and yellow. disease, showing decreased activity and an
irregular pattern.

Parkinson’s disease
Loss of dopamine-releasing neurons
Progressive degenerative disorder affecting motor
activity

Disorders Associated with Degeneration of Myelin
Sheaths
 Multiple sclerosis (MS)
– Progressive damage to myelin sheaths in brain and
spinal cord
– Weakness, visual impairment, incontinence

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
Progressive damage to myelin sheaths in motor area
of spinal cord ,progressive weakening and wasting of
skeletal muscle

Ibn Sina (1037 AD), also known as Avicenna in the
West, is recognized as one of the forefathers of modern
medicine.

The Legacy of Yasargil: the Father of Modern
Neurosurgery
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4848227/

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Neurons+glia cells

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Nervous system can receive, integrate, and respond

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Results from injury to

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

The higher the temperature the faster the conductance.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 A neuron may receive information via

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

One neurotransmitter may excite or inhibit different neurons.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Sensory (input) Spinal Motor (output)

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Third ventricle Cerebrospinal

Fourth ventricle Spinal canal

Right ventricle Left ventricle

*Pia mater (ince zar)

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Frontal Lobe: Ön Lop

Not active during sleep

Motor neurons and sensory neurons locate on anterior and posterior

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

The inner layer: white matter( myelinated axons)

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

a. Hypothalamus: Regulation of homeostasis

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• Coordinates movements of the head related to vision and hearing