1

Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Course name: CAM and CIM

By: Elias T.(MSc.)

April,2022
 CHAPTER TWO
COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL
2.1 Basic Principles
2

2.1.1 COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL

In modern NC technology, the machine control unit (MCU) is a
microcomputer and related control hardware that stores the program of
instructions and executes it by converting each command into mechanical
actions of the processing equipment, one command at a time.
 The related hardware of the MCU includes components to interface with the
processing equipment and feedback control elements, and one or more reading
devices for entering part programs into memory.
 Software residing in the MCU includes control system software,
calculation algorithms, and translation software.
 CNC requires the controller to execute not only sequence control but
geometric calculations as well.
3 2.1.2 THE CNC MACHINE CONTROL UNIT

The MCU is the hardware that distinguishes CNC from conventional NC

4 Cont’d

1. Central processing Unit

The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the MCU. It manages the other
components in the MCU based on software contained in main memory. The CPU is
divided into three sections: (1) control section, (2) arithmetic logic unit, and (3)
immediate access memory.
 The control section retrieves commands and data from memory and generates signals
to activate other components in the MCU. In short, it sequences, coordinates, and
regulates the activities of the MCU computer.
 The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) consists of the circuitry to perform various
calculations (addition, subtraction, and multiplication), counting, and logical functions
required by software residing in memory.
 The immediate access memory provides a temporary storage for data being processed
by the CPU
 Cont’d
5 2. Memory

CNC memory can be divided into two categories: (1) main memory and (2) secondary memory
Main memory consists of ROM (read-only memory) and RAM (random access memory) devices. Operating

system software and machine interface programs are generally stored in ROM. These programs are usually

installed by the manufacturer of the MCU.

NC part programs are stored in RAM devices.

High-capacity secondary memory devices are used to store large programs and data files, which are transferred

to main memory as needed.

Common among the secondary memory devices are hard disks and solid-state memory devices to store part

programs, macros, and other software.

These high-capacity storage devices are permanently installed in the CNC machine control unit and have

replaced most of the punched paper tape traditionally used to store part programs.
 6
Cont’d
3. Input/output Interface

The I/O interface provides communication between the various components of the CNC system, other
computer systems, and the machine operator.

The operator control panel is the basic interface by which the machine operator communicates to the
CNC system. It has a display screen and keyboard for communication with the operator. The display
shows current status of the program as it is being executed and to warn the operator of any malfunctions
in the system.

Programs can be entered manually by the machine operator or stored at a central computer site and
transmitted via local area network (LAN) to the CNC system.
7 Cont’d
4. Controls for Machine tool axes and spindle speed

These are hardware components that control the position and velocity (feed rate) of each machine
axis as well as the rotational speed of the machine tool spindle.

Control signals generated by the MCU must be converted to a form and power level suited to the
particular position control systems used to drive the machine axes.

Positioning systems can be classified as open loop or closed loop, and different hardware
components are required in each case. Some of the hardware components are resident in the MCU.

Spindle speed is a programmed parameter. Components for spindle speed control in the MCU
usually consist of a drive control circuit and a feedback sensor interface.
8 Cont’d
5. Sequence Controls for other Machine tool Functions

In addition to control of table position, feed rate, and spindle speed, several additional functions are
accomplished under part program control.

 These auxiliary functions generally involve on/off (binary) actuations, interlocks, and discrete
numerical data.

 Auxiliary functions include cutting fluid control, fixture clamping, emergency warnings, and
interlock communications for robot loading and unloading of the machine tool.
9
2.2 COMPUTERS AND NUMERICAL CONTROL

Since the introduction of NC In 1952, there have been dramatic advances in digital computer
technology.

 Today, NC means computer numerical control (CNC), which is defined as an NC system

whose MCU consists of a dedicated microcomputer rather than a hardwired controller.

 The latest computer controllers for CNC feature high speed processors, large memories,
solid-state memory, improved servos, and bus architectures.
10 2.2.1 Features of Computer Numerical Control that Distinguish It from Conventional NC

Storage of more than one part program

Program editing at the machine tool

Fixed cycles and programming subroutines

Adaptive control.

Positioning features

Acceleration and deceleration calculations

Communications interface

Diagnostics
11
2.3 Structure of NC programing

In addition to numerical values, the NC coding system must also provide for alphabetical characters and other
symbols.

 A word specifies a detail about the operation, such as x-position, y position, feed rate, or spindle speed.
Out of a collection of words, a block is formed.

 A block is one complete NC instruction. It specifies the destination for the move, the speed and feed of the
cutting opera

 The organization of words within a block is known as a block formation, and other commands that
determine explicitly what the machine tool will do.

 all modern controllers use the word address format, which uses a letter prefix to identify each type of
word, and spaces to separate words within the block. This format also allows for variations in the order of
words within the block, and omission of words from the block if their values do not change from the
previous block
 12 Cont’d
Example
N001 G00 X07000 Y03000 M03
N002 Y06000

 N is the sequence number prefix,

 X and Y are the prefixes for the x- and y-axes,

 G-words are called preparatory words. They consist of two

numerical digits (following the “G” prefix) that prepare the MCU

for the instructions and data contained in the block.

 M-words are used to specify miscellaneous or auxiliary functions

that are available on the machine tool. The M03 in the example is

used to start the spindle rotation.

13 Cont’d
The words in a block are usually given in the following order (although the word address format
allows variations in the order):

 sequence number (N-word)

 preparatory word (G-word)
 coordinates (X-, Y-, Z-words for linear axes, A-, B-, C-words for rotational axes)
 feed rate (F-word)
 spindle speed (S-word)
 tool selection (T-word)
 miscellaneous command (M-word)
14 2.4 NC Coordinate systems
To program the NC processing equipment, a part programmer must define a standard axis system by
which the position of the work head relative to the work part can be specified.
There are two axis systems used in NC, one for flat and prismatic work parts and the other for
rotational parts. Both systems are based on the Cartesian coordinates.
The axis system for flat and block-like parts consists of the three linear axes (x, y, z) in the Cartesian
coordinate system, plus three rotational axes (a, b, c). Such a positioning scheme is adequate for
simple NC applications such as drilling and punching of flat sheet metal.
 Programming these machine tools consists of little more than specifying a sequence of x–y
coordinates. The a-, b-, and c-rotational axes specify angular positions about the x-, y-, and z-axes,
respectively. To distinguish positive from negative angles, the right-hand rule is used:
 The rotational axes can be used for one or both of the following: (1) orientation of the work part
to present different surfaces for machining or (2) orientation of the tool or work head at some
angle relative to the part. These additional axes permit machining of complex work part
geometries.
 These systems are associated with NC lathes and turning machines.
15 Cont’d
16 2.5 Motion Control systems
Some NC processes are performed at discrete locations on the work part (e.g., drilling and spot
welding). Others are carried out while the work head is moving (e.g., turning, milling, and
continuous arc welding).
If the work head is moving, it may be necessary to follow a straight line path or a circular or other
curvilinear path. These different types of movement are accomplished by the motion control
system.
2.5.1 Point-to-point Versus Continuous path Control.
 Point-to-point (positioning)systems, move the worktable to a programmed location without
regard for the path taken to get to that location. After the move, some processing action is
accomplished by the work head at the location, such as drilling or punching a hole.
 Continuous path systems are capable of continuous simultaneous control of two or more axes.
This provides control of the tool trajectory relative to the work part. In this case, the tool
performs the process while the worktable is moving, thus enabling the system to generate
angular surfaces, two-dimensional curves, or three-dimensional contours in the work part. This
control mode is required in many milling and turning operations.
17 Motion Control systems
 18 Interpolation Methods

Machining paths containing circular arcs and other smooth nonlinear shapes require contouring-type NC
system. Some of these shapes can be defined mathematically by relatively simple geometric formulas
(e.g., the equation for a circle is x2 + y2 = R2), whereas others cannot be mathematically defined except by
approximation. In any case, a fundamental problem in generating these shapes using NC equipment is
that they are continuous, whereas NC is digital. To cut along a circular path, the circle must be divided
into a series of straight line segments that approximate the curve. The tool is commanded to machine each
line segment in succession so that the machined surface closely matches the desired shape. The maximum
error between the nominal (desired) surface and the actual (machined) surface can be controlled by the
lengths of the individual line segments.
 Interpolation Methods
19 Numerical Control Interpolation Methods for Continuous Path Control
Linear interpolation. This is the most basic method and is used when a straight line path is to be
generated in continuous path NC. The programmer specifies the beginning point and endpoint of the
straight line and the feed rate to be used along the straight line. The interpolator computes the feed
rates for each of the two (or three) axes to achieve the specified feed rate.

Circular interpolation. This method permits programming of a circular arc by specifying the
following parameters:
 (1) the coordinates of the starting point,
 (2) the coordinates of the endpoint,
 (3) either the center or radius of the arc, and
 (4) the direction of the cutter along the arc.
The generated tool path consists of a series of small straight line segments (see Figure 7.5) calculated
by the interpolation module. The cutter is directed to move along each line segment one by one to
generate the smooth circular path. A limitation of circular interpolation is that the plane in which the
circular arc exists must be a plane defined by two axes of the NC system (x - y, x - z, or y - z).
20
 Interpolation Methods
21
Helical interpolation. This method combines the circular interpolation scheme for two axes with
linear movement of a third axis. This permits the definition of a helical path in three-dimensional
space. Applications include the machining of large internal threads, either straight or tapered.
Parabolic and cubic interpolations. These routines provide approximations of free-form curves
using higher order equations. They generally require considerable computational power and are
not as common as linear and circular interpolation. Most applications are in the aerospace and
automotive industries for freeform designs that cannot accurately and conveniently be approximated
by combining linear and circular interpolations.

The interpolation module in the MCU performs the calculations and directs the tool along the path.
Linear and circular interpolators are almost always included in modern CNC systems, whereas
helical interpolation is a common option. Parabolic and cubic interpolations are less common
because they are only needed by machine shops that produce complex surface contours.
 Motion control systems(cont’d)
22 2.5.2 Absolute Versus Incremental positioning.
Another aspect of motion control is concerned with the reference position of the tool for the next
move.
 Absolute positioning, the work head locations are
always defined with respect to the origin of the axis system.
 Incremental positioning, the next work head position is
defined relative to the present location.