Fertilisers and Pesticides

Aims of the session:

•Learn about fertilisers and their on
effects environment. the
• Learn about Pesticides and their effects
• Summarise the key points about pesticides
Fertilisers
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

FERTILIZERS

Fertilizer is any material of natural or synthetic origin added to the soil

to supply one or more plant nutrients.

CLASSIFICATION OF FERTILIZERS

Fertilizer
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

1. Straight fertilizers 2. Complex fertilizers 3. Mixed fertilizers:

Straight Complex Physical

fertilizersare those fertilizers contain two or mixtures straight

which supply only one three primary plant are They

nutrients of which fertilizers. or
primary plant
primary nutrients aretwo
in contain
primary plant
two nutrients.
three
namely nitrogen
nutrient,
chemical combination. Mixed fertilizers are
or phosphorus
These made by thoroughly
potassium. E.g. Urea,
or fertilizers
ammonium sulphate, mixing the
are usually
potassium chloride ingredients either
produced in granular form
and potassium e.g. Diammonium mechanically or

sulphate. phosphate, manually.

nitrophosphates
and ammonium
phosphate.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

Fertilizers can also be classified based on physical form

Liquid fertilizers
Solid fertilizers
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

Solid fertilizers are in several forms:

Urea prills Ammonium sulphate Granulated urea

Previous Next End

 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

Liquid fertilizers
Liquid form fertilizers are applied with irrigation water or for application.
Ease of handling, less labor requirement and possibility of mixing with
herbicides has made the liquid fertilizers more acceptable to farmers.

TYPES OF FERTILIZERS

Fertilizer
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

A. Nitrogenous fertilizers
More than 80 per cent of the fertilizers used in this country are made up
of nitrogenous fertilizers, particularly urea.

Ammoniacal Nitrate Ammoniacal and Amide fertilizer

Nitrate
Ammonium Sodium Nitrate Ammonium Nitrate Urea
Sulphate Calcium Calcium Ammonium Nitrate Calcium Cynamide
Ammonium chloride Nitrate
Potassium Nitrate Ammonium Sulphate
Nitrate Anhydrous
ammonia
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

The nitrogenous fertilizers can be further classified into:

1. Ammonical fertilizers
Ammoniacal fertilizers contain the nutrient in the form of
nitrogen ammonium or ammonia.
• Except rice, all crops absorb nitrogen in nitrate form.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

a) Ammonium sulphate [(NH4)2 S04]

• It is a white salt completely soluble in water

• It is used advantageously in rice and jute cultivation.

• It is easy to handle and it stores well under dry conditions.

But during rainy season, it sometimes forms lumps.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

b) Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)

•It is a white salt contains 26.0 per cent of
nitrogen.
•It is usually not recommended for tomato,
tobacco and such other crops as may be injured
by chlorine.
Ammonium chloride
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

2. Nitrate Fertilizers
•Nitrate fertilizers contain the nitrogen in the form of NO3
•These ions are easily lost by leaching because of the greater mobility of
nitrate ions in the soil.
•Continuous use of these fertilizers may reduce the soil acidity as these
nitrogenous fertilizers are basic in their residual effect on soils.
a) Calcium nitrate [Ca (NO3)2]
It is a white crystalline hygroscopic solid soluble in water
The calcium is useful for maintaining a desirable soil
pH.

Calcium nitrate
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

b) Potassium nitrate (KN03)

The nitrogen of the potassium nitrate has the same properties and value
as that of the sodium nitrate.
3. Ammoniacal and nitrate fertilizers
These fertilizers contain nitrogen in both ammonium and nitrate forms.
The nitrates are useful for rapid utilization by crops and the ammonical is
gradually available
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

a) Ammonium nitrate (NH4N03)

• Contain 35 per cent nitrogen half as nitrate nitrogen and half in the
ammonium form.

• In the ammonium form, it cannot be easily leached from the soil.

• This fertilizer is quick-acting, but highly hygroscopic and not fit for
storage.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

b) Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN)

•Calcium ammonium nitrate is a fine free-flowing,
light brown or grey granular fertilizer, containing 26
per cent of nitrogen.

•It is almost neutral and can be safely applied

even to acid soils.
.
•50% of its total nitrogen is in the ammoniacal
form and another 50% is in nitrate form.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

c) Ammonium sulphate nitrate [(NH4)2S04 NH4NO3]

• It is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulphate.
• It absorbs moisture from the atmosphere and has to kept in
be
moisture proof containers.
• It is readily converted to ammoniacal and nitrate forms in the soil.
The nitrogen in urea is readily fixed in the soil in an ammoniacal form
and is not lost in drainage.
Urea sprays are readily absorbed by plants. .
It is suitable for most crops and can be applied to all soils.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

4. Amide fertilizers
Amide fertilizers are readily soluble in and easily
water
decomposable in the soil.

a) Urea [CO (NH2)2]

It is the most concentrated solid nitrogenous fertilizer, containing 46
per cent nitrogen.

It is a white crystalline substance readily soluble in water.

 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

B. Phosphatic fertilizers
Phosphatic fertilizers are chemical substances that contain
the nutrient phosphorus in absorbable form (Phosphate anions) or
that yield after conversion in the soil.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

Super phosphate [Ca (H2PO4)2)

This is the most important phosphatic fertilizer in use.

It contains 16 Per cent P2O5 in available form.
It is a grey ash like powder with good keeping or storage qualities.
Phosphatic fertilizer hardly moves in the soil and hence they are
placed in the, root zone.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

Triple super phosphate:

The concentrated super phosphate is called as Triple super phosphate and

it contains 46 per cent P2O5.

This fertilizer is suitable for all crops and all soils.

In acid soils, it should be used in conjunction with organic manure.

It can be applied before or at sowing or transplanting.

 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

C. Potassic fertilizers
There are a limited number of fertilizer materials that can be used to
supply K when needed.

Common fertilizer sources of K

Material Chemical Formula K2O Contend(%)

Potassium chloride KCl 60

Potassium-magnesium sulfate K2SO4-2MgSO4 20

Potassium nitrate KNO3 44

Potassium sulfate K2SO4 50

 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

a) Potassium chloride (KCI)

• Potassium chloride is a white crystal.

• It is completely soluble in water and therefore readily available to

the crops.

• It can be applied at sowing or before or after sowing.

 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

b) Potassium sulphate (K2S04)

• Potassium sulphate or sulphate of potash is a white salt.

• It is soluble in water and therefore readily available to the crop.

• It does not produce any acidity or alkalinity in the soil.

• It is preferred for fertilization of crops like tobacco, potato etc.,

 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

c. Sulphate Fertilizers
These are chemical substances containing the nutrient sulphur in the form
of absorbable sulphate anions (SO42-).
The sulphur requirements of plants are about two third of their phosphorus
requirements.
Substantial sulphur supplies occur as minor constituents of various N, P
and K fertilizers.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

D. Micronutrient Fertilizers
The importance of fertilization of crops with micro-nutrients is increasing
mainly because of greater removal from the soil, intensive liming of soil,
intensive drainage of soil, higher use of nitrogenous, phosphatic and
potassic fertilizers etc. There are seven essential micronutrients required
by plants.
These are iron, manganese, zinc, copper, chlorine, boron and
molybdenum.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

a. lron fertilizers
These are generally water soluble substances, predominantly sprayed as
foliar nutrients on the crops. Plants absorb iron in the form of Fe2+.

Ferrous sulphate It is a water soluble fertilizer containing 20 % Fe

(FeSO4 7H2O)

Fe – Chelates Suitable for application as foliar nutrients

Fe-
EDTA
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

b. Manganese fertilizers

The manganese (Mn) fertilizers are as follows:

ManganousSulphat It is the well known water soluble Mn fertilizer.

e ( MnSO4 .7H2O) It is pink salt containing 24 % Mn.
It dissolves in water and is suitable for foliar
application.

Mn – chelates It contains 13 % Mn.

It plays an important role in the crop fertilization.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

c. Zinc fertilizers
Zinc (Zn) fertilizers play an important role in Zn deficient

Zincsulphate It is water soluble whitish salt containing 23 % Zn.

(ZnSO4 7H2O) It is applied as foliar nutrient.
Its acidic action causes corrosion damage to
plants

Zinc-oxide(ZnO) It contains 70 % Zn.

It is slightly soluble in water
It is used as slow acting foliar nutrient
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

d. Copper Fertilizers
Copper fertilizers have been used to correct copper (Cu),deficiencies.
Copper sulphate (CuSO4 5H2O) – 25 % Cu
Copper sulphate (CuSO4 H2O) – 36 % Cu

e. Boron Fertilizers
Borax (Na2B4O 10H2O) It contains 11 % B
It is water soluble white salt
It can be applied as a soil dressing or foliar application

Boric acid (H3BO3) It contains 18 % B

It is a white crystalline powder
It is applied as a foliar nutrient
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

f. Molybdenum Fertilizers

Sodium molybdate It contains 40 % Mo

(Na2MoO42.H2O)

Ammonium It contains 54 % Mo
molybdate
(NH4)6Mo7O24.4H2O)
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

E. Secondary major-nutrient fertilizers

a). Magnesium fertilizers
These are chemical substances containing the nutrient magnesium in
the form of magnesium cations (Mg2+).
Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO4)
The utilization rate of magnesium fertilizers decreases with increasing
potassium supplies.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

b). Calcium fertilizers

These are the chemical substances containing the calcium in
nutrient absorbable calcium cations ('Ca2+) form.
The raw material of calcium fertilizers is lime found in nature.
Calcium Chloride (CaCl2 6H2O)
It contains at least 15 per cent calcium.
It is highly water soluble and can, therefore, be dissolved for application as a
foliar nutrient.
 Sources and Forms of Fertilizer

To Sum up

Fertilizers are available in both organic as well as inorganic forms.

They are classified as straight, complex and mixed fertilizers.

They can also be classified into solid and liquid fertilizers.

Fertilizers are applied to supply nutrients required by the crop that are
taken up from the soil.
Nutrient Deficiency in Plants
 Conditions for nutrient deficiency
a) Amount and concentration of nutrients in the soil.
b) Form of the soil.
c) The contents of the soil solutions.
d) Soil pH.
Nutrient concentration in plants: these vary with
e) Plant age
f) Plant part
g) Plant species
h) Soil type
 Deficiency symptoms
• Symptom: is any change in known structure
traceable appearance or ,
function.
These include:(Chlorosis: Chlorosis is a condition in which leaves
1. Yellowing
produce insufficient chlorophyll. )
2. Death (Necrosis)
3. Lesions(any abnormality in the tissue of an organism )
4. Malformation(Irregular or abnormal structural development)
5. Reduced growth and yield
 Essential Elements
• The 16 elements required by plants are obtained from
the soil, water and air.

• Thirteen of these elements must be supplied by the soil.

• Six of the soil elements required by plants are needed in

relatively large amounts and are usually added to the soil
through fertilizer or lime. These are called
macronutrients.
• The remaining 7 elements supplied by soil are required in
very small amounts and are termed micronutrients.
 Macronutrient
Element Symbol Source
• s Oxygen
Macronutrients are
O Air/Water
needed in
relatively large Hydrogen H Air/Water
amounts by plants. Carbon C Air/Water
Nitrogen N Soil
Phosphorus P Soil
Sulfur S Soil
Potassium K Soil
Calcium Ca Soil
Magnesium Mg Soil
 Macronutrients – Form Used By Plants
Nutrient Form
Used
Carbon CO2
Charge on the
Oxygen H2O molecule
Hydrogen H2O
-
Nitrogen +
NO3 , NH4 2-
Phosphorus H2PO4 & HPO4
Potassium K+ 2+
Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg2+
2-
Sulfur SO4
 Micronutrient
• s Element
Macronutrients are Symbol Source
needed in Iron Fe Soil
relatively small
Manganese Mn Soil
amounts by plants.
Boron B Soil
• They are usually
supplied by Molybdenum Mo Soil
fertilizers. Copper Cu Soil
Zinc Zn Soil
Chlorine Cl Soil
 Micronutrients – Form Used By
Plants
Nutrient Form
Charge on the
Used
Iron molecule
Fe2+
Manganese Mn2+ -
Boron HB03
2-
Molybdenum MoO4
Copper Cu2+
Zinc Zn2+
Chlorine Cl-
 Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
• Nutrient deficiency symptoms usually appear on the plant
when one or more nutrients are in short supply.

• In many cases, deficiency may occur because an added

nutrient is not in the form the plant can use.
 Deficiency Symptoms - N
• General Chlorosis.

• Chlorosis progresses from

light green to yellow.

• Growth is immediately
restricted and plants soon
become weak and drop
older leaves.
 Deficiency Symptoms - P
• Leaves appear dull, dark
green, blue green, or red-
purple, especially on the
underside, and especially at
the midrib and deposit.
• Petioles may also exhibit
purpling. Re­striction in
growth may be noticed.
 Deficiency Symptoms - K
• Leaf margins brown, dry as a
bone, or have necrotic
spots (may be small black
spots).
• Margins become brown and
cup downward.
• Growth is restricted and die
• Mild symptoms appear first
on recently matured leaves.
 Deficiency Symptoms - Ca
• Growing points usually
damaged or dead.
• Margins of leaves
developing from the
growing point are first to
turn brown.

http://hubcap.clemson.edu/~blpprt/acid_photos/Blossom
EndRot.JPG
 Deficiency Symptoms - Mg
• Marginal chlorosis or chlorotic
spots which later merge.
• Younger leaves affected with
continued stress.
• Chlorotic areas may become
necrotic, brittle, and curl
upward.
• Symptoms usually occur late in
the growing season.

http://quorumsensing.ifas.ufl.edu/HCS200/images/deficien
cies/-Mgcq.jpg
 Deficiency Symptoms - S
• Leaves uniformly light green, followed by yellowing
and poor growth.
• Uniform chlorosis does not occur
 Deficiency Symptoms - Cu
• Leaves faded, become
chlorotic, then necrotic.
• drooping and necrosis are
not dominant symptoms.
 Deficiency Symptoms - Fe
• Distinct yellow or white
areas appear between
veins, and veins
eventually become
chlorotic.
• Symptoms are rare on
mature leaves.
 Deficiency Symptoms - Mn
• Chlorosis is less marked
near veins.
• Chlorotic areas eventually
become brown,
transparent, or necrotic.
• Symptoms may appear
later on older leaves.
 Deficiency Symptoms - Zn
• Leaves may be abnormally small and necrotic.
• Internodes are shortened.

http://agri.atu.edu/people/Hodgson/FieldCrop
s/Mirror/Nutrient%20Def_files/slide24.jpg

http://plantsci.sdstate.edu/woodardh/soilfert/Nut

rient_Deficiency_Pages/corn_def/CORN-
ZN1.JPG
 Deficiency Symptoms - B
• Young, expanding leaves
may be necrotic or
distorted followed by
death of growing points.
• Internodes may be short,
especially at shoot
terminals.
• Stems may be rough,
cracked, or split along the
vascular bundles. http://www.canr.msu.edu/vanburen/ffc12.jpg
Crops Highly Susceptible to Deficiencies
Element Crops
Mn Soybean, Small Grain & Peanuts
Cu Wheat & Corn
Zn Corn
Mo Soybeans & Cauliflower
B Apples, Peanuts, Tobacco & Tomatoes
Fe Fruit Trees, Soybeans & Some Grasses
Pesticides
Pesticides
Pesticides are chemicals used to eliminate or control a variety of
agricultural pests that can damage crops and livestock and reduce farm
productivity.

Major types of pesticides:

Insecticides – used to kill insects
Herbicides – weed killers
Fungicides – used to kill molds, rusts
Rodenticides – rat & mouse killers
PESTICIDE BENEFITS
1) Saves Lives – Malaria - mosquitoes (DDT)
Over 70% of pesticides
Plague – rat fleas are used in the developed
Typhus – body parasites countries –
AGRIBUSINESS
Sleeping Sickness –
Tsetse Fly
2) Increased Food Supply
Pests destroy ~40% of food
crops per year!! Costs 65 million
3) Lower Food Costs dollars a year!

4) Work Faster than alternatives –

such as biological controls;
physical controls
IDEAL PESTICIDES would…
o Kills only the target pest!!
o Harms no other species in ecosystem
o Disappears or breaks down into something non toxic
o Does not promote genetic resistance in pests
o Is more cost-effective (cheap)
PESTICIDE PROBLEMS:
Endocrine disruptors (DDT, Polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), Atrazine, Bisphenol A) are carcinogens
Wildlife –mutations
Humans – increase cancers , increase in miscarriage, increase
in male infertility

They can be constant and biomagnified in the ecosystem

(DDT; PCBs)

Neurological Damage – PCBs, mercury

Surface Water Runoff of pesticides – killing millions of fish

Direct contact of farmers resulting in deaths –
Organophosphates (Malathion)
Broad Spectrum Pesticides – killing useful insects - honeybee
 HAZARD = Toxicity x Exposure

Risk; the the capacity of

potential for a pesticide to
injury cause injury the risk of a
pesticide
contacting or
entering the
body
Pesticides and Humans
• Insects, rodents, and humans have similar
nervous, circulatory, and respiratory systems, so
pesticides can affect people too!

• Health effects - short- or long-term

• Physical and chemical risks - explosive
or combustible
Poisoning Effects
• Contact

•
Systemic
• Allergic
 Contact Effects
Contact injury to the skin
is the most common form of
pesticide poisoning!

• Skin irritation (dermatitis): itching, redness,

rashes, burns
• Eyes: swelling, burning
• Nose, mouth, throat irritation
• Typical of herbicides, fungicides and other products
Systemic Effects

• From pesticides that target animals

– Insecticides: Nervous system
– Rodenticides: Circulatory
system
• Insecticide symptoms: Vomiting,
Nausea,
Diarrhea, Headache, Weakness, Excessive
sweating, Tearing, Chest pain, Breathing
difficulty.
 Allergic Effects
• Contact or Systemic
• Life-threatening shock
• Red or itchy eyes
• Respiratory discomfort, asthma
Routes of Entry: Skin (Dermal)
97% of all body
exposure during
spraying is by
skin contact!
 Some Common Pesticides
 Insecticide: Organochlorines (DDT), Organophosphates (Parathion) and carbamates (
Carbaryl).
 DDT:- is a colorless, crystalline, tasteless and almost odorless organochloride.

 Highly hydrophobic, it is nearly insoluble in water but has

good solubility in most organic solvents, fats and oils.
 From 1950 to 1980, DDT was extensively used in agriculture.
 In insects it opens sodium ion channels in neurons, damage neurons which
leads to spasms and eventual death.
• Problems:
 In the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural use was banned in most developed
countries.
 is a persistent organic pollutant that is readily adsorbed to soils and sediments
 Due to hydrophobic properties, in aquatic ecosystems
DDT and itsmetabolites are absorbed by aquatic
organisms.
 Because of its lipophilic properties, DDT has a high potential to
bioaccumulate, especially in predatory birds
 Herbicide: 2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid)

is a common systemic herbicide used in the control

of broadleaf weeds but not grasses or crops.
 It is absorbed through the leaves .

Problems:
Men who work with 2,4-D are at risk of fertility problems; the risk depends
on the amount and duration of exposure and other personal factors.
World Health Organization's (WHO) International Agency for Research on
Cancer (IARC) confirmed that, 2,4-D as a possible carcinogen.
Fungicide: Hexachlorobenzene

 Hexachlorobenzene, or perchlorobenzene, is an organochloride with the

molecular formula It is a fungicide formerly used as a seed treatment,
especially on wheat to control the fungal disease bunt.
 HCB is a white crystalline solid that has negligible solubility in water
 Material has relatively low sensitive toxicity but is toxic because of its
constant and increasing nature in body tissues in rich lipid content
Problems:
 Hexachlorobenzene is an animal carcinogen and is considered to be a
probable human carcinogen.
 hexachlorobenzene show increased incidences of liver, kidney (renal
tubular tumours) and thyroid cancers.
 Bioaccumulation
E.g DDT Water Zooplankto Small fishes
N 0.04 ppm 0.5 ppm
Large fishes 2 ppm Big fish 25 ppm
The process of

Eutrophication
The process of Eutrophication cont.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).

This measures the rate of oxygen consumption by a

sample of water, and therefore gives a good
indication of eutrophication. A high BOD means lots
of organic material and aerobic microbes, i.e.
eutrophication
Soil Chemistry
Soil is the top layer of the earth’s crust in which organic matter grows. There are
many components which determine a soil type such as pH, nutrient level and
organic content. These factors can vary depending on the type of plant or crop
which grows in the soil and also on geographic location.

pH of the soil
Can be modified by adding different chemicals.
Soil pH indicates how acid or alkaline the soil is.
The pH of a soil is crucial because crops grow best in a narrow pH range which can vary
among crops.
For example, blueberries and a few types of flowers grow best when the pH is 5.5 or less.
Potatoes, a more familiar crop, grow best with a soil pH range of 5.5 to 6.0. Most garden
vegetables, shrubs, trees and lawns grow best when the soil pH is over 6.0 or 6.5.

The range between 5.5 and 7.5 is favorable for two reasons. It allows sufficient
microorganisms to break down organic matter. It is also the best range for nutrient
availability.
Liming
farmers needed a way to increase the pH of the soil to make it suitable for other
crops.
The pH of soil can be increased by liming.
This is why people sometimes spread white powder on their lawns or gardens.
This white powder is Lime.
Calcitic limestone (CaCO3) provides a good source of Calcium (Ca) and helps
neutralize soil acidity.
Limestone functions similarly but also adds Magnesium (Mg).
Chemistry to liming
Hydrogen ions (H+) are attracted to soil and organic material which have a negative
charge. When lime is applied, these hydrogen ions are exchanged for calcium or
magnesium(Ca2+ or Mg2+) ions which have a greater positive charge. This helps to
neutralize the acidity of the soil. The free hydrogen ions are taken out of solution.
This also helps to increase the pH.

Buffering capacity
is the ability of the soil to resist change. In the case of acidity, it is the ability of
the soil to resist change in pH.
Chemicals in Food
Food additives
Learning objectives
• To identify the reason(s) why food additives are used.
• To understand the different sources of food additives.
• To understand the different roles and of
functions additives in food. food
Food additives
Food additives are substances added to products to
perform specific technological functions.
functions include:
•Adding colour, flavour and sweetness to food for interest
and variety.
•Preserving, i.e. increasing shelf-life or inhibiting the growth
of pathogens.
 Use of food additives (PAT)

Preservin
g
Attractive
Tastier
 Main classes of food additives (Big 7)
1. Colourings
2. Flavourings
3. Sweeteners (To sweeten food without using sugar)
4. Preservatives
5. Emulsifiers and stabilizers(Stabilize oil-water
mixtures like ice-cream)
6. Acids, bases and buffers(Control the pH value of
food)
7. Nutrients
Types of additives
Additives may be:
•Natural – found naturally, such as extracts
from beetroot juice (E162), used as a
colouring agent;
•Manmade versions – synthetic identical
copies of substances found naturally, such
as benzoic acid (E210), used as a
preservative;
•Artificial – produced synthetically and not
found naturally, such as nisin (E234), used
as a preservative in some dairy products.
Colours
Colours aim to:
• Restore lost during processing or storage, e.g.
colour
marrowfat peas;

• Ensure that each batch produced is identical in appearance or

does not appear ‘off’
• Reinforces colour already in foods, e.g. enhance
the yellowness of a custard
• Give colour to foods which otherwise would be
colourless (e.g. soft drinks) and so make them more
attractive.
Colours
Certain combinations of the following artificial food colours:
sunset yellow (E110), quinoline yellow (E104), carmoisine
(E122), allura red (E129), tartrazine (E102) and ponceau 4R
(E124) have been linked to a negative effect on children’s
behaviour.

These colours are used in soft drinks, sweets and ice cream.
Flavour enhancers
Flavour enhancers bring out the flavour in foods without
imparting a flavour of their own, e.g. Monosodium glutamate
(E612) is added to processed foods. For example some soups,
sauces and salad dressing.
(Prolonged eating cause numbness in a portion of brain)
Sweeteners
Sweeteners include:
•Intense sweeteners, e.g. saccharin, have a sweetness many times
that of sugar and therefore are used in small amounts, e.g. in diet
foods, soft drinks, sweetening tablets; (non caloric, control obesity
but causes bladder tumours)

•Bulk sweeteners, e.g. sorbitol, have a similar sweetness to sugar

and are used at similar levels.

If concentrated warm drinks that contain sweeteners are given to

children between the ages of 6 months to 4 years, it is important
to dilute them more than for adults. Infants under 6 months
should not be given cordial drinks.
Food Preservatives
Preservatives
• Chemicals added to color and
maintain of food and drink products.
freshness
Preservatives
Preservatives aim to:
•Prevent the growth of micro-organisms which could cause food
spoilage and lead to food poisoning;

•Extend the shelf-life of products, so that they can be distributed

and sold to the consumer with a longer shelf-life.

For example:- Different types of meats are often treated

with nitrite and nitrate (E249 to E252) during the curing process.
General Name of Product and Chemicals Used in Daily Life
products and their Effect

A) Colas

• High Fructose Corn Syrup

• Carmel Color
• Phosphoric Acid
Caramel Color
• Brown color made from
burnt sugar
• Preservative effect
• Exempt from regulation
 Phosphoric Acid
• Acidifying agent
• Rots(Decay or Damage) teeth
• Cause calcium loss
• Rust remover
• High blood pressure
 Diet Coke
More of previous ingredients + …
• Aspartame
• Potassium Benzoate
• Citric Acid
Aspartame: Aspartame is an artificial, non-saccharide
sweetener used as a sugar substitute in some foods
and beverages
• Outlawed in some countries
• Hard of hearing
• Blindness
• High blood pressure
• Liver Cancer
Potassium Benzoate
• Allergies
• Asthma
• Skin reactions
• Hyperactivity
• Gastric irritation
• Migraines

Citric Acid
• Acidifying agent
• Made from fruit juice
• NO known side effects!!
 Beer
• Ingredients
– Barley, Hops, Yeast, Water
• Brewing process
– The processing, required for the formation of Beer
is known as Brewing process.
Types of Grain Used for Beer
• Barley
• Other Grains
– Wheat, Oats, Corn, Rice.
Malting-Process of Malt Formation
• Grain (usually barley) is malted
a) Harvested grain is soaked
in water until it
germinates
amylases (andThis activates
proteases)
b) Grain is dried
c) Acrospires (sprouts) are removed
d) Grain is cured -usually at least
one month
Barley Amylase
e) Malt is formed
Yeast
• The word “enzyme” (meaning biological catalyst)
originates from the Greek for “within the yeast”*
• Through anaerobic respiration, it converts the malt sugar into
alcohol, CO2, and other by-products
C6H12O6  2 CH3CH2OH + 2 CO2 + 118 kJ
• Yeast is essentially a fermentation catalyst and often removed
after fermentation, and can be re-uesd
Water
1. Flavor of water
2. Nutrients for yeast
a) Can’t use distilled water
b) pH effects how well enzymes make maltose
c) Keep mash pH 5-5.5
3. Ion concentration important
e.g. Ca2+, Mg2+, CO32-
Brewing Process
• Sugar is extracted from grains
• Hops are added and Wort(Liquid mixture) is boiled
• Wort is cooled
• Yeast is added
• Wort ferments to become beer
• Water is a medium for fermentation

Fermentation
• Yeast absorbs oxygen and sugar, and reproduces.
• When oxygen is used up, reproduction stops
and fermentation (anaerobic respiration) begins
• Each glucose produces two molecules of ethyl alcohol and CO2
C6H12O6  2 CH3CH2OH + 2 CO2 + 118 kJ (2 ATP)
Chemistry in
housing
and
household
 Varnis
• A coating h which applied to a
material forms a solid
substrate when
transparent film having
protective, decorative or specific technical
properties.
• Varnish is a transparent, hard ,protective finish or
film that is primarily used in wood finishing but
also for other materials.
 Shellac is a resin secreted by the female Lac bug,
on trees in the forests of India and Thailand.
5.Lacquer (clear or coloured wood finish): Protecting covering or
coating consisting of resin sometimes pigment also
6.Resin: thicks, sticky yellowish material-brown substance which bound material
material together.
Paint
A pigmented coating material in liquid or in paste or powder form
which when applied to a substrate forms an opaque(Solid) film
having protective, decorative or specific technical properties.
Paint Composition:
Coatings are a combination of numerous ingredients, all of which
fulfill a specific purpose:-
Film formers: are either macro-molecular
chlorinated products (eg or lowmolecular mass
rubber)react to form macromolecular
which products structures (eg epoxy/amine).
Resins: the essence of a resin is that it
can be made to form a continuous
supporter film when applied to a
substrate.
Plasticizer: are organic liquids of oily consistency and low volatility.
They are used to modify the film characteristics of the film
former/resin being used, for example by improving flow and
increasing flexibility.
Binder: Film former/resin/ plasticizer combinations are often
referred to as the binder of the system.
Pigments: are responsible for colour, hiding power and, in special
cases, for specific properties (eg passivation or fouling control).
Pigments are finely ground, crystalline solids dispersed in the
paint. Metals, inorganic, organic and organometallic compounds
are all used as pigments.
• Extenders: are naturally occurring or synthetic materials which
have little hiding power or effect on colour. Extenders are used to
impart specific properties to the paint (eg shiny finish control,
scratch resistance or reinforcement). Typical extenders are talc,
mica and dolomite.

Solvents: are volatile fluids used to assist in dissolving solid resins

and to aid the application of paint. Solvent evaporates from the
coating during drying and essentially plays no part in the final
coating performance.

Additives: a wide range of materials are used in paint at low

levels to improve the properties of the finished product.
Film Formation (Drying)
During the film formation process the paint is transformed from a liquid
(usually) to a coherent, tightly
supporter on the surface of the item
film being coated.
There are essentially two drying mechanisms used in
marine coatings:-
(i) Physical drying – referring to non-convertible coatings. Such
coatings dry by simple solvent evaporation. No chemical reaction
takes place. Binders are usually long chain polymers, which can
interlock to form continuous films without chemical reaction. To
facilitate film formation it is necessary to dissolve the polymers in
appropriate solvents due to the inherently high viscosities of the
polymers in use.
(ii)
Chemical drying – referring to convertible coatings. Such coatings
dry by chemical reaction, i.e. they are converted from their
original state into a new state. Once they are fully cured they
cannot be redissolved in the original carrier solvent, unlike non-
convertible coatings.
Timber and its chemical protection
 More than 5000 products such as cellulose, varnishes, alcohol,
synthetic fibres, sugars, plastics, adhesives, oils, dyes, soaps,
inks, medicines, disinfectants, boards, many of which are
known since centuries ago, are prepared from wood.

 Specially new wood products with better quality and

properties are recently seen in the field of board products and
composite materials. The demand for wood material and the
price are seen to be increasing by time.
• Although wood material has many
advantage with itsunique properties
s with other materials,
compared
are three deficiencies
therelimiting its use:
a) can be degraded by beetles, and
Woodtermites wood destroying fungi of
because its organic chemical
structure.
b) Wood is a inflammable material.
c) Wood can absorb water molecules with
its free hydroxyl groups and its absorbed
water content depends on the relative
humidity of the air.
• Timber preservation is becoming increasingly important:
a) to help conserving forest resources
b) to protect wood with higher proportions of sapwood
c) to allow the use of non-durable wood species
d) to influence the use of alternative materials
e) to reduce the necessity for over demand
f) to provide economic and social benefits
• WOOD PRESERVATIVES
• GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD PRESERVATIVES
a)They must be toxic to fungi, pests and marine
organisms.
b) They must be free from objectionable properties in use and handling.
c) They have to possess satisfactory properties with stability under
the conditions
d)They for which they
should not are recommended for use.
corrosive properties.
have
e) They should not be expensive.
Examples:
• Tar Oils
• Anthracene Oil
• Lignite oil
• Pentachlorophenol
• Ammoniacal copper arsenite (ACA)
• Chromated zinc chloride (CZC)
• Paints and varnishes
• Fire Retardants
Cleaners and stain removers
• Cleaning or Stain removal is the process of removing a mark
or spot left by one substance on a specific surface like a fabric.
• A solvent or detergent is generally used to conduct stain
removal and many of these are available over the counter.
• If a stain has "set", it has become chemically bonded to the
material that it has stained, and cannot be removed without
damaging the material itself.
 Stain prevention
It is important to avoid setting stains that one wants
to remove.
 This can be done by avoiding heat (by not pressing or ironing
the stain),
 Remove stained materials as quickly as possible, using the
correct solvent (some solvents will act as catalysts on certain
substances and cause the stain to set more quickly)
 and avoiding rubbing the stain.
 Stain removal
• Most stains are removed by dissolving them with a solvent. The solvent to
use is dependent on two factors:
(a)The agent that is causing the stain
(b)The material that has been stained.
Mechanism
Solvents
These are some of the solvents that can be used for stains, with some
examples of the stains that they are capable of removing
 Oxidizing solvents
Household bleach generally removes a stain's colour, without dissolving the
stain itself. Hydrogen peroxide is also a bleaching agent that can be used to
treat stains.
 Reducing solvents
Sodium hydrosulphite and sodium hypochlorite normally used for removing
stain and dyes colors.
 Lacquer solvents
Acetone is good for removing some glues, nail polish, ink stains, rubber
cement, and grease. Nail polish remover may contain acetone, however for
general use it is best to obtain bottled acetone from a hardware store. It can
be diluted with water.
 Detergents
Surfactants (detergents) can help to emulsify compounds that are not
usually soluble in water. For example, if you put oil in water, they tend to
stay separated. If you put oil, detergent, and water together and shake
them up, then you get a mixture that can help to remove stains.
 Acids
Lemon juice, containing citric acid which is the active bleaching agent, can
effectively remove stains. Its action can be accelerated by exposing the
stain to sunlight, or some other UV source, while soaking. Other rust
removal acids are oxalic acid. Borax or Boric Acid, Vinegar ( or acetic acid )
which can also help bring out stains.
 Alkalis
Sodium Hydroxide Is also commonly used in drain cleaners. It allows
Grease and other oils to dissolve into Aqueous solution. i.e. Water. Other
Alkalis such as Potassium Hydroxide (much stronger than Sodium
Hydroxide ) are also used. Both of these are hazardous chemicals and
react with animal flesh(Soft tissue). High enough concentrations, as in
industrial cleaners, and/or significant exposure time without adequate
protection of the exposed area will cause serious chemical burns.
PORTLAND CEMENT
 INTRODUCTION
Definition: “Cement is a crystalline compound of
silicates andcalcium
other calcium compounds hydraulic
properties”
having .

Types of Cement
• There are two types:
Hydraulic Cement :-Those activate with the addition of water
Non Hydraulic Cement :- Develop hydraulic properties when they interact with
hydrated lime Ca(OH)2

HYDRAULIC CEMENTS:
Portland cement: Made by the mixing clinker with gypsum in a 95:5 ratio.

Portland-limestone cements: Large amounts (6% to 35%) of

ground limestone have been added as a filler to a Portland cement base.
PORTLAND CEMENT
Portland cement is the name given to a cement obtained by very well
mixing together calcareous and argillaceous, or other silica, alumina,
and iron oxide bearing materials, burning them at a clinkering
temperature, and grinding the resulting clinker.

RAW MATERIALS OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Calcareous Rocks (CaCO3 > 75%)
Limeston
e Chalk

Argillocalc
areous
Rocks
(40%<CaC
O3<75%)
Cement rock
Clayey limestone

Argillaceous
Rocks (CaCO3
< 40%)
Clays
 Portland cement is made by mixing substances containing CaCO3
with substances containing SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and heating them
to a clinker which is subsequently ground to powder and mixed
with 2-6 % gypsum.

Chemical composition of Portland Cement:

a) Tricalcium Silicate (50%)
b) Dicalcium Silicate (25%)
c) Tricalcium Aluminate (10%)
d) Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (10%)
e) Gypsum (5%)
 PRODUCTION STEPS
1) Raw materials are crushed, screemed & stockpiled.
2) Raw materials are mixed with definite proportions to obtain “raw
mix”. They are mixed either dry (dry mixing) or by water (wet
mixing).
3) Prepared raw mix is fed into the rotary kiln.
4) As the materials pass through the kiln their temperature is rised upto
1300-1600 °C. The process of heating is named as “burning”. The
output is known as “clinker” which is 0.15-5 cm in diameter.
5) Clinker is cooled & stored.
6) Clinker is ground with
gypsum (3-6%) to adjust
setting time.
7) Packing & marketing.
 Fire Extinguisher
A fire extinguisher, or extinguisher, is an active fire protection
device used to extinguish or control small fires, often in
emergency situations.
There are two main types of fire extinguishers: stored-pressure
and cartridge-operated.

In stored pressure units, the expellant is stored in the same

chamber as the firefighting agent itself.

Eg: In dry chemical extinguishers, nitrogen is typically used; In

water and foam extinguishers typically use air.

Cartridge-operated extinguishers contain

the expellant gas in a separate cartridge
that is punctured prior to discharge,
exposing the propellant to the
extinguishing agent.

use compressed carbon dioxide instead of

nitrogen
Internationally accepted classification methods for hand-held fire extinguisher, useful in
fighting fires with a particular group of fuel.
 Chemicals/agents used as fire extinguishers

Chemicals:
Monoammonium phosphate: used on class A, B, and C fires
Sodium bicarbonate: used on class B and C fire
Potassium bicarbonate:
used on class B and C fires
Potassium bicarbonate
& Urea Complex:used on class B and C fires.
Potassium chloride: For
B & C fire

Foam:
Aqueous film-forming
foam (AFFF): used on A and B fires
Compressed air foam
system (CAFS): on class B for vapor suppression.

Water:
A
ir-pressurized water (APW)
Water Mist(Spray)

Clean agents & Carbondioxide:

Mixtures of inert gases: including Inergen and Argonite.
CO2
Glasses:
Glass is a super cooled solution of fused silicates, such as silicates of sodium, potassium,
calcium and lead that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological,
and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics.

glass are based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide), the primary
constituent of sand.

Soda-lime glass:
silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) calcium
oxide, (CaO), and several minor additives.

Properties of glass:
improve the temperature workability of the
product
Toughness
thermal stability
optical transmittance.
Uses of Glass:
 Optical lenses
 Prisms
 fine glassware
 Optical fibers
 paperweights, marbles, and beads

list of the more common types of silicate glasses

Fused quartz, also called fused silica glass, vitreous silica glass (SiO2)

Soda-lime-silica glass, (window glass or Soda Glass): silica + sodium

oxide (Na2O) + lime (CaO) + magnesia (MgO) + alumina (Al2O3) Is transparent

Sodium borosilicate glass, (Pyrex): silica + boric oxide (B2O3) +

soda (Na2O) + alumina (Al2O3)

Lead-oxide glass, (crystal glass or Flint or lead glass): silica + lead oxide
(PbO) + potassium oxide (K2O) + soda (Na2O) + zinc oxide (ZnO) + alumina

Potash or Hard glass: used for making apparatus withstanding

high temperature and pressure
 Safety glass is glass with additional safety features
Safety Glasses: that make it less likely to break, or less likely to pose
a threat when broken also helps the user to less
likely threatened by various hazards.

Common designs include

 toughened glass (also known as tempered glass)
 laminated glass,
 wire mesh glass (also known as wired glass)
Toughened is processed
controlled by
glass thermal or chemical treatments to increase
its strength compared with normal glass.

Tempering, by design, creates balanced internal

stresses which causes the glass sheet, when broken, to
crush into small granular chunks of similar size and
shape instead of breaking into random, sharp debris.
The granular chunks are less likely to cause injury.

Uses:
vehicle windows
shower doors
architectural glass doors and tables
refrigerator trays
as a component of bulletproof glass
for diving masks
various types of plates and
cookware.
Laminated glass is usually layers of toughened glass and plastic. When
laminated glass is broken, it is held in place by an interlayer, (polyvinyl butyral
(PVB) or Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) polymer.

The interlayer keeps the layers of glass bonded even when broken, and its
toughening prevents the glass from breaking up into large sharp pieces.

Uses:
automobile windshields
In geographical areas requiring hurricane-resistant
construction
exterior storefronts
curtain walls and windows
PVB interlayer also gives the glass a much higher
sound insulation rating and blocks 99% of incoming
UV radiation.
Wire mesh glass has a grid or mesh of thin metal wire embedded within
the glass. The presence of the wire mesh may impart strengthening component.

Uses:
Wired glass is utilized for its fire-
resistant abilities,
heat and hose streams.
The wire prevents the glass from
falling out of the frame even if it cracks
under thermal stress, and is far more
heat-resistant than a laminating
material.
 SILVERING OF MIRROR-HOW TO MAKE A MIRROR

To deposit a coating of pure silver (Ag)

on a glass sheet or a glass plate is
called silvering of mirror. This process
converts a plane glass sheet into a
mirror.

THEORY OF SILVERING PROCESS

Ammonical silver nitrate is a mild oxidizi ng agent. Its ion, [Ag(NH 3) 2] + can
oxidize many compounds such as aldehydes and a layer of pure 'Ag' is
deposited on the glass surface. In the process Ag+ ions are reduced to Ag
metal.
METHOD OF SILVERING OF MIRROR
1)Clear the glass sheet to remove any stain or oily materials.
2) Cleaning is done with ammonia solution.
3) Prepare aqueous solution of AgNO3.
4)Dilute this solution with ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) solution slowly, until
brown ppt of silver oxide (Ag2O) is redissolved.
AgNO3 + NH4OH  AgOH + NH4NO3
(white ppt.)

AgOH + 2NH4OH  [Ag(NH3)2]OH + 2H2O

2[Ag(NH3)2]OH  Ag2O + H2O + 4NH3

4) To this solution add glucose (reducing agent) and immediately pour the solution
on the glass sheet to be silvered. It spreads over the surface glass sheet. The
reduction begins and 'Ag' is deposited on the glass sheet and a brilliant mirror is
formed.

5) In order to protect the layer of silver, a coating of varnish is deposited over it.