EE-371

LINEAR CONTROL SYSTEMS

“CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING”

Text Book: Chapter 7 (nn 7th Ed)
7.1 Introduction, Page 336
7.2 Steady-State Error for Unity Feedback Systems, Page 339
7.3 Static Error Constants and System Type, Page 345

Instructor: Dr. Farid Gul

Class: Summer 2022

Electrical Engineering Department

1
7.1 Introduction, Page 336
7.2 Steady-State Error for Unity Feedback Systems, Page 339
7.3 Static Error Constants and System Type, Page 345
7.4 Steady-State Error Specifications, Page 348
7.5 Steady-State Error for Disturbances, Page 351
7.6 Steady-State Error for Nonunity Feedback Systems Page 353
7.7 Sensitivity Page 356
7.8 Steady-State Error for Systems in State Space Page 359

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 Introduction
Control systems analysis and design focus on
three specifications:
(1) transient response
(2) stability
(3) steady-state errors

Definition
Steady-state error is the difference between the
input and the output for a prescribed test input as
t 
3
 Figure1.5
Elevator input and output

4
 Table 7.1
Test waveforms for evaluating steady-state errors of
position control systems

5
Laplace Transform Theorems

6
Steady-state error: (step input)

8
Steady-state error: (ramp input)

9
 Steady State Error of Closed-loop Systems

• Error is the difference between the

input and the output of a system
E(s) = R(s) – C(s)

a. General representation

E(s) for unity feedback systems

b. Representation for
unity feedback systems

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 E(s) = R(s) - C(s) is the error.
For step input, in the steady state, if c(t)
equals r(t), e(t) will be zero.
a. System with finite With a pure gain, K, the error, e(t),
steady-state error for a cannot be zero if c(t) is to be finite and
step input nonzero

1
E ( s ) ss  C ( s ) ss
K

b. System with zero

steady-state error for
step input

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7.2 Steady-State Error for
Unity Feedback Systems

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 Final and initial value theorem

Steady-State Error in Terms of T(s)

E ( s)  R( s)  C (s)

C ( s )  R ( s )T ( s )

E ( s )  R ( s)[1  T ( s )]

e()  lim e(t )  lim sE ( s )

t  s 0

e()  lim sR( s)[1  T ( s )]

s 0

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Example 7.1
PROBLEM:
Find the steady-state error for the system shown in the Figure if
T(s) = 5/(s2 + 7s + 10) and the input is a unit step.

SOLUTION: Applying final value theorem

From the problem statement,
R(s) = 1/s and
T(s) = 5/(s2 + 7s +10).
Substituting R(s) and T(s) into :
 s2  7s  5  1
E ( s )  R( s) 1  T ( s)  e()  lim s  
 s  s  7 s  10   2
s 0 2

s2  7s  5
E ( s) 
s  s 2  7 s  10 

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Steady-State Error in Terms of G(s)
• System may be configured as unity
feedback system with forward
transfer function G(s)

• Steady-state error may be expressed

in terms of G(s) rather than T(s)

To apply the final value theorem, the

close loop system must be stable

R( s)  E ( s)  E ( s)G ( s )

Given the input R(s) and the System G(s),

Steady  state error e() can be calculated .

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Effect of various inputs on the
steady-state error

Step Input
R(s) = 1/s For the limit to be infinite, the den
must equl zero as s goes to zero

n 1
The term is dc gain of G(s) At least one pure integration must
be present in the forward path
For zero steady-state error
If no integrator --- n=0

Finite error
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Ramp Input
R(s) = 1/s2

If one integrator --- n=1

For the limit to be infinite, the den

must equl zero as s goes to zero
Finite error

n2 If no integrator --- n=0

0
At least two pure integration must
be present in the forward path infinite error
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Parabolic Input.
R(s) = 1/s3

If two integrator --- n=2

For the limit to be infinite, the den

must equl zero as s goes to zero
Finite error

n3 If one integrator or less ---

n<2 0
At least three pure integration must
be present in the forward path infinite error
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Example 7.2 Steady-State Errors for Systems with No Integrations

PROBLEM: Find the steady-state errors for inputs of 5u(t),

5tu(t), and 5 t2 u(t) to the system shown in the Figure . The
function u(t) is the unit step.

SOLUTION:
• First verify that the closed-loop
system is stable.
• Next, for the input 5u(t), whose For the input 5tu(t), whose
Laplace transform is 5/s, the steady- Laplace transform is 5/s2,
state error will be five times as large
as that given by the Eq for ss error
For the input 5t2u(t), whose
Laplace transform is 10/s3,

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Example 7.3 Steady-State Errors for Systems with One Integration

PROBLEM: Find the steady-state errors for inputs of 5u(t),

5tu(t), and 5 t2 u(t) to the system shown in the Figure . The
function u(t) is the unit step.

SOLUTION:
• First verify that the closed-loop
system is stable.
For the input 5tu(t), whose
• Next, for the input 5u(t), whose Laplace transform is 5/s2,
Laplace transform is 5/s, the steady-
state error will be five times as large
as that given by the Eq for ss error
for a unit step input.
For the input 5t2u(t), whose
Laplace transform is 10/s3,

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7.3 Static Error Constants and
System Type

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 uni
ty neg
a tive
fe e
Performance specifications for the dba
ck sys
transient response tem
s
• damping ratio,
• natural frequency,
• settling time,
• percent overshoot,
• Peak time
• Rise time
Parameters that can be used as steady-state error
performance specifications, are called

static error constants

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 • The three terms in the denominator that
Static Error Constants are taken to the limit determine the steady-
state error.
• These limits are the static error constants.
For a step input, u(t),
Position Constant, Kp
1
e()  estep () 
1  lim G ( s) K p  lim G ( s )
s 0 s 0

For a ramp input, tu(t), Velocity Constant, Kv

1
e()  estep () 
lim sG ( s ) K v  lim sG ( s )
s 0 s 0

For a parabolic input, ½ t2u(t). Acceleration Constant, Ka

1 2
e()  estep () 
lim s 2G ( s) K a  lim s G ( s )
s 0 s 0

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 Steady-State Error via Static Error Constants
Example 7.4

PROBLEM:
For each system in
the Figure, evaluate
the static error
constants and find the
expected error for the
standard step, ramp,
and parabolic inputs.

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26
27
28
 uni
System Type ty neg
a tive
fe e
dba
ck sys
tem
s

Since steady-state errors are dependent upon the number of integrations in

the forward path, a name is given to this system attribute

system type is defined to be the value of n in the denominator.

Thus:
a system with n = 0 is a Type 0 system
n=1 is a Type 1 system
n=2 is a Type 2 system
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Table 7.2
Relationships between input, system type, static error
constants, and steady-state errors

30
???
31
7.4 Steady-State Error
Specifications

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32
Just as
damping ratio, ζ
settling time, Ts
peak time, Tp
percent overshoot, % OS
are used as specifications for a control
system's
transient response
Position constant, Kp
Velocity constant, Kv
Acceleration constant, Ka

are used as specifications for a control

system's steady-state errors

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 Wealth of information contained within the
specification of a static error constant
For example, if a control system has the specification Kv = 1000,
we can draw several conclusions:
1. The system is stable.
2. The system is of Type 1, since only Type 1 systems have Kv's that are finite
constants.
Recall that Kv = 0 for Type 0 systems
Kv = Type 2 systems
for
3. A ramp input is the test signal.
Since Kv is specified as a finite constant, and the steady-state error for a
ramp input is inversely proportional to Kv, we know the test input is a ramp.
4. The steady-state error between the input ramp and the output ramp is 1/Kv per unit
of input.

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Example 7.5 Interpreting the Steady-State Error Specification

PROBLEM:
What information is contained in the specification Kp = 1000?

SOLUTION:
• The system is stable.
• The system is Type 0, since only a Type 0 system has a
finite Kp. Type 1 and Type 2 systems have Kp = 
• The input test signal is a step, since Kp is specified.
• The error per unit step is
1 1 1
e( )   
1  K p 1  1000 1001

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Example 7.6 Gain Design to Meet a Steady-State Error Specification

PROBLEM: Given the control

system in the Figure, find the
value of K so that there is 10%
error in the steady state.

SOLUTION: Since the system is Type 1, the error stated in

the problem must apply to a ramp input; only a ramp yields
a finite error in a Type 1 system. Thus,

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7.5 Steady-State Error for
Disturbances

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Figure 7.11
Feedback control system
showing disturbance

R( s )  E ( s)  E ( s )G1 ( s )G2 ( s )  D( s )G2 ( s )

R( s )  D ( s )G2 ( s)  1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s )  E ( s )

E(s) =

1 G2 ( s )
E (s)  R( s )  D( s )
1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) 1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s )

transfer function
transfer function
relating E(s) to D(s)
relating E(s) to R(s)
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 1 G2 ( s )
E (s)  R( s)  D( s )
1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) 1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s )
Applying the final value theorem
s sG2 ( s )
e()  lim sE ( s )  lim R ( s )  lim D( s)
s 0 s  0 1  G ( s )G ( s ) s  0 1  G ( s )G ( s )
1 2 1 2

s Assume a step disturbance,

eR ()  lim R( s)
s  0 1  G ( s )G ( s )
1 2
D(s) = 1/s.
G2 ( s )
eD ()   lim
sG2 ( s) s  0 1  G ( s )G ( s )
eD ()   lim D( s) 1 2
s  0 1  G ( s )G ( s )
1 2

1
eD ()  
Let us explore the conditions on eD () 1
that must exist to reduce the error due to  lim G1 ( s )
lim G2 ( s) s  0
the disturbance s 0

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 1
eD ()  
1
 lim G1 ( s )
lim G2 ( s ) s  0
s 0

The ss error produced by a step

disturbance can be reduced by:
a. increasing the dc gain of G1(s)

or
b. decreasing the dc gain of G2(s)

System rearranged to show disturbance as

input and error as output, with R(s) = 0

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Example 7.7 Steady-State Error Due to Step Disturbance

PROBLEM: Find the steady-state error component due to a step

disturbance for the system shown in the Figure.

SOLUTION: The system is stable

1 1 1
eD ()    
1 0  1000 1000
 lim G1 ( s )
lim G2 ( s ) s  0
s 0

the steady-state error produced by the step disturbance

is inversely proportional to the dc gain of G1 (s)
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 7.6 Steady-State Error for
Nonunity Feedback Systems

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Nonunity Feedback System
The feedback path of a control system may be a
pure gain other than unity or may have some controller
dynamic representation and plant

input
transducer Control systems may not
have unity feedback
A general feedback system
because of the
feedback compensation used to
improve performance
or
E(s) = R(s) — C(s) because of the physical
model for the system
???
43
Forming an equivalent unity
feedback system from a non-unity
feedback system through block
diagram manipulation
G(s) = G1(s)G2(s)
H(s) = H1(s)/G1(s)

The error Ea(s) is not the

difference between the
input and the output
(b)
Actuation signal

Unity Feedback
System
E(s) = R(s) — C(s)
44
Example 7.8 Steady-State Error for Nonunity Feedback Systems

PROBLEM: For the system shown in

the Figure, find the system type, the
appropriate error constant associated
with the system type, and the steady-
state error for a unit step input. Assume
input and output units are the same.

SOLUTION: System Type ???

Convert the system into an equivalent static error constant
unity feedback system

The steady-state error

System Type ???

45
Deriving a general equation for the steady-state error of a
system with disturbance and nonunity feedback

For zero error,

Assuming step inputs and step disturbances

The two equations can be satisfied if
(1) the system is stable,
(2) G1(s) is a Type 1 system,
(3) G2(s) is Type 0 system
(4) H(s) is Type 0 system with
unity dc gain 46
Steady-State value of the
actuating signal, Ea1

no restriction that the input and output

units be the same

Ea1 ( s )  G1 ( s ) R ( s )  G2 ( s ) H1 ( s ) Ea1 ( s ) Applying final value

theorem:

1  G2 ( s) H1 ( s) Ea1 ( s)  G1 ( s) R( s) ea1 ()  lim sEa1 ( s )

s 0

s G1 ( s ) R( s )
G1 ( s ) R ( s) ea1 ()  lim
Ea1 ( s )  s 0 1  G ( s ) H ( s )
1  G2 ( s ) H1 ( s) 2 1

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 Steady-State Actuating Signal
Example 7.9 for Nonunity Feedback Systems

PROBLEM: Find the steady-state actuating signal

for the system shown in the Figure for a unit step s G1 ( s ) R ( s )
input. Repeat for a unit ramp input. ea1 ()  lim
s 0 1  G ( s ) H ( s )
2 1

sR ( s )
ea ()  lim
s 0 1  G ( s) H ( s)

For step input R(s)=1/s

For ramp input R(s)=1/s2

48
7.7 Sensitivity

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Definition
The extent to which changes in system parameters affect system
transfer functions is called sensitivity.
OR
Sensitivity is ratio of the fractional change in the
function to the fractional change in the parameter
as
the fractional change of the parameter approaches zero

Fractional change in the function, F

S F :P  lim
P  0 Fractional change in the parameter, P

F F
S F :P  lim
P 0 P P

P F P F
S F :P  lim S F :P 
P  0 F P
FP
50
Example 7.10 Sensitivity of a Closed-Loop Transfer Function

PROBLEM: Given the system in the Figure, calculate the sensitivity of the
closed-loop transfer function to changes in the parameter a. How would you
reduce the sensitivity?

SOLUTION:
The closed-loop transfer function is

For any value of s, an increase in K reduces the sensitivity of the

closed-loop transfer function to changes in the parameter a

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Example 7.11 Sensitivity of Steady-State Error with Ramp Input
PROBLEM: For the system shown in the Figure, find the sensitivity of the
steady-state error to changes in parameter K and parameter a with ramp inputs.

SOLUTION:
The steady-state error for the system is

1 a a e a 1
e( )   Se:a    K  1
KV K e a a K  

P F K e K  a 
S F :P  Se:K    K 2   1
FP e K a K  

The negative sign indicates a

decrease in e(∞) for an increase in K
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7.8 Steady-State Error for Systems
in State Space

54
Analysis via final value theorem
A single-input, single-output system represented in state space can
be analyzed for steady-state error using the final value theorem and
the closed-loop transfer function.
x  Ax  Bu
E ( s )  R ( s ) 1  T ( s ) 
y  Cx
E (s)  R( s)  Y (s ) T ( s)  ???
Y ( s )  R ( s )T ( s ) T ( s)  C ( sI  A) 1 B

E ( s )  R ( s )  R( s )T ( s ) E ( s )  R( s ) 1  C ( sI  A) 1 B 

e()  lim sE ( s)  lim sR( s) 1  C ( sI  A) B 

 1
s 0 s 0

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???
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