Fluid Mechanics

Pressure units
SI is the newton per square meter.

A unit of heat called calorie.
What is fluid Mechanics?
• Mechanics is the Study of forces and motion therefore fluid

mechanics is the study of forces and motion in fluids.
• Stress: It is the ratio of the applied force to the area over which it is
exerted (force/area).
• The force which tries to pull apart is tensile force

and the stress is known as tensile stress.
• Compressive stress: Compression force (or
compressive force) occurs when a physical force
presses inward on an object, causing it to become
compacted. And a compressive stress is a
compressive force per unit rea of column.
• Shear stress:
• Glue holding the weight
• Weight exerts a force that tends to pull the weight down
the walls and thus shear the glue
• The force which tends to make one surface slide parallel
to the adjacent surface is called shear force.
• The stress in the glue, the shear force divided by area of
the glue joint, is called a shear force
• Solid: Which can permanently resist very large shear forces. Under
the action of shear, it moves very short distance (elastic
deformation).
• Fluids: Which cannot permanently resist a shear force, no matter
how small. They move as long as the shear force is applied.
Subdivisions and applications of fluid mechanics
Basics of fluid mechanics
Each ides are the generalization of experimentation data
Liquid and gases:
Liquid: Molecules are close together and held together by significant

force.
Gas: Molecules are relatively far apart and held with very weak
forces of attraction
There is maximum distance between
molecules over which the attractive forces
hold them together to form a liquid, when
the molecules separate more than this
distance it behave like gas.
Properties of Fluids
• Physical Properties:
• Density: It is denoted by ρ and defined as mass per unit volume.
Bulk density and

particle density
Measured in g/cm3,
kg/L or metric ton/m3
Specific gravity:
Confusion: Some specific gravities are referred to water at 60 °F and some

are at 70 °F and some are at 39 °F. But the difference is not significant.
The density of water at 39 °F (4 °C) is 1.0000 g/cm3

Viscosity: It is a measure of internal, fractional resistance to flow.
Force is required to
overcome the internal
friction in the fluid and
the plates. This force is
different for:
(a) Different velocities
(b) Different plate sizes
(c) Different fluids
(d) Different distance
At low velocity between the plates
Common non-Newtonian fluids
Kinematic viscosity:
Surface tension: In dealing with multiphase systems, it is necessary to
consider the effect of the forces at the interface when two immiscible
fluids are in contact. When these two fluids are liquid and gas, the term
surface tension is used to describe the forces acting on the interface.
When the interface is between two liquids, the acting forces are called
interfacial tension.
Measurement of Surface tension:
Measurement of Surface tension:
Pressure:
Pressure is defined as a compressive stress, or compressive force per unit
area.
Ordinary fluids cannot permanently resist shear forces, so the water begins to flow
and finally flows away. The eraser also flowed, until it had taken up a new shape, in
which its internal tensile and shear resistance were enough to hold
our fingers apart.
Pressure:
Pressure in a solid : Pressure at a point is the average of the compressive
stresses measured in three perpendicular directions.
• These three stresses are all the same in a fluid at rest.
• For a fluid in motion the three perpendicular compressive stresses

may not be the same.
• Pressures relative to a compressive stress of zero; these are called

absolute pressures.
• Pressures relative to the local atmospheric pressure are called gauge

pressures. |
Pressure:
• psi (pounds per square inch)=15 lb/in2
• 15 psi absolute=15 psia
• 15 psi gauge= 15 psig
• The SI unit of pressure= 1 Pa (1 N / m2)
• Most pressure gauges read the difference between the measured

pressure and the local atmospheric pressure.
Pressure:
• The pressure gauge on the compressed air system in the
figure
• would read 20 psig = 137.9 kPa gauge.
• The building height (by tape measure or transits) might be

given as 100 ft = 30.5 m in elevation.
• The basement has a negative elevation relative to the street,

— 30 ft = —9.15 m.
• For the vacuum system, with a negative pressure relative to

the atmosphere, -5 psig = -34.5 kPa gauge.
• A negative absolute pressure is a negative compressive If the pressure of a liquid is reduced

stress, i.e., a tensile stress. These occur often in solids, very below its vapor pressure, the
rarely in liquids, never in gases. liquid boils and thus replaces the low
pressure with the equilibrium vapor
• All liquids possess a finite vapor pressure. pressure of the liquid.
Pressure:
• A liquid is very pure and the surfaces of its container are very smooth, the liquid can
exist in tension at a negative absolute pressure. This situation is unstable, and a slight
disturbance can cause the liquid to boil
FORCE, MASS, AND WEIGHT

• Mass is an indication of how much matter is present.
• Weight is a force.
• It is the force that a body exerts due to the acceleration of gravity.

Unit
• The metric (or SI) system of units based on the meter, kilogram, and degree
Celsius.
• The centimeter-gram-second(cgs) system.
• English systems that use the poundal or the slug and with specialized industrial
units, such as the 42-gal barrel for petroleum products or pressure differences
expressed in inches of water. U.S.
• one barrel (unit symbol bbl) is a unit of volume used for measuring oil defined as
42 US gallons or 158.987 litres or 35 imperial gallons.
Unit
• In fluid mechanics, j most often we deal with dimensioned quantities, such as
12ft/s( = 3.66 m/s), rather than with pure numbers, such as 12 or 3.66.
• A useful “system”} for avoiding carelessness and consistently converting the

dimensions of engineering quantities from one set of units to another has two
rules:
Unit
Unit
Newton’s second law of motion is
The pound-force (Ibf) is defined as that force which, acting on a mass of 1 Ibm,
produces an acceleration of 32.2 ft/s2.
To convert the unit:

PRINCIPLES VERSUS TECHNIQUES
• Fluid mechanics relies on a limited set of fundamental ideas, enabling the versatile
resolution of diverse challenges in the field.
• Emphasizing comprehension of principles over mere problem-solving techniques is

recommended by the author, ensuring adaptability to evolving technologies.
• The transformative impact of digital computers, transistors, and the space industry post-
1954 underscores the significance of a solid grasp of Newtonian laws and thermodynamics.
• In contrast to rigidly following cookbook methods, those who mastered underlying concepts
in the author's era effectively adapted to rapid technological advancements.
• Anticipating an unceasing pace of technological change, prioritizing principle-based learning

equips individuals to avert "technical obsolescence" and fosters lasting understanding of
foundational laws.
Some Engineering Problem

• First and second-year engineering students solve "plug-in" problems using given
formulas and data.
• In the third year, they encounter more complex problems that involve manipulation
of equations for plug-in solutions.
• Some problems require trial and error, deviating from plug-in approaches.
• Basic plug-in problems, like gas-law calculations, are performed effortlessly.

• Turbulence Modeling: Developing accurate and efficient turbulence models for
simulating complex flow patterns in engineering systems, such as airfoil
aerodynamics or fuel combustion, to improve design and performance predictions.
• Multiphase Flows: Understanding and modeling interactions between multiple

phases (e.g., gas-liquid, solid-liquid) in systems like oil pipelines or chemical
reactors, to optimize separation processes and prevent equipment damage.
• Flow Control: Designing innovative methods to manipulate fluid flows and reduce
drag, enhance mixing, or prevent cavitation, with applications in aviation,
automotive, and marine industries.

• Heat Transfer Enhancement: Enhancing heat transfer rates in various engineering
applications, like cooling systems for electronics or energy-efficient HVAC designs,
through optimization of fluid flow and heat exchange mechanisms.
• Environmental Fluid Dynamics: Investigating the impact of fluid dynamics on

environmental systems, such as coastal erosion, sediment transport, and pollution
dispersion, to develop sustainable solutions and mitigate potential hazards.
FLUID STATICS
The basic equation of fluid statics
• We will apply Newton’s law of motion F = ma.
• Fluid at rest
• THE BASIC EQUATION OF FLUID STATICS
• The fluid is at rest, there are no accelerations,

and the sum of the forces on any part of the
fluid in any direction is zero. Consider the z
direction
FLUID STATICS
This is the basic equation of fluid statics, also called the barometric equation.
It is correct only if there are no shear stresses on the vertical faces of the
cube.
This equation is correct if the fluid is not moving at all, which is the case in fluid statics, or if it is moving but
only in the x and y directions, or if it has a uniform velocity in the z direction.
FLUID STATICS
The basic equation of fluid statics
The barometric equation tells the change in pressure with distance upward,
where upward is opposite to the direction of gravity and is called z.
The change in pressure with distance in some other, nonvertical direction, call it
direction a, then
(1)
FLUID STATICS
The product of density and gravity, which appears in Eq. 2.1, is often
called the specific weight, and given the symbol ϒ, where
Example. Calculate the specific weight of water at a place where the acceleration of gravity is 32.2 ft/s.
PRESSURE-DEPTH RELATIONSHIPS
A first order differential equation is separable if it can be written in one of the following
forms: dydx=f(x,y)=g(x)h(y)
Equation 1 is a separable, first-order differential equation. It can be
sepa rated and integrated as follows:
Example. When the submarine Thresher sank in the Atlantic, it was estimated in
the newspapers that the accident had occurred at a depth of 1000 ft (304.9 m).
What is the pressure of the sea at that depth?
Solution: Seawater may be considered incompressible, with density 63.91 bm/ft3.
The pressure at the surface is atmospheric pressure i.e., 14.7 lbf/in2. The
acceleration of gravity is 32.2 ft/s2.
Example. When the submarine Thresher sank in the Atlantic, it was estimated in
the newspapers that the accident had occurred at a depth of 1000 ft (304.9 m).
What is the pressure of the sea at that depth?
Solution: Seawater may be considered incompressible, with density 63.91 bm/ft3.

The pressure at the surface is atmospheric pressure i.e., 14.7 lbf/in2. The
acceleration of gravity is 32.2 ft/s2.
Calculate on its own.
?
The gauge pressure is zero at the free surface: P{ gauge = 0. We now define)
the depth as the distance measured downward from the free surface and
give it the symbol h,
Example. A cylindrical oil-storage tank is 75 ft deep and contains an oil of density 55

lbm/ft3. Its top is open to the atmosphere. What is the gauge pressure-depth relation in
this tank?
Ideal gas law:
The density of gases changes significantly with the pressure,
• Here T is the absolute temperature, in degrees Rankine or in kelvins ( T ° R

= T°F + 459.69 or T°K = T°C + 273.15)
• R is the universal gas constant
• M is the molecular weight, normally expressed in grams per mole or

pounds-mass per pound-mole
Ideal gas law:
Ideal gas law:
Example1 . At sea level the atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia and the temperature is 70°F. Assuming that the
temperature does not change with elevation (a poor assumption, but one that simplifies the mathematics), calcu-
late the pressure at 1000, 10,000, and 100,000 ft. For air the molecular weight M is 29 Ibm/lbmol. For z = 1000 ft
Ideal gas law:
Example. Rework Example1, assuming that air is a constant-density fluid, which has the same density at all
elevations as it has at 14.7 psia at 70°F.
Ideal gas law:
Ideal gas law:
(a)
(b)
Ideal gas law:
1234Eq. (a)
Eq. (a)
Pressure forces on surfaces:
• Static, simple fluids (e.g. NaCl, H2O) can exert only pressure forces on
surfaces adjacent them.
• Direction: Normal to the surface but no shear force

• Moving fluids can exert not only pressure force but also shear forces. So
the combined force exerted by moving fluid on a surface is generally to
perpendicular to the surface.
• So we treat pressure force and shear force separately when fluid is

moving.
• Moving fluids can exert not only pressure force but also shear forces. So
the combined force exerted by moving fluid on a surface is not generally
to perpendicular to the surface.
• So we treat pressure force and shear force separately when fluid is

moving.
• For an infinitesimal surface area the forces exerted is
dF = PdA
dF is a vector quantity and it has direction (perpendicular to the

surface) and magnitutde. For a differential dF vectors point in the
same direction.
F=
• If the pressure over an entire plane surface is constant
• F = PA (Constant pressure, plane surface)
1 lbf = 4.44822 N
Why vent in an oil storage tank?
• When both side in the oil tank subjected to atmospheric pressure in
addition to the gauge pressure of the liquid. Tanks are normally
vented to the atmosphere to prevent gauge pressure or vacuum in
the tank.
Pressure force for the complicated surfcace

Fluid Mechanics

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Pressure units

SI is the newton per square meter.

• Mechanics is the Study of forces and motion therefore fluid

• The force which tries to pull apart is tensile force

Each ides are the generalization of experimentation data

Liquid and gases:

Liquid: Molecules are close together and held together by significant

Bulk density and

Confusion: Some specific gravities are referred to water at 60 °F and some

The density of water at 39 °F (4 °C) is 1.0000 g/cm3

• These three stresses are all the same in a fluid at rest.

• For a fluid in motion the three perpendicular compressive stresses

• Pressures relative to a compressive stress of zero; these are called

• Pressures relative to the local atmospheric pressure are called gauge

• 15 psi absolute=15 psia

• 15 psi gauge= 15 psig

• The SI unit of pressure= 1 Pa (1 N / m2)

• Most pressure gauges read the difference between the measured

• The building height (by tape measure or transits) might be

• The basement has a negative elevation relative to the street,

• For the vacuum system, with a negative pressure relative to

• A negative absolute pressure is a negative compressive If the pressure of a liquid is reduced

FORCE, MASS, AND WEIGHT

• It is the force that a body exerts due to the acceleration of gravity.

• The centimeter-gram-second(cgs) system.

• A useful “system”} for avoiding carelessness and consistently converting the

Newton’s second law of motion is

To convert the unit:

• Emphasizing comprehension of principles over mere problem-solving techniques is

• Anticipating an unceasing pace of technological change, prioritizing principle-based learning

Some Engineering Problem

Some Engineering Problem

• Multiphase Flows: Understanding and modeling interactions between multiple

Some Engineering Problem

• Environmental Fluid Dynamics: Investigating the impact of fluid dynamics on

• THE BASIC EQUATION OF FLUID STATICS

• The fluid is at rest, there are no accelerations,

Solution: Seawater may be considered incompressible, with density 63.91 bm/ft3.

Calculate on its own.

Example. A cylindrical oil-storage tank is 75 ft deep and contains an oil of density 55

• Here T is the absolute temperature, in degrees Rankine or in kelvins ( T ° R

• R is the universal gas constant

• M is the molecular weight, normally expressed in grams per mole or

• Direction: Normal to the surface but no shear force

• So we treat pressure force and shear force separately when fluid is

• So we treat pressure force and shear force separately when fluid is

dF is a vector quantity and it has direction (perpendicular to the

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