Chapter 12: Sound

Cambridge IGCSE Physics

Stressful Sound –
Human Audibility
Range

The human audibility range is 20 – 20,000

Hertz.
Any sound with a frequency above this
range is ultrasound and any below this
range is called infrasound.
The range differs from person to person
and decreases with age because as we
grow older, the sensory cells in the ear
which detect vibrations deteriorate. These
cells can also be damaged by repeated
exposure to very loud noise.
Let's find out what our audibility range is.
Many animals can hear ultrasound.
Whistles creating ultrasound can be used
to train animals.
Source of
Sound
Vibrating objects produce
sound. Vibrating sources
cause the air around them
to vibrate. These vibrations
are passed through the air
to our ears where they
cause the eardrum to
vibrate.
 The number on the tuning
Other examples of vibrating objects fork tells us how many
times it vibrates in a
second.

Sharpshooter Insects’ Sexy

Vibrations Spell Trouble in
the Vineyard

Tiny vibrating strings of

energy make up every
particle in the universe,
according to Sera
Cremonini and other string
theorists.
How human ears work
Types of Musical Instruments
Stringed Instruments Wind Instruments Percussion Instruments
Plucked or bowed to cause them to vibrate. Blown to cause the air column inside it to Struck to cause them to vibrate whole or part
The length of the string can be changed, vibrate. Players cover and uncover holes to of the instrument. Different pitches are
usually by holding the string down with a change the length of the sir column. This achieved by tightening or loosening the
finger, and this changes the note produced. changes the pitch of the note. striking surface. Larger instruments produce
The body of the instrument and the air inside lower pitch. Some are designed to produce a
it also vibrate and this gives the instrument its single pitch.
distinctive sound. This is why an oud and a
violin playing the same note sounds different.
Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

•Transverse waves are waves with

direction of vibrations perpendicular
to the direction of wave propagation.
Example: Ripples in water, light waves
•Longitudinal waves are waves with
direction of vibrations parallel to the
direction of wave propagation.
Example: Sound waves
Transverse and
Longitudinal on
Slinky Spring
What is a Sound Wave
A series of vibrations of particles parallel to the direction of
wave motion.
When a vibrating object moves forward, it squashes the
particles together. This makes a dense region(higher pressure)
in the material called a compression. As the vibrating object
moves back, the particles are more spread out, creating a less
dense region(lower pressure) called a rarefaction.
The vibrations pass through the material by the patterns of
compressions and rarefactions caused by the particles being
pushed back and forth.
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter.
Figure 12.12
Transfer of energy, not matter
Sound requires a Medium, unlike Light
In the absence of a medium, there are no particles to carry forth the vibrations. This is the reason sound cannot
travel in a vacuum. A bell jar experiment can be used to show this.
We cannot hear the Sun's explosions and solar flares between of the vacuum in outer space.
Sound travels at different speeds in different materials

Sounds can travel through liquids.

Many sea mammals use sound to
communicate with each other and
to navigate.

Sound can travel through solids. It

travels fastest in solids. This can be
explained considering the spacing
of particles. Particles are closer
Figure 12.14 together in solids, so the vibrations
can be passed on more easily.
'Flash-to-Bang' method
Speed of sound is 330 m/s to 350 m/s in air. Sound travels 1 km in about 3
seconds. The speed changes depending on the temperature and pressure of the
air.
Speed of light is 300, 000, 000 m/s in air and vacuum.
When lightning strikes, a person can assume that he/she has seen the flash
instantly because the speed of light is very high. Said person could count the
number of seconds it took for them to hear the rumble of lightning later.
If the time difference is 3 seconds, the lightning has struck 1 km away.
If the time difference is 6 seconds, the lightning has struck 2 km away.
If the time difference is 9 seconds, the lightning has struck 3 km away.
In other words, if said person divides the time difference by 3, they can calculate
the number of kilometers between themself and the lightning.
It is recommended to take cover if the time between the lightning flash and the
rumble of thunder is 30 seconds or less, which indicates the lightning is about 10
kilometers away or closer.
Echo
An echo is a reflected sound
wave. In small closed spaces, the
echo is so close to the original
sound that we are not able to
distinguish one from another. In
an instance where the reflecting
is much further away, for
example in an outdoor area, the
sound has further to travel and
you may hear an echo. Echoes
can be used to measure the
speed of sound.
Measuring speed of sound using echo method
Equipment: 2 wooden blocks, stopwatch, long tape measure or trundle wheel.
Precautions: Avoid creating loud sounds near anyone's ears. Loud sounds can damage the ear.
Procedure:
Stand a measured long distance from a large flat wall. At least 50 meters is ideal. Bang the blocks
together and listen for the echo. Now try to bang the blocks in an even rhythm so that each clap
coincides with the echo of the previous bang. This will mean you don't hear the echo separately from
the next bang. This will take some practice. Your partner should then measure the time taken for 20
bangs using the stopwatch. Record the time taken and the distance from the wall. Each bang involves
the sound travelling to the wall and back. The total distance travelled by the bang can be calculated.
Total distance travelled = 20 × 2 × distance from the wall
Speed of sound in air = total distance travelled ÷ time taken for 20 bangs
Figure 12.14
More Accurate Method
A precise value of the speed of sound can be obtained using an electronic timer and microphones. The wooden
blocks and two microphones are arranged in a straight line. When the student bangs the two blocks of wood
together, it creates a sudden, loud sound. The sound reaches microphone 1 and a pulse of electric current is
sent to the timer. The timer starts timing. A fraction of a second later the sound reaches microphone 2. A
second pulse of current is sent to the timer and stops it. The timer now indicates the time it took for the sound
to travel from microphone 1 to microphone 2. The distance between the 2 microphones is measured. The
speed of sound can be calculated using the equation speed = distance ÷ time
Some basic wave
terminology

•Amplitude: The furthest distance the particles move from their undisturbed position.
Unit is the same as unit of length. Represented by A.
•Crest: Points on a wave with maximum value of upward displacement within a cycle.
•Trough: Points on a wave with maximum value of downward displacement within a
cycle.
•Wavelength: The distance between two adjacent crests or troughs of a wave. Unit is
the same as unit of length. Denoted by the symbol Lambda.
•Wave speed: Distance travelled by the waves per unit time. Represented by v and
measured in units of speed.
•Wavefront: Line joining adjacent points on a wave that are all in step with each other.
The separation of the wavefronts is equal to the wavelength.
•Frequency: Number of complete waves or vibrations per unit time. Unit is Hertz (Hz). 1
Hz means 1 wave per second. Represented by f.
•Time Period: Time taken for one complete vibration or wave to be produced at source or
to pass through a point. Unit is the same as that of time. Represented by T.
Finding wavelength and amplitude on longitudinal waves
Two different graphs

Displacement-Distance Graph Displacement-Time Graph

A Displacement – Distance graph shows the position of each
particle in a wave relative to its distance from a reference
point. A displacement-distance graph is a snapshot of the
wave at any given time.
Wave
equations
Displaying Sound
waves
A cathode ray oscilloscope and a microphone can be used to display
sound on a screen. The microphone picks up the sound and converts
it to an electrical signal. The oscilloscope converts this to a line
which represents the vibrations that make up the sound wave.
Music from instruments look complicated on display screens and are
difficult to make measurements from. The design the instrument
adds extra vibrations called overtones which give each instrument
its distinctive sound.
A signal generator can be used to produce a pure sound wave. These
are easier to measure. Connecting a signal generator and a speaker
to the oscilloscope allows the use to hear and the sound and display
it on the screen. The oscilloscope trace that represents a pure note
is a simple curve.
CRO and Signal Generator
 High frequency means high pitch.
Loudness and Large amplitude means loud sound.
pitch
Application of Ultrasound – Sonar, Material
Testing, Medicine
Sonar is a method used to measure the depth of water or to locate an underwater
object. A pulse of ultrasound is sent down from a boat and reflects from the seabed.
The time taken for the reflected pulse to be received is measured. This is used, with
the speed of sound in water to calculate the depth of the water.
Worked Example 12.2

Ultrasound can be used to detect flaws inside materials. A small crack in the metal
girder could cause a building to collapse. The figure shows ultrasound being passed
through uncracked(A) and cracked(B) metal. The original and reflected pulses are
shown on the oscilloscope trace A. Trace B has an extra peak. This indicates to the
engineers that some ultrasound is being reflected from a crack or flaw inside the
metal.

Ultrasonic waves are partially reflected from boundaries between different

materials, such as chambers of a patient's heart, or a fetus. Computer analysis of the
reflected waves produces an image.