Chapter 5

Classification of Soil
 Classification of Soil

Different soils with similar properties may be classified into

groups and subgroups according to their engineering behavior.
Classification systems provide a common language to concisely
express the general characteristics of soils, which are infinitely varied,
without detailed descriptions. Most of the soil classification systems
that have been developed for engineering purposes are based on
simple index properties such as particle-size distribution and
plasticity.
Although several classification systems are now in use, none is
totally definitive of any soil for all possible applications because of the
wide diversity of soil properties.
 Categories in Classification of Soil
there are two major categories into which the classification systems
developed in the past can be grouped.
1. Textural classification
Textural classification based on the particle-size distribution of the percent
of sand, silt, and clay-size fractions present in a given soil.
In this chapter, we will discuss the textural classification system developed
by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA).
2. Classification By Engineering Behavior
The engineering behavior of soil takes into consideration the particle-size
distribution and the plasticity (i.e., liquid limit and plasticity index). Under this
category, there are two major classification systems in extensive use now:
a. The AASHTO classification system, and
b. The Unified classification system
 Textural Classification

In a general sense, texture of soil refers to its surface appearance. Soil

texture is influenced by the size of the individual particles present in it. Table 2.3
divided soils into gravel, sand, silt, and clay categories on the basis of particle
size. In most cases, natural soils are mixtures of particles from several size
groups. In the textural classification system, the soils are named after their
principal components, such as sandy clay, silty clay, and so forth.
 Textural classification systems developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA).

Figure 5.1 shows the textural classification systems

developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA). This classification method is based on the
particle-size limits as described under the USDA
system in Table 2.3; that is
• Sand size: 2.0 to 0.05 mm in diameter
• Silt size: 0.05 to 0.002 mm in diameter
• Clay size: smaller than 0.002 mm in diameter

EXAMPLE:
If the particle-size distribution of soil A shows
30% sand, 40% silt, and 30% clay-size
particles, its textural classification can be
determined by proceeding in the manner
indicated by the arrows in Figure 5.1.
This soil falls into the zone of clay loam.
 Note that this chart is based on only the fraction of
soil that passes through the No. 10 sieve. Hence, if
the particle-size distribution of a soil is such that a
certain percentage of the soil particles is larger than
2 mm in diameter, a correction will be necessary.
For example, if soil B has a particle-size distribution
of 20% gravel, 10% sand, 30% silt, and 40% clay,
the modified textural compositions are

On the basis of the preceding modified

percentages, the USDA textural
classification is
clay.
However, because of the large percentage
of gravel, it may be called gravelly clay.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM:
 Classification by Engineering Behavior
Although the textural classification of soil is relatively simple, it is based entirely
on the particle-size distribution. The amount and type of clay minerals present in fine-
grained soils dictate to a great extent their physical properties. Hence, the soils
engineer must consider plasticity, which results from the presence of clay minerals,
to interpret soil characteristics properly. Because textural classification systems do not
take plasticity into account and are not totally indicative of many important soil
properties, they are inadequate for most engineering purposes.

Currently, two more elaborate classification systems are commonly used by soils
engineers. Both systems take into consideration the particle-size distribution and
Atterberg limits. They are the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) classification system and the Unified Soil
Classification System (USCS). The AASHTO classification system is used mostly by
state and county highway departments. Geotechnical engineers generally prefer the
Unified system.
 AASHTO Classification System

The AASHTO system of soil classification was

developed in 1929 as the Public Road Administration
classification system. It has undergone several revisions,
with the present version proposed by the Committee on
Classification of Materials for Subgrades and Granular
Type Roads of the Highway Research Board in 1945
(ASTM designation D-3282; AASHTO method M145)
 AASHTO Classification System

The AASHTO classification in present use is given in Table 5.1. According to this
system, soil is classified into seven major groups: A-1 through A-7. Soils classified
under groups A-1, A-2, and A-3 are granular materials of which 35% or less of the
particles pass through the No. 200 sieve. Soils of which more than 35% pass
through the No. 200 sieve are classified under groups A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7.
These soils are mostly silt and clay-type materials. This classification system is
based on the following criteria:
1. Grain size
a. Gravel: fraction passing the 75-mm sieve and retained on the No. 10 (2-mm)
U.S. sieve
b. Sand: fraction passing the No. 10 (2-mm) U.S. sieve and retained on the No. 200
(0.075-mm) U.S. sieve
c. Silt and clay: fraction passing the No. 200 U.S. sieve
 2. Plasticity: The term silty is applied when the fine fractions of the soil have a plasticity index of 10
or less. The term clayey is applied when the fine fractions have a plasticity index of 11 or more.
3. If cobbles and boulders (size larger than 75 mm) are encountered, they are excluded from the
portion of the soil sample from which classification is made. However, the percentage of such
material is recorded.

To classify a soil according to Table 5.1, one

must apply the test data from left to right. By
process of elimination, the first group from the
left into which the test data fit is the correct
classification. Figure 5.2 shows a plot of the
range of the liquid limit and the plasticity index
for soils that fall into groups A-2, A-4, A-5, A-6,
and A-7.
 AASHTO Classification System
To evaluate the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade material, one must
also incorporate a number called the group index (GI) with the groups and
subgroups of the soil. This index is written in parentheses after the group
or subgroup designation. The group index is given by the equation
 AASHTO Classification System

In general, the quality of performance of a soil as a subgrade material is

inversely proportional to the group index.
Example
 Unified Soil Classification System
The original form of this system was proposed by Casagrande in 1942 for use in the airfield
construction works undertaken by the Army Corps of Engineers during World War II.
In cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, this system was revised in 1952. At present, it
is used widely by engineers (ASTM Test Designation D-2487).
This system classifies soils into two broad categories:
1. Coarse-grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in nature with less than 50% pass-
ing through the No. 200 sieve. The group symbols start with a prefix of G or S. G
stands for gravel or gravelly soil, and S for sand or sandy soil.

2. Fine-grained soils are with 50% or more passing through the No. 200 sieve. The
group symbols start with prefixes of M, which stands for inorganic silt, C for inorganic
clay, or O for organic silts and clays. The symbol Pt is used for peat, muck,
and other highly organic soils.
Other symbols used for the classification are:

• W—well graded
• P—poorly graded
• L—low plasticity (liquid limit less than 50)
• H—high plasticity (liquid limit more than 50)
Unified Soil Classification System
 Unified Soil Classification System
For proper classification according to this system, some or all of
the following information must be known:
1. Percent of gravel—that is, the fraction passing the 76.2-mm sieve and
retained on the No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm opening)
2. Percent of sand—that is, the fraction passing the No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm
opening) and retained on the No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm opening)
3. Percent of silt and clay—that is, the fraction finer than the No. 200 sieve
(0.075-mm opening)
4. Uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient of gradation (Cc)
5. Liquid limit and plasticity index of the portion of soil passing the No. 40
sieve
The group symbols for coarse-grained gravelly soils are GW, GP,
GM, GC, GC-GM, GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, and GP-GC.
Similarly, the group symbols for fine-grained soils are CL, ML, OL,
CH, MH, OH, CL-ML, and Pt. More recently, ASTM designation D-
2487 created an elaborate system to assign group names to soils.
These names are summarized in Figures 5.4, 5.5, and 5.6. In
using these figures, one needs to remember that, in a given soil,
• Fine fraction = percent passing No. 200 sieve
• Coarse fraction = percent retained on No. 200 sieve
• Gravel fraction = percent retained on No. 4 sieve
• Sand fraction = (percent retained on No. 200 sieve) -
(percent retained on No. 4 sieve)
EXAMPLE PROBLEM:
EXAMPLE PROBLEM:
 SEATWORK/ASSIGNMENT:
1.)
2.)