SURVEYING

UNIT-2

• Levelling: Basics definitions, types of levels and levelling staves,

temporary adjustments, methods of levelling, booking and determination
of levels, hi method, rise and fall method, effect of curvature of earth and
refraction.
• Contouring - Characteristics and uses of contours, direct & indirect
methods of contour surveying, interpolation and sketching of contours.
• Computation of Areas and Volumes - Areas, determination of areas
consisting of irregular boundary and regular boundary, volumes,
computation of areas for level section and two-level sections,
determination of volume of earth work in cutting and embankments,
volume of borrow pits, capacity of reservoirs.
 Def:
Levelling is defined as the branch of surveying that is essentially used for determining
the relative height of the different points on, above and below the surface of the
ground.

(or)

Levelling is the method of surveying used for determine the difference of elevations or
levels of various points on the surface of earth.

Elevation of points is vertical distance above (or) below a reference line called
DATUM.
DATUM – AGL & MSL – Most commonly used Datum is MSL
AGL : Above Ground Level
MSL: Mean Sea Level
 Objectives of levelling in surveying

1. To determine the elevation of the given points with respect

to the given/assumed reference line or datum.
2. To establish the points at a provided elevation or at
various elevations with respect to a given or assumed datum.
 Application of Levelling in Surveying
1. Levelling is necessary for the estimation and planning of various civil
engineering works such as roads, bridges, canals etc. It is also necessary for the
route or alignment survey of roads, bridges etc.
2. It is used to calculate the quantities of cut and fill as well as for balancing the
earthworks.
3. Levelling is an important aspect of the pipeline survey as it is used to ensure a
suitable slope of the land that will allow a smooth flow of the liquid inside the pipe.
4. It is also vital for the preparation of contour maps.
5. It is necessary for the preparation of Topographic maps.
 Basic Definitions
• Elevation
• Level Surface
• Level Line
• MSL
• Difference of Elevation
• Reduced Level (or) Benchmark
1.GTS B.M – Great Trigonometrical Survey
2.PWD B.M – Public Work Department
3.Temporary B.M
4.Permanent B.M
5.Arbitary B.M
 Elevation

Vertical Distance
above (or) below
Datum Surface
Level Surface & Level Line – Curved surface
Level surface is a surface perpendicular to the gravity at every point
MSL
Difference of Elevation

It is the Vertical
Distance between the
level surface passing
through the two
points.
 Reduced Level (or) Benchmark

Any point whose elevations is definitely known can be

used as a BM.
GTS B.M : Established by survey of India
Permanent BM
Temporary B.M & Arbitary B.M
 Types of Level used in Surveying

Dumpy Level
It is one of the most common instruments used in leveling. The telescope level has
a restriction against horizontal plane movement. The telescope is fixed-mounted to
its support with a bubble tube on the top of the telescope. It is an internal focusing
telescope and consist of four main parts:
•Negative lens - Curved Inward
•Eye-piece
•Objective lens
•Diaphragm
Auto Level

Compensator can
help the
instrument to
level
Automatically.
which is located in
the telescope.
Dumpy Level
Components
Tribrach
 Levelling Staff (or) Levelling Rod (or) Levelling
Staves

• Straight Rectangular Rod Having Graduations, Foot of the

staff representing zero reading.
• Levelling Staff of 3m and 4m used in practice.
• Usually made of Teak wood & Aluminium Alloys.
 Types of Levelling Staves (or) Staff

Self Reading Staff Target Staff

Solid Staff (wood) – 3m,No
Joints & Hinges
Folding Staff – One piece can
folded over other – 2m each
Telescopic Staff – 3 pieces of
each-4m each.
Self Reading Staff – Readings can be read directly by the Instrument
man

Target Staff - Readings can be read directly by the Staff man, Movable
target
Provided with a movable
Target.

Target of a small
metal piece of
“Circular or Oval
Shape”
TELESCOPIC LEVELING STAFF
TELESCOPIC LEVELING STAFF

Consists of 3 pieces which can

be extended to full of 4m.
 Temporary Adjustments of Dumpy Level

1.Setting Up
Temporary Adjustments are
2.Levelling Up done at every Instrument
station.
3.Focussing
Setting Up
Levelling Up
Stadia Wires (or) Stadia Lines (or) Cross-
Hairs
Wire Readings and Check : Reading All Three Wires

Top: 4.31
Middle: 4.16
Bottom: 4.02
 Temporary Adjustments of levelling
The temporary adjustment of the level consists of the following series of steps:

1. Setting up the level:

The first step in the temporary adjustment of the level is set up of the level.
The setting up basically includes the fixing of the instrument on the stand and levelling the auto level
approximately.

2. Levelling up:
Then, accurate levelling is done with the help of the foot screws with reference to the plate levels of the
instrument.
Levelling is done so as to ensure that the vertical axis is truly vertical and the horizontal line of sight is truly
horizontal.

3. Removal of Parallax:
Parallax is defined as the condition in which the image formed by the objective lens does not lie on the plane
of the crosshairs.
It can be eliminated by focusing the eyepiece of the instrument until the distinct vision of the crosshairs is not
obtained.
 Terms used in Levelling
1.Instrument station & Staff Station
2.Back Sight (BS) (+ Sight) (First Reading)
3.Fore Sight (FS) (- Sight) (Last Reading)
4.Intermediate Sight (IS)
5.Turning Point (TP) (or) Change point (CP)
6.Height of Instrument (HI)(or) HPC (Height
of plane of Collimation)
BS & FS
 Temporary Bench Mark

Bench Mark
Intermediate Sight (IS)
Turning Point (TS) (or) Change point (CP)
 Different Methods of Levelling

1.Direct Levelling
2.Trigonometric levelling
3.Barometric levelling
4.Hypsometric levelling
Trigonometric levelling
h = Dtanθ

H= height of top of tower

above horizontal line of
sight
D=Horizontal Distance
Θ = Vertical angle
Trigonometric levelling
 Barometric levelling :
In barometric levelling, differences in heights are
determined by measuring the differences in atmospheric
pressure at various elevations.
 Hypsometric levelling
Used to estimate the height of mountain by observing the temperature at which water
boils.
The altitudes of various points may be obtained by using an instrument known as a
hypsometer.
 Classification of direct levelling methods
• Simple levelling
• Differential levelling
• Check levelling
• Fly levelling
• Profile levelling
• Cross-section levelling
• Reciprocal levelling
• Precise levelling
Simple levelling

It is the simplest method of

levelling. In this method, we
place the levelling
instrument between the
points for determining
elevation. This type of
levelling is suitable if the
distance between the points
is less.
Height of Instrument (HI) = R.L + BS
RL (or) BM = HI – F.S (or) IS
Differential levelling
Differential levelling
is suitable in places
where the distance
between the points
are great. This type of
levelling is also known
as fly levelling. In
differential levelling,
the levelling station is
shifted various times.
Problem (HI Method)
The following staff readings were observed with a levelling staff
readings were 1.675, 0.985, 1.320, 0.680, 1.795 & the reduced level of
station is 100.00 calculate RL with the HI method, Instrument is
shifted after 3 readings.
 Arithmetic Check:

Sum of Back Sight Reading – Sum of Fore Sight

Reading = Last Reduced Level (RL) – First
Reduced Level
Problem
Problem

Staff
A B C D E F G
Station

BS 0.684 0.864 2.845

IS 1.246 1.684 0.964

FS 1.105 1.368 0.748

Problem (Rise & fall Method)
The following staff readings were observed with a levelling staff
readings were 2.510, 3.105, 2.715, 2.510, 4.125, 2.710, 3.250, 2.605 &
the reduced level of station is 198.00 calculate RL with the Rise and
Fall Method, Instrument is shifted after 5 readings.
 Arithmetic Check:

Sum of Back Sight Reading – Sum of Fore Sight

Reading = Sum of Rising – Sum of Fall = Last
Reduced Level (RL) – First Reduced Level
Problem (Both)
The following staff readings were observed Successively with a level the
instrument has been moved after 3rd 6th & 8th readings & readings were
2.228, 1.606, 0.988, 2.090, 2.864, 1.262, 0.602, 1.982, 1.044, 2.684 m
entered the above readings in a page of a level book & calculate the RL of
points if the first reading was taken with a staff held on a bench mark of
432.384 m.
Problem (Both)
The following staff readings were recorded in a levelling operation
1.185, 2.604, 1.925, 2.305, 1.155, 0.864, 1.105, 1.685, 1.215, 1.545,
0.605. BM is 185.685m. Find the RLs of all the other points by both the
methods & the instrument was shifted after the readings
2.604,.0864,1.215.
Problem (Both)
The following Consecutive readings were taken with a level & a 4m
staff on a continuously sloping ground at a common interval of 30m.
0.780, 1.535, 1.955, 2.430, 2.985, 3.480, 4.251, 4.566, 1.155, 1.960,
2.365, 3.640, 4.698, 4.878, 0.935, 1.045, 1.630, 2.545, Some
unnecessary readings are also taken & RL was 180.750.
Differential Levelling
 Staff Inverted – Readings are noted Negative

Hold the leveling staff Upside Down with the foot of the staff on the
point you want to measure.
Problem Calculate the RL of B when
the RL of a was 155.315 m.
Staff Inverted (HI Method) RL was 169.731 at 1st station
Solution
Instrument F.S
B.S I.S HI R.L
Station

1.750 171.481 169.731

-3.100 174.581
A
1.490 169.991

-2.500 173.981

-4.210 169.771
B
4.20 165.571

Sum -2.46 1.70

 Missing Numbers (or) Missing Data Problems

The following data showing in the table of a level are illegible

owing to exposure of sudden rainfall. find the missing data.
9.Problem
Station BS IS FS HI RL REMARKS

1 X 134.600 132.385

2 X 132.995

3 2.080 0.985 X X

4 X 132.940

5 0.605 X X 134.440

6 X 133.070

7 1.045 X

8 X 132.360
9.Problem Solution
Station BS IS FS HI RL REMARKS

1 X 2.215 134.600 132.385

2 X 1.605 132.995

3 2.080 0.985 X 135.695 X 133.615

4 X 2.755 132.940

5 0.605 X 1.255 X 315.045 134.440

6 X 1.975 133.070

7 1.045 X 134.000

8 X 2.685 132.360
10.Problem
Statio
BS IS FS Rise Fall RL 10
n

1 3.125 ?

2 ? ? 1.325 125.505

3 2.320 0.055 ?

4 ? ? 125.850

5 ? 2.655 ? ?

6 1.620 3.205 2.165 ?

7 3.625 ? ?

8 ? ? 123.090
10.Problem Solution
Statio
BS IS FS Rise Fall RL 10
n

1 3.125 ? 124.180

2 ? 2.265 ? 1.800 1.325 125.505

3 2.320 0.055 ? 125.450

4 ? 1.920 ? 0.400 125.850

5 ? 1.040 2.655 ? 0.735 ? 125.115

6 1.620 3.205 2.165 ? 122.950

7 3.625 ? 2.005 ? 120.945

8 ? 1.480 ? 2.145 123.090

11.Problem
Station BS IS FS Rise Fall RL 10

1 2.285 232.460 BM1

2 1.650 X 0.020

3 2.105 X

4 X 1.960 X

5 2.050 1.925 0.300

6 X X 232.255 BM2

7 1.690 X 0.340

8 2.865 2.100 X

X X 233.425 BM3
11.Problem – Solution
Station BS IS FS Rise Fall RL 10

1 2.285 232.460 BM1

2 1.650 X 2.265 0.020 232.480

3 2.105 X 0.455 232.025

4 X 1.625 1.960 X 0.145 232.170

5 2.050 1.925 0.300 231.870

6 X 1.665 X 0.385 232.255 BM2

7 1.690 X 1.325 0.340 232.595

8 2.865 2.100 X 0.410 232.185

X 1.625 X 1.240 233.425 BM3

Curvature & Refraction
e=- e=+c Curvature
Refraction c=+ =-
You Need
You Get
You Need

You Get
Curvature & Refraction
Curvature & Refraction
Horizontal
Line
Line of
Sight

Cr = +
Cc = -
Curvature & Refraction

Cr = Correction of Refraction.
Cc = Correction of Curvature.
C = Combined curvature and refraction.

Cr = 0.01121 m ( Where d is in km )
Cc = 0.07849 m ( Where d is in km )
C = 0.06728 m ( Where d is in km )
Problem
Q) Find the correction for curvature & for refraction for a distance of
(A) 1200 m (B) 2.48 Km.
Problem
Q) Find the combined correction for curvature & refraction for a
distance of (A) 3400 m (B) 1.29 Km.
 Problems in Levelling
S.NO TYPES

1 Staff Station above the line of sight

2 Staff Station much below the line of sight

3 Staff too near to the instrument

4 Levelling across a hill

5 Levelling across a hallow

6 Levelling on steep slopes

7 Levelling across a pond or lakes

8 Levelling across a river

9 Levelling across a low boundary wall

10 Levelling across a high wall

Levelling across arising ground or depression
Levelling along a steep slope:
Levelling across a Solid wall:
Levelling across a large pond or lake:
Levelling across a summit or a hollow:
Levelling past a wall
Ponds and lakes
 Errors in Levelling

1.Instrumental Errors
2.Natural Errors
3.Personal Errors
S.no Instrumental Errors Natural Errors Personal Errors

1 Error due to imperfect Earth curvature Mistakes in manipulation

Adjustment

2 Error due to sluggish Refraction Rod handling

bubble

3 Error in the movement of Variation in temp Errors in sighting

objective slide

4 Rod not of standard length Settlement of tripod on Mistakes in reading the

turning Point rod

5 Error due to defective joint Wind vibrations Mistakes in recording &

computing
 Fly levelling in Surveying

Fly levelling in surveying:-

When differential levelling is
done in order to connect a
benchmark to the starting point
of the alignment of any project,
it is called fly levelling.
Reciprocal Levelling: To Eliminate the error
due to Curvature of Earth and Refraction &
Collimation error.
Reciprocal levelling

This type of levelling is done,

when it is not possible to set
up the level between two
points. It is the accurate
method of levelling. It is
suitable in the place where
ponds, rivers are seen.
Reciprocal levelling
 𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚
𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚

= True Diff in Elevation

=
 Profile Levelling (or) Longitudinal Sectioning

Profile levelling or sectioning is levelling done across a line along the

center line of the road to gate stage of the profile. BS, IS, FS will be
obtained.
Profile levelling

Another name of profile levelling (or)

longitudinal levelling or sectioning.
In this type of levelling, the points
are far apart at known distances. So
levelling is done at intervals along
the given line. It is suitable for roads,
canals, sewer lines, railways,
etc. Have high precision
Profile Levelling
Profiles (longitudinal sections)
 Cross Sectioning
1.Sections are considered on either side of the Fixed line.
2.Intervals are taken depend on the topography,20m ,30m it
may also depend on profile.
Contouring
Contouring – It is basically a levelling operation

•A Contour is an imaginary line on the ground joining the

points of equal elevation.
•A Contour line is a line on the map representing contour.
• Bothhorizontal and vertical control are necessary to prepare
contour maps.
• Contourmaps gives, wealth of information about the
topography of the terrain.
Vertical distance between any 2 consecutive contours is called Contour Interval.

Kept
Horizontal distance between any 2 Successive contours
Constant
lines are called Horizontal Equivalent.

Contour
Plan

If contour interval is not kept

constant general appearance will
be misleading
Contour Interval
Contour Interval depends on following
Considerations

1) The Nature of the ground

2) The scale of the map
3) The purpose & extent of the survey
4) Time & expense of field & office work
The Nature of the ground
Flat ground – Small Intervals
Broken ground – Greater Intervals (or) Large intervals

The scale of the map – Inversely Proportional to

the scale
Small scale – Contour Interval is large
Large scale – Contour Interval is small
 Time & expense of field & office work

Time less – Greater contour interval

Time High – Less contour interval
 Steep and Flat Terrain
Contour lines close together indicate
steep slopes; contour lines a long way
apart indicate gentle slopes.

Eastern side - Steep slope

Western side - Gently slope
Gentle Steep
Concave Convex
Spur
 Characteristics of contours
1. Contours lines are closed curves. However they may close either on the map itself or
outside the map, depending upon the topography.

2.Two contours of different elevations cannot cross each other. contour lines of different
elevations can intersect only in the case of an OVER HANGING CLIFF or a VERTICAL
CLIFF.

3.A series of contour lines straight and parallel.

4.A closed contour line with one or more higher ones inside it represents a hill

5. A closed contour line with one or more lower ones inside it indicate a depression
without an outlet.
6. Closely Spaced contours indicates steep slopes .Widely spaced contour indicates flat
surface.
7.Contour lines with U-shape with convexity towards lower ground indicate
ridge.

8.Contour lines with V-shaped with convexity towards higher ground

indicate valley.

9. 2 contours having the same elevations cannot unite & continue as one line.
similarly single contours cannot split into 2 lines.

10. The contour lines form four loops in the case of a saddle which is the
junction of 2 ridges. In the case of a saddle on 2 opposite sides, the ground
slopes up, whereas on the other 2 sides the ground slope down.
 Closely
Spaced
contours
indicates
steep slopes
Equally Spaced
contours
indicates
Uniform slopes
A closed contour line with
one or more higher ones
inside it represents a hill
A closed contour line with
one or more lower ones
inside it indicate a
depression without an
outlet.
Depression
 Two contours of different
elevations cannot cross each
other. contour lines of
different elevations can
intersect only in the case of
an OVER HANGING CLIFF
or a VERTICAL CLIFF.
Cliff
Contour lines with U-shape with convexity towards lower ground indicate ridge.

Contour lines with V-shaped with convexity towards higher ground

indicate valley.
Ridge
Contours do not passthrough
Permanent Structures Such as
Buildings.
The contour lines form
four loops in the case of a
saddle which is the
junction of 2 ridges. In
the case of a saddle on 2
opposite sides, the
ground slopes up,
whereas on the other 2
sides the ground slope
down.
Cliff
 Methods of locating contours

Direct methods Vertical control

Horizontal control

Indirect methods
1.Method of Squares or Coordinate Method or Spot levelling
2.Method of cross –sections
3.By Tacheometric method
 Direct method

Slow and tedious & used for small areas where greater accuracy is required

Vertical Elevation – Location of point on the contour (Fixed Elevation)

Horizontal Control – Survey of those points (Uneven elevation)

Here staff reading should obtain in telescope to maintain correct RL of the

main source from instrument station & Staff man will be moving until the
staff reading is obtained.
 1.450
201.450

1.450
 C
B

D
A

F E
 Indirect method

1) In this method some guide points are selected along a system of

straight lines & their elevations are found.

2) Points are plotted & contours are drawn by interpolation.

Contouring grid
Contouring using grid method procedure
Using Cross-sections, Using Squares,
Longitudinal Section and Cross Section Procedure
 Interpolation of contours
1.It is the process of spacing the contours proportionally b/w the plotted
ground points established by indirect methods.
2.It is based on the assumption that slope of the ground b/w the 2 points
is uniform

1) By estimation – Rough method

2) By arithmetic calculations
3) By graphical method
 A B
(100.15) (101.05) We need to locate contours of

20 M
elevations b/w A&B…
100.2,100.4,100.6,100.8 & 101

D c
20 M
Distance b/w A & B is 20m

Difference b/w A & B is 101.05-

100.15 = 0.9m in a length of
20m.
Arithmetic Calculations
100.2 m contour :Diff in elevation from A, 100.2 – 100.15 = 0.05 m

Distance from A = 20 x

= 1.11 m

100.4 m contour :Diff in elevation from A, 100.4 – 100.15 = 0.25 m

Distance from A = 20 x

= 5.55 m
100.8 m contour :Diff in elevation from A, 100.8 – 100.15 = 0.65 m

Distance from A = 20 x

= 14.44 m

101 m contour :Diff in elevation from A, 101 – 100.15 = 0.85 m

Distance from A = 20 x

= 18.89 m
Graphical method – Simpler & Accurate, Tracing
paper, Intersect of 2 lines representing the elevations
of 51.50 – 62.50
 Uses of Contour Maps
1.Drawing of section or developing of cross-section
2.Tracing of contour gradient & location of route
3.Measurement of drainage areas
4.Determination of catchment area of reservoir
5.Estimation of reservoir capacity
AREAS & VOLUMES
• The areas are subdivided into simple geometrical shapes,such as triangles, Trapezoids,
rectangles etc..

• The areas of very irregular shape can be determined by means of a planimeter. The
method selected for computations of the area depends upon the shape of the tract,& the
accuracy required.
Traverse

OFFSET

Boundary
Digital Planimeter
 Methods of Determining Areas

1)By dividing the area into a number of triangles.

2)By offsets to base line (or) offsets at regular intervals (or)

Area b/w traverse line and irregular boundary (or) area of a
tract with straight irregular boundaries.
 By dividing the
area into a number
of triangles
By offsets to base line (or) offsets at regular intervals (or)
Area b/w traverse line and irregular boundary (or) area of a
tract with straight irregular boundaries

1) Mid –Ordinate rule

2) Average ordinate rule

3)Trapezoidal rule

4)Simpsons one –third rule (or) Parabolic rule

By dividing the area into a number of
triangles
Base Line
Total Area = A1+A2+A3=A4+A5+A6
 Boundary

2 4 6
1 5 7

B C D E F
A

Ordinates

Baseline

Section (or)
Segment
 Mid –Ordinate rule
1) In this method tract is divided
into sections & the length of
the middle ordinate of each
section is measured.
M3
2) Rule Assumes that Boundaries
M2 M4

M1 b/w the extremities of the

ordinates are straight lines.

D (or) d 3) All the section (or) segment

(d) are of same length.
L
Average ordinate rule 1) Rule Assumes that
Boundaries b/w the
extremities of the
3
7
ordinates are straight
4
1 lines.
2 5 6
2)All the section (or)
D (or) d segment (d) are of
same length.
L
 Mid –Ordinate rule & Average ordinate rule

1) Offsets are taken at Mid Points.

2) A = x (Sum of ordinates)

L = Length of base line

n = No of Ordinates

d = Distance of each section

 Trapezoidal rule

Boundary between 2 ordinates is taken as a straight line.

Area = ( + Sum of Remaining ordinates)X d

d = Distance of each section

Area = () Xd ( for Area for each trapezoid is determined separately)

 Trapezoidal rule

3
4
1
2 5 6

D (or) d

L
Simpsons one –third rule (or) parabolic rule
 Simpsons one –third rule (or) parabolic rule
Boundary between 2 ordinates is taken as Parabolic hence it is also called as Parabolic Rule.

Area = (()+ 4 ()+ 2())

This rule requires even no of sections or odd no of ordinates

Division – Even Ordinates - odd
Problem
Q) Offsets were taken from a chain line to a curved boundary. The
chain was 50m long & was divided into sections & offsets were taken to
the middle of each station at 5m,15m,25m,35m,45m.the lengths of
offsets were 5.4m,6.8m,8.4m,7.5m,7.2m.Calculate the area b/w the
chain line & the boundary using the mid-ordinate rule.
Problem
Q) The Following perpendicular offsets were taken at 5m interval from
a traverse line to an irregular boundary line 2.10, 3.15, 4.50, 3.60, 4.58,
7.85, 6.45, 4.65, 3.14m, compute the area enclosed b/w the traverse
line & the irregular boundary from the first to the last offset use (A)
Average ordinate rule (b) Trapezoidal rule
Problem
Q) The following Perpendicular offsets were taken at 10m intervals
from a survey line to an irregular boundary line.3.25 ,5.60m ,4.20m ,
6.65m, 8.75m, 6.20m, 3.25m, 4.20m, 5.65. Calculate the area enclosed
b/w the survey line, the irregular boundary line & the first & last offsets
by application of (A) Average ordinate rule(B) Trapezoidal rule (c)
Simpon’s rule
Problem
Q) The following Perpendicular offsets were take from a chain line to
an irregular line. Calculate the area b/w the chain line ,the boundary &
the end offsets.

Chainage (m) 0 10 25 42 60 75

Offsets (m) 15.5 26.2 31.58 25.6 29 31.5

Problem
Q) The following Perpendicular offsets were take from a chain line to a
hedge. Calculate the area b/w the survey line ,the hedge & the end
offsets by (a) Trapezoidal rule (b) Simpson’s Rule.

Chainage 0 15 30 45 60 70 80 100 120 140

(m)

Offsets (m) 7.60 8.5 10.7 12.8 10.6 9.5 8.3 7.9 6.4 4.4