Chapter 4: Network

Models/Layered
Architecture

By Leweyehu Y.
Chapter 4: Network Models

4.1 Layered Tasks

4.2 The OSI Model
4.3 Layers in the OSI Model
4.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
4.5 Addressing

Leweyehu Y.
Introduction

 Network is a combination of Hardware and

Software that sends data from one location to
another
 Hardware: physical equipment that carries signals
from one point to another
 Software: instructions that make possible the services
that we expect from a network

Leweyehu Y.
Introduction
 Task of solving a mathematics problem with a computer
 Fundamental job is done by hardware (tedious task if only
hardware is involved)
 Task is mush easier if software is available
 Levels of solving the problem
 Highest level Program
 Lowest level Hardware

 Task of Sending an e-mail using computer network:

 Can be broken into several tasks, each is performed by a
separate software package
 Each software package uses the services of another software
package
 At lowest layer, a signal or a set of signals is sent from the
source computer to the destination computer

Leweyehu Y.
Layered Tasks 4.1

 We use the concept of Layers in our daily life

 Example: Two friends who communicates

through postal mail

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Layered Tasks 4.1

Tasks involved in sending a letter

Layered Tasks 4.1

 Hierarchy: Task must be done in the order given

in the hierarchy
 Sender site from up to down (  )
 Receiver site from down to up (  )
 Services: Sender site each layer uses the
services of the layer immediately below it

Leweyehu Y.
The OSI Model 4.2

 ISO: International Standards Organization

 OSI: Open Systems Interconnection model
 An open system is a set of protocols that allows
any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture and
without requiring changes to the logic underlying
hardware and software

ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.

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The OSI Model 4.2
 Layered Architecture:7 ordered layers ( P D N T S P A )

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The OSI Model 4.2

The interaction between layers in the OSI model

The OSI Model 4.2

 Intermediate nodes involve only the first 3 layers

 Each layer groups networking functions with
related uses
 Each layer defines a family of functions distinct
from those of the other layers
 This design creates an architecture that is both
comprehensive and flexible
 OSI model allows complete interoperability
between otherwise incompatible systems

Leweyehu Y.
The OSI Model 4.2

 Within a single machine, each layer calls upon

the services of the layer just below it
 Between machines, layer x on one machine
communicates with layer x on another machine
 Communication is governed by an agreed-upon
series of rules and conventions called protocols

Leweyehu Y.
The OSI Model 4.2

 Peer-to-Peer Processes
 At the physical layer, communication is direct
 Each layer in the sending device adds its own
information to the message it receives from the layer
just above it and places the whole package to the
layer below it
 At layer 1 the entire package is converted to a form
that can be transmitted to the receiving device
 At the receiving device machine, the message is
unwrapped layer by layer, with each process receiving
and removing the data meant for it

Leweyehu Y.
The OSI Model 4.2

 Interfaces Between Layers

 Passing of data through layers is made possible by an
interface between each pair of adjacent layers
 Each interface defines the information and services a
layer must provide for the layer above it
 Well-defined interfaces and layer functions provide
modularity to a network
 Implementation of the functions of a layer can be
modified or replaced without requiring changes to the
surrounding layers

Leweyehu Y.
The OSI Model 4.2

 Organization of the Layers

 Layers can be thought of as three subgroups
 Layers 1,2 and 3: Network support layers: deal with the
physical aspects of moving data from one device to
another
 Layers 5, 6 and 7: User support layers: allow
interoperability among unrelated software systems
 Layer 4: links the two subgroups and ensures that what
the lower layers have transmitted is in a form that the
upper layers can use
 At each layer a header (H) and or a trailer (T) is added
to the data

Leweyehu Y.
The OSI Model 4.2

 Organization of the Layers

 The upper OSI layers (4, 5, 6 and 7) are implemented in
software
 Lower layers (1, 2, and 3) are implemented in hardware
and software except for the physical layer which is mostly
hardware

Leweyehu Y.
 An exchange of Data

DATA
 An exchange using the OSI model

H7 D7 H7 D7

H6 D6 H6 D6

H5 D5 H5 D5

H4 D4 H4 D4

H3 D3 H3 D3

H2 D2 T2 H2 D2 T2

010 010101010101101010000010000000 010 010101010101101010000010000000

The OSI Model 4.2

 Encapsulation
 A packet: data and header and maybe trailer)
 The data portion of a packet at level N-1
carries the whole packet from level N
 Level N-1 is not aware of which part of the
packet is data, header, or trailer
 For level N-1, the whole packet coming from
level N is treated as one integral unit

Leweyehu Y.
Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Physical Layer
 Coordinates the functions required to carry a bit
stream over the physical medium
 Deals with the mechanical and electrical
specifications of the interface and transmission
medium
 Defines the procedures and functions that physical
devices and interfaces have to perform for
transmission to occur

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Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Physical Layer

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Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Physical Layer
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium
 Representation of bits (encoding: bits  signals)
 Data rate (duration of a bit: how long it lasts)
 Synchronization of bits (clocks)
 Line configuration (connection of the devices to the
media: point-to-point or multipoint)
 Physical topology
 Transmission mode (simplex / half-duplex / full-
duplex)

Leweyehu Y.
Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Data Link Layer

 Transform the physical layer, a raw transmission
facility, to a reliable link
 It makes the physical layer to appear error free to the
upper layer
Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Data Link Layer

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

Leweyehu Y.
Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Data Link Layer

 Framing
 Frames: manageable data units
 Physical addressing
 Add header to define sender and receiver of the frame
 Flow control
 Impose it to avoid overwhelming the receiver
 data rate: receiver < sender

Leweyehu Y.
Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Data Link Layer

 Error control
 Mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost
frames and to recognize duplicate frames
 Achieved through trailer added to the end of the frame
 Access control
 When two or more devices connected to the same link
decide which device has control over the link at any
given time

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Layers in The OSI Model 4.3
Hop-to-hop delivery
Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Network Layer
 Responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a
packet possibly across multiple networks (links)
 Ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin
to its final destination
 No need for network layer if systems are on the same
networks

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual

packets from the source host to the destination host.

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Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Network Layer

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Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Network Layer
 Logical addressing
 Addresses of the sender and receiver when the packet
passes the network boundary
 Routing
 Routing or switching the packets to their final
destination using connecting devices (routers or
switches)

Leweyehu Y.
Layers in The OSI Model 4.3
Source-to-destination delivery
Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Transport Layer
 Responsible for process-to-process delivery
 A process is an application program on a host
 Ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in
order

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

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Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Transport Layer

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Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Transport Layer
 Service-point addressing
 Delivery not only from one computer to the next but
also from a specific process (running program) on one
computer to a specific process on the other
 Include service-point address (or port address)

Leweyehu Y.
Layers in The OSI Model 4.3
 Transport Layer
 Segmentation and reassembly
 Divide message into segments each contains a sequence #

 Assemble the segments at the destination

 Connection control
 Connectionless: send packets to destinations

 Connection-oriented: makes a connection before delivering

the packets
 Flow control
 End to end rather than across a single link

 Error control
 Process to process rather than a single link

Leweyehu Y.
Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Session Layer
 It is the network dialog controller
 It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the
interaction among communicating systems

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

Leweyehu Y.
Layers in The OSI Model 4.3
 Session Layer
 Dialog control
 Allows two systems to enter into a dialog

 Allows communication between two processes to take place

in either half-duplex or full-duplex

 Synchronization
 Allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization

points to a stream of data

 Example: Sending a file of 2000 pages, insert checkpoints

after every 100 pages. If a crash happens during

transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to be
resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523

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Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Session Layer

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Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Presentation Layer
 Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

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Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Presentation Layer
 Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems

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Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Presentation Layer
 Translation
 Interoperability between different coding systems
 Encryption
 Compression

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Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Application Layer
 Enables the user to access the network
 Provides user interfaces

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

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Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Application Layer

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Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Application Layer
 Enables network virtual terminal (a software version
of a physical terminal) it allows a user to log on to a
remote host
 File transfer access, and management
 Mail services
 Directory services

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Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Summary of Layers

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Layers in The OSI Model 4.3

 Summary of Layers

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4.4

 TCP/IP protocol was defined as having 4 layers:

host-to-network, internet, transport, and
application
 The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not
exactly match those in the OSI model
 When TCP/IP is compared to OSI, it can be said
that the TCP/IP protocol is made of 5 layers:
physical, data link, network, transport, and
application

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4.4

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4.4

 Physical and Data Link Layers

 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Application Layer

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4.4

 Physical and Data Link Layers

 TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol
 It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4.4

 Network Layer:
 TCP/IP supports the Internetworking protocol (IP)
 It uses 4 supporting protocol
 ARP
 RARP
 ICMP
 IGMP

Leweyehu Y.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4.4
 Network Layer
 Internetworking Protocol (IP)
 The transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols

 Unreliable and connectionless protocol – best short delivery

service (means no error checking or tracking)

 Data packets are called datagrams which are transmitted

separately. Datagrams can travel along different routes and

can arrive out of sequence or be duplicated.
 IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for

reordering datagrams once they arrive at their destination

Leweyehu Y.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4.4

 Network Layer
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
 Used to associate a logical address with a physical
address
 Each device on a on a link is identified by a physical or
station address usually imprinted on the network
interface card (NIC)

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4.4

 Network Layer
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
 Allows a host to discover its Internet address when it
knows only its physical address
 It is used when the computer is connected to a network
for the first time

Leweyehu Y.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4.4

 Network Layer
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
 A mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send
notification of datagram problems back to the sender
 Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)
 Used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a
message to a group of recipients

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4.4

 Transport Layer
 Protocols TCP, UDP, and SCTP
 IP is host-to host
 UDP and TCP are process-to-process

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4.4

 Transport Layer
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 Process-to-process protocol
 Adds:
 Port addresses
 Checksum error control
 Length information to the data from the upper layer

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4.4
 Transport Layer
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 Provides full transport-layer services to applications

 A reliable stream (connection-oriented) transport protocol

 At the sending end of each transmission, TCP divides a

stream of data into smaller units called segments

 Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering

after receipt together with an acknowledgment number for

the segments received
 Segments are carried across internet inside of IP datagrams

 At the receiving end TCP collects each datagram as it comes

in and reorders the transmission based on sequence

numbers

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4.4

 Transport Layer
 Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
 Provides support for newer applications such as voice
over the Internet

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4.4

 Application Layer
 The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to
the combined session, presentation, and
application layers in the OSI model. Many
protocols are defined at this layer.
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 Governs the transmission of mail messages and
attachments. SMTP is used in the case of
outgoing messages.

Leweyehu Y.
Application Layer

 More powerful protocols such as POP3 and

IMAP4 are needed and available to manage
incoming messages.
  POP3(Post Office Protocol version 3) is the
older protocol
  IMAP4(Internet Mail Access Protocol version
4) is the more advanced protocol
 Telnet
 Telnet is a protocol used to log on to remote
hosts using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
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Application Layer

 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

 It’s used to manage communications between
web browsers and web servers and opens the
right resource when you click a link, wherever
that resource may actually reside.
 In order for a browser to display a web page, it
must find the exact server that has the right web
page, plus the exact details that identify the
information requested

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Application Layer

 The browser can understand what you need

when you enter a Uniform Resource Locator
(URL), which we usually refer to as a web
address, e.g. http://www.lammle.com/forum and
http://www.lammle.com/blog.
 Each URL defines the protocol used to transfer
data, the name of the server, and the particular
web page on that server.

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Application Layer

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Application Layer
Domain Name Service (DNS)
 The Domain Name System (DNS) is a directory
lookup service that provides a mapping between
the name of a host on the Internet and its
numerical address.
 Domain Name Service (DNS)-resolves
hostnames- to IP addresses specifically, Internet
names, such as www.au.edu.et But you don’t
have to actually use DNS.

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Application Layer

 Domain Name System (DNS)

 Resolves domain names to IP addresses and
vice versa.
 An IP address identifies hosts on a network and
the Internet as well, but DNS was designed to
make our lives easier.
 The IP address would change and no one would
know what the new one was.
 DNS allows you to use a domain name to
specify an IP address.
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Application Layer

 Domain name
 A domain name is represented by a series of
character strings, called labels, separated by
dots. Each label represents a level in the domain
naming hierarchy.
 E.g In the domain name www.google.com, com
is the top-level domain (TLD), google is the
second-level domain, and www is the third-level
domain.

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Application Layer

 Each second-level domain can contain multiple

third level domains.
 E.g In addition to www.google.com, Google also
owns the following domains: news.google.com,
maps.google.com, and mail.google.com.
 The very last section of the domain is called its
top-level domain (TLD) name

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Application Layer

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Addressing 4.5

 In an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols 4

levels of addresses are used
 Physical (link) addresses
 Logical (IP) addresses
 Port addresses
 Specific addresses

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Addressing 4.5
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

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Addressing 4.5

 Physical Addresses ( Link address)

 Address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN
 Included in the frame used by the data link layer
 Lowest level address
 Size and format depend on the network
 Ethernet uses 6-byte physical address
 LocalTalk uses 1-byte dynamic address

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Addressing 4.5
 Example 1: A node with physical address 10 sends a
frame to a node with physical address 87.

Data Data
10 87 Data T2 10 87 Data T2

10 87

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Addressing 4.5
 Example 2: LANs use 48- bit (6-byte) physical address
written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte is separated
by a colon.

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

Leweyehu Y.
Addressing 4.5
 Logical Addresses
 Necessary for universal communication that are independent of
underlying physical networks
 Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork
environment where different networks can have different
address formats
 A universal addressing system is needed in which each host can
be identified uniquely, regardless of the underlying physical
network
 Logical address in the Internet is currently a 32-bit address that
can uniquely define a host connected to the internet
 No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can
have the same IP address

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Addressing 4.5

 Example
 The following exhibit shows part of an internet with:
 3 LANs
 2 Routers
 Each device has a pair of addresses (logical &
physical)
 Computer with logical/physical address A/10 needs to
send a packet to the computer with address P/95

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 IP addresses

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Addressing 4.5

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

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Addressing 4.5
 Port Addresses
 Arrivalat the destination host is not the final objective
of data communication on the Internet
 A system that sends nothing but data from one
computer to another is not complete
 Today computers are devices that can run multiple
processes at the same time
 The end objective of Internet communication is a
process communicating with another process
 For processes to receive data simultaneously, a
method to label the different processes is needed
 In TCP/IP the label is called: port number (16-bit)

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Addressing 4.5
Port addresses

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Addressing 4.5

 Port Addresses

The physical addresses change from hop to hop,

but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.

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Addressing 4.5

 Port Addresses
 Example: A port address is a 16-bit address
represented by one decimal number

3306

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.

Leweyehu Y.
 In a computer network, a Port is a logical
address that is assigned to each application on
the computer that utilizes the internet for
communication.
 Port is an address of a 16-bit unsigned integer
number that ranges from 0 to 65535.

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Addressing 4.5

 Specific Addresses
 Some application have user-friendly addresses that
are designed for that specific address
 Example: e-mail address, URL, These addresses,
however, get changed to the corresponding port and
logical addresses by the sending computer

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 The END

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