CONTENTS:

1) Introduction
2)Development
3)Characteristics
4)Functions
5)Classification
6) Basement membrane
7)Cell junctions
8)Oral epithelium
9)Epithelial cell renewal
10)References
 INTRODUCTION:
Tissues- tissues are the groups of cells that are similar in structure and
function( protection, absorption, secretion, movement, sensory, ect).

The human body is composed of only four basic types of tissue:

1. Epithelial - covering
2. Connective tissue- support
3. Muscular - movement
4. Nervous – control
The most widespread tissues within the organism are EPITHELIAL
TISSUES.
Epi- Outer; Thelium-Tissue

The epithelium is a type of body tissue that forms the covering on all internal
and external surfaces of your body, lines body cavities and hollow organs and is
the major tissue in glands.

Some examples of epithelial tissue include:

1)The outer layer of your skin (epidermis).

2)The lining of your intestines.
3)The lining of your respiratory tract.
4)The lining of your abdominal cavity.
5) Sweat glands.
 CHARACTERISTIC
S:

• Epithelial tissues are composed only of cells

• No extracellular matrix
• Cells are connected to each other by intercellular junctions and form layer
• Layer of epithelial cells lies on basement membrane.
• Epithelial cells are avascular in nature
• Epithelial cells are rich in nerve endings.
•Epithelia have high ability to regeneration because of stem cells.
Epithelial cells have a structural polarity that causes three distinct regions or
domains (apical, basal, and lateral).

The apical domain faces the lumen of an organ or the external environment.
This region often contains a structure that affects the cells' function, like
microvilli, cilia, and stereocilia.

The basal domain is connected to the basal lamina by hemidesmosomes.

The basal lamina separates connective tissue from the epithelium.

The lateral domain connects neighboring cells and allows for

communication between cells.
FUNCTIONS:

Epithelial tissue has several important functions that are essential to life. Since
epithelial cells are found throughout your body, their function and purpose
change based on their location.
Epithelial tissue can have one or a combination of the following several
functions:

•Protection:
Epithelial tissue protects several aspects of your body. For example, skin is made
up of epithelial tissue and protects the tissues deeper in your body, such as blood
vessels, muscle and internal organs.
The cilia on the epithelial cells that line intestines protect the rest of your body
from intestinal bacteria.
Secretion: Epithelial tissue in glands (glandular epithelium) can secrete
(release) enzymes, hormones and fluids.

Absorption: The epithelial lining of internal organs, such as liver and lungs,
can allow the absorption of certain substances.
For example, the internal epithelial lining of intestines absorbs nutrients from
the food you eat.

Excretion: Excretion is the removal of waste from body. The epithelial tissue
in kidneys excrete waste, and the epithelial tissue in sweat glands excrete
sweat.

Filtration: The epithelium of your respiratory tract filters out dirt and particles
and cleans the air that you breathe in. Epithelial tissue in kidneys filters blood.
•Diffusion: In biology, diffusion is the passive movement of molecules or
particles from regions of higher concentrations to regions of lower
concentration. Simple squamous epithelial cells form a membrane that allows
selective diffusion of materials to pass through. Diffusion helps with filtration,
absorption and secretion functions.

•Sensory reception: Sensory nerve endings that are embedded in epithelial

tissue allow body to receive outside sensory stimuli. As an example, the
stereocilia on the surface of the epithelial tissue in ear are essential for hearing
and balance.
In addition, taste buds are embedded in the stratified squamous epithelium of
tongue.
According to Leblon’ s classification in human organism there are 3 types of
tissues:
1. Renewing tissues: Have high ability for cellular regeneration, short
lifespan of mature cells. Examples: covering epithelia, blood, connective
tissues.

2. Growing tissues : Include precusors and mature cells. Because of absence

of stem cells tissues have limited ability for cellular regeneration, but
characterized by long lifespan and high intensity of intracellular regeneration.
Examples: glands, speciliased epithelia, skeletal muscles.

3. Stable tissues: Include only mature highly specialized cells without ability
to division. Cells have the longest lifespan and high intracellular regeneration.
Examples: nerve cells, Epithelial tissues.
Functional classification of epithelial tissues:

1. covering - cells form cellular sheets that cover the surface of the body
and line its cavities

2. glandular – cells are arranged as three-dimensional secretory units or

other secretory active structures (follicles, islets, cords)

3. sensory epithelium – in special senses – inner ear and taste buds.

An epithelium may consist of only one layer of cells when it is called a
unilayered or simple epithelium. Alternatively, it may be multilayered
(stratified) or it can be pseudostratified.

1)Unilayered (simple) epithelia:

Single layer of cells resting on a basement membrane. It may be further
classified according to the shape of the cells constituting them.

a)When the cells are flattened, their height being very little as compared to
their width. Such an epithelium is called as a squamous epithelium.
b)When the height and width of the cells of the epithelium are more or less equal
(i.e. they look like squares in section) it is described as a cuboidal epithelium.

c)When the height of the cells of the epithelium is distinctly greater than their
width, it is described as a columnar epithelium.

2)Pseudostratified columnar epithelia: In true sense this is a simple epithelium

as each cell rests on the basement membrane. This epithelium gives an
appearance of a multilayered epithelium due to unequal height and shape of
cells.

3)Multilayered (stratified) epithelia: Epithelia which consist of multiple layers

with the basal layer resting on the basement membrane. The epithelium is named
according to the shape of cells of the most superficial layer.
a)Stratified squamous: The deeper layers are columnar, but in proceeding
towards the surface of the epithelium the cells become increasingly flattened (or
squamous). It may be noted that all cells in this kind of epithelium are not
squamous.

b)Stratified cuboidal: The surface cells are cuboidal in shape.

c)Stratified columnar: The surface cells are columnar in shape

4)Transitional epithelium: In this type of multilayered epithelium all layers are

made up of cuboidal, polygonal or round cells. The cells towards the surface of
the epithelium are round. As transitional epithelium is confined to the urinary
tract, it is also called urothelium.
 Simple epithelium

A) Squamous epithelium:
• The cells have polygonal outlines that interlock with those of adjoining cells.
• The cells appear flattened their height being much less as compared to their
width.
• Location:

a)It Lines the alveoli of the lungs.

b)It lines the free surface of the serous pericardium, the pleura, and the
peritoneum; here it is called mesothelium.
c)It lines the inside of the heart, where it is called endocardium; and of blood
vessels and lymphatics, where it is called endothelium.
Squamous epithelium is also found lining some parts of the renal tubules, and in
some parts of the internal ear.
Function:
It helps in rapid transport of substances, diffusion of gases and filtration of fluids.
 Cuboidal epithelium

• The height of the cells is about the same as their width.

• The nuclei are usually rounded ,cells appear cuboidal in shape.
KIDNE
Y
Location

• A typical cuboidal epithelium may be seen in the follicles of the thyroid

gland, in the ducts of many glands, and on the surface of the ovary.
• sites are the choroid plexuses, the inner surface of the lens, and the
pigment cell layer of the retina.
• A cuboidal epithelium with a prominent brush border is seen in the
proximal convoluted tubules of the kidneys.

Function
• It is mainly concerned with secretory and absorptive functions
 Columnar epithelium

• Cells of the epithelium are much taller compared to their width. Nuclei
are elongated and located in the lower half of the cells.
• All nuclei are placed at the same level in neighbouring cells.

SMALL
INTESTINE
Columnar epithelium can be further classified according to the nature of the free
surfaces of the cells.

Columnar epithelium

Ciliated columnar epithelium Non ciliated columnar epithelium

Bears cilia microvilli goblet cells

Location:

• Simple columnar epithelium is present over the mucous membrane of the

stomach and the large intestine.

• Columnar epithelium with a striated border is seen most typically in the

small intestine, and with a brush border in the gallbladder.

• Ciliated columnar epithelium lines most of the respiratory tract, the

uterus, and the uterine tubes. It is also seen in the efferent ductules of the
testis, parts of the middle ear and auditory tube.
Function :

• Some columnar cells have a secretory function. The apical parts of their
cytoplasm contain secretory vacuoles. Secretory columnar cells are
scattered in the mucosa of the stomach and intestines.

• In the intestines many of them secrete mucous which accumulates in the

apical part of the cell making it very light staining. These cells acquire a
characteristic shape and are called goblet cells.

• Some columnar cells secrete enzymes.

• Microvilli increase the surface area for absorption.

• In the respiratory tract the cilia move mucous accumulating in the bronchi
(and containing trapped dust particles) towards the larynx and pharynx. When
excessive this mucous is brought out as sputum during coughing.

• In the uterine tubes the movements of the cilia help in the passage of ova
towards the uterus.

• Microvilli increase the surface area for absorption.

 PSEUDOSTRATIFIED EPITHELIUM

• It is not a true stratified epithelium but appears to be stratified.

• Normally, in columnar epithelium the nuclei lie in a row, towards the basal
part of the cells.
• Sometimes, however, the nuclei appear to be arranged in two or more layers
giving the impression that the epithelium is more than one cell thick.

• The cells are attached to the basement membrane but are of different heights,
some cells are short and basal, while others are tall and columnar.

• The epithelium may bear cilia (ciliated epithelium) and may contain goblet
cells. The cilia are capable of movement.
In some situations, pseudostratified columnar epithelium bears hair like
projections called cilia.
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium is seen in trachea and in large
bronchi.
TRACHEA
 Function

The tall columnar cells are secretory in nature, while the short, basal cells are
stem cells which constantly replace the tall cells. The cilia help in clearance of
the mucous.

 Location

• Non-ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium is found in some parts

of the auditory tube, the ductus deferens, and the male urethra
(membranous and penile parts).
• Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium is seen in the trachea and in
large bronchi.
• Pseudostratified columnar epithelium with stereocilia (long microvilli) is
seen in epididymis.
 STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM
A)Stratified Squamous epithelium
This type of epithelium is made up of several layers of cells

I. The cells of the deepest (or basal) layer:

II. Lying over the columnar cells:
III. Most superficial cells:
 Stratified squamous epithelium can be divided into two types—
non-keratinized and keratinised.
Non-keratinised stratified squamous epithelium:

The surface of the squamous epithelium remains moist, the most superficial cells
are living and nuclei can be seen in them. This kind of epithelium is described as
non-keratinised stratified squamous epithelium

Keratinised stratified squamous epithelium:

The epithelial surface is dry (as in the skin) the most superficial cells die and
lose their nuclei. These cells contain a substance called keratin, which forms a
non-living covering over the epithelium. This kind of epithelium constitutes
keratinised stratified squamous epithelium.
Stratified squamous epithelium (both keratinised and non-keratinised):
Found over those surfaces of the body that are subject to friction. As a result of
friction the most superficial layers are constantly being removed and are
replaced by proliferation of cells from the basal layer. This layer, therefore,
shows frequent mitoses.
Location:
• Keratinised stratified squamous epithelium covers the skin of whole of the
body and forms the epidermis.
• Non-keratinised stratified squamous epithelium covers wet surfaces exposed
to wear and tear. It is seen lining the mouth, the tongue, the oro- and
laryngopharynx, the oesophagus, the vagina and the cornea.

Function :
• It is protective in nature.
• Keratin prevents dehydration of underlying tissue
 Stratified Columnar or Cuboidal epithelium
This epithelium consists of two or more layers of columnar or cuboidal cell

Location :
Stratified cuboidal and columnar epithelium is seen in large ducts of exocrine
glands like sweat glands, pancreas, and salivary glands.
Function :
Like all stratified epithelia it is protective in function and it also helps in
conducting the secretion of the glands
 TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM

This is a multilayered epithelium and is 4 to 6 cells thick. It differs from

stratified squamous epithelium in that the cells at the surface are not squamous.
The deepest cells are columnar or cuboidal. Th e middle layers are made up of
polyhedral or pear-shaped cells. The cells of the surface layer are large and often
shaped like an umbrella.

Location :

Transitional epithelium is found in the renal pelvis and , the ureter, the urinary
bladder, and part of the urethra. Because of this distribution it is also called
urothelium.
42
 BASEMENT MEMBRANE:

• Epithelial cells rest on a thin basement membrane. It appears as a dense layer,

50-100nm thick.

• In multi-layered epithelia, the deepest cells lie on this membrane.

• A distinct basement membrane cannot be seen in haematoxylin and eosin (H &

E) preparations, but can be well demonstrated using the periodic acid Schiff
(PAS) method.

43
Basal lamina is subdivided into three layers:

• A pale lamina lucida next to epithelium

• A lamina densa, then the deeper
• A lamina fibroreticularis( less consistently visible)

44
The main components of basement membrane:
• Type IV collagen
• Glycoproteins (laminin , Entactin)
• Proteoglycans (eg; the heparan sulfate proteoglycan called perlecan).
• Basal laminae are attached to the underlying connective tissues by
anchoring fibrils formed by type VII collagen.

45
Functions of Basement membrane

• It provides adhesion on one side to epithelial cells (or parenchyma); and

on the other side to connective tissue (mainly collagen fibres).

• It acts as a barrier to the diffusion of molecules. The barrier function

varies with location (because of variations in pore size).

• Large proteins are prevented from passing out of blood vessels, but (in
the lung) diffusion of gases is allowed.

46
• Basement membranes may play a role in cell organisation, as
molecules within the membrane interact with receptors on cell
surfaces. Substances present in the membrane may influence
morphogenesis of cells to which they are attached.

• The membranes may influence the regeneration of peripheral nerves

after injury, and may play a role in re-establishment of
neuromuscular junctions.

47
 INTERCELLULAR JUNCTIONS

Cell junctions are specialized structures that serve as points of contact

between neighboring cells or between a cell and the extracellular matrix.

1. Tight junctions (zonula occludens)

2. Adhesive junctions
a. Cell-to-cell
i. Zonula adherens
ii. Macula adherens (desmosome)
b. Cell-to-matrix
i. Focal adhesions
ii. Hemidesmosomes
3. Communicating (gap) junctions
48
 Tight junctions (zonula occludens)

• Tight junctions also known as occluding junctions or zonulae occludente or

zonula occludens)

• The term zonula describes a junction that completely encircles the cell.
• It is continuous belt-like junction formed by the fusion of the borders of two
cells.
• These are the most apical junctions.
• Tight junctions are multiprotein junctional complexs.
1) Occludin proteins
2)Claudins
3) JAMs( junction adhesion molecule proteins)

49
• Because tight junctions encircle the cell and attach it tightly to its neighbors,
these junctions act as a barrier preventing molecules from diffusing across an
epithelial sheet between adjacent cells.

• Tight junctions are a major regulator of permeability, expressing different

levels of "tightness" based on location and chemical stimuli.

50
 Adhesive
junctions
• Adherent junctions (zonula adherens) are cell junctions that link epithelial
cells. They are found in the apical part of the cell, just below the tight junction.

• During development, adherent junctions are the first cell junction type to
appear in epithelia, before tight junctions.

• In contrast to tight junctions, the intercellular space in cell-cell adhesive

junctions is maintained at approximately 20 nm.

• Adhesive junctions also are important in cellular signaling.

• In cell-cell adhesive junctions the principal transmembrane proteins are

members of the cadherin family.
51
In the zonula adherens ,the cadherin family member is E-cadherin, α- and β-
catenin are the cytoplasmic adapters, and actin filaments are the cytoskeletal
component.

coordinated movement of groups of

epithelial cells through the epithelial
layer.
Example: to cover a wounded region.

52
 Desmosomes (macula
adherens)
Disc like structure scattered on cell’s surface, each is formed by the
membranes of two cells.

The cadherins are desmoglein and desmocollin. The interaction of these

transmembrane proteins with those from the adjacent cell results in a dense
line in the middle of the intercellular space at the desmosome.

The catenins are desmoplakin, plakoglobin, and plakophilin, which form an

electron-dense plaque( attachment plaque) on the cytoplasmic side of the
desmosome. This plaque serves as an attachment site for the cytoskeletal
components(intermediate filaments).

53
catenins
Formed by keratin

adhesion proteins

cadherins

54
 Hemidesmosome

• Hemidesmosomes are junctions between epithelial cells and the basal

lamina and, through additional extracellular molecules, to the rest of
the extracellular matrix.

• The transmembrane adhesive molecules present in hemidesmosomes

are the integrin α6β4 , which binds specifically to the basal lamina
glycoprotein laminin, and collagen XVII (also identified as BP180).

• The cytoplasmic adapter proteins, bullous pemphigoid antigen 230

(BP230) and plectin, form a dense plaque on the cytoplasmic surface
of the hemidesmosome, which functions as an attachment site for
intermediate filaments.
55
TRANSMEMBRANE ADHESIVE MOLECULES

56
 Gap junctions

• Gap junctions are plaque like regions of the cell membrane.

• They directly connect the cytoplasm of two cells, which allows various
molecules, ions, and electrical impulses to directly pass through a regulated
gate between cells.
• Where the intercellular space narrows to 2 to 3 nm and transmembrane
proteins of the connexin family form aqueous channels between the
cytoplasm of adjacent cells.

57
• Six connexin molecules form a connexon, which has a central channel
approximately 2 nm in diameter.
• The connexons in one cell pair with connexons in the adjacent cell to create a
patent channel.
• Gap junctions are found in many places throughtout the body. This includes
epithelia, as well as nerves, muscle(cardiac) and smooth muscle (intestine).

Six connexin(transmembrane proteins)

molecules form a connexon

58
 Epithelial cell renewal:

Epithelial cells are continuously renewed every 4 to 5 days through a process of

celldivison, maturation and migration.

Renewel relies on proliferative cells(stem cells) the reside at the crypts or base
of the intestinal glands( epithelial invaginations into the underlying connective
tissue.

In particular, the epithelia of the skin and intestine have high rates of cell loss.
To replace cell, epithelia need a pool of stem cells that proliferate and
differentiate into a specific type of epithelial cells.

59
• In the aging process, cell renewal takes place at a slower rate and with fewer cells. The
effect is to slow down the regenerative processes.

• As the progenitor cells wear out and die, there are fewer and fewer of these cells to
replace the dead ones. This effect is characteristic of the biologic changes that occur with
aging.

There is a constant source

of renewal.

(progenitor population of cells)

60
 Renewal of Gingival Epithelium

The oral epithelium undergoes continuous renewal. Its thickness is

maintained by a balance between new cell formation in the basal and
spinous layers and the shedding of old cells at the surface.

The rapid shedding of cells effectively removes bacteria that adhere to the
epithelial cells and therefore is an important part of the antimicrobial
defense mechanisms.

The mitotic activity exhibits a 24-hour periodicity, with the highest and
lowest rates occurring in the morning and evening, respectively.

The mitotic rate is higher in nonkeratinized areas.

61
 Oral
epithelium

• The term mucous membrane is used to describe the moist lining of the
gastrointestinal tract, nasal passages, and other body cavities that communicate
with the exterior.

• In the oral cavity, this lining is referred to as the oral mucous membrane, or oral
mucosa.

• Mucous membrane lining the inside of the mouth and consists of straitified
squamous epithelium termed as oral epithelium and an underlying connective
tissue termed lamina propria.

62
The oral mucosa consists of the following three
zones:

1) Masticatory mucosa: It is kertinized stratified

squamous epithelium Gingiva and the covering of
the hard palate.

2) Specialized mucosa : The dorsum of the tongue

3) Lining mucosa: It is non-kertinized stratified

squamous epithelium. It includes labial and
buccal mucosa , alveolar mucosa , as well as the
mucosa lining the ventral surface of the tounge ,
floor of the mouth and soft palate.
63
 KERATINIZED EPITHELIUM
keratinized epithelium shows a number of distinct layers or strata:
1. The basal layer or stratum basale
2. the prickle cell layer or stratum spinosum
3. Stratum granulosum
4. Stratum corneum

The basal and prickle cell layers together

constitute between one half and two thirds
of the thickness of the epithelium.

64
 NONKERATINIZED EPITHELIUM

Nonkeratinized epithelium shows a number of distinct layers or strata:

1. Basal
2. Prickle/spinosum
3. Intermediate
4. Superficial

65
Basal keratinocyte and stem cells.

66
67
The gingival epithelium consists of a continuous lining of stratified squamous
epithelium.
There are three different areas:

I. The oral or outer epithelium

II. The sulcular epithelium
III.The junctional epithelium

68
 Oral (Outer) Epithelium:

The oral or outer epithelium covers the crest and outer surface of the marginal
gingiva and the surface of the attached gingiva.

the oral epithelium is 0.2 to 0.3 mm in thickness

It is keratinized or para-keratinized, or it may present various combinations of

these conditions.

The oral epithelium is composed of four layers: stratum basale (basal layer),
stratum spinosum (prickle cell layer), stratum granulosum (granular layer), and
stratum corneum (cornified layer).

69
 Sulcular Epithelium

• The sulcular epithelium lines the gingival sulcus.

• It is a thin, nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium without rete pegs,

and it extends from the coronal limit of the junctional epithelium to the crest
of the gingival margin .

• The sulcular epithelium is extremely important; it may act as a

semipermeable membrane through which injurious bacterial products pass
into the gingiva and through which tissue fluid from the gingiva seeps into
the sulcus
70
71
72
73
The JE has a key role in the maintenance of periodontal health:

• it creates the firm attachment of the soft gingival tissue to hard tooth tissue.
However, as it is permeable, it serves as a pathway for diffusion of the
metabolic products of plaque bacteria such as toxins, chemotactic agents and
antigens.

• Even when the gingiva do not appear inflamed clinically, the JE has many
polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMNs) moving through it towards the sulcus.
These form an important part of the defence mechanism.

74
References:
1)Text book of human histology, inderbir singh-7th edition.
2) General histology, M. Gorky Donetsk National medical university.
3)Epithelia: Not just physical barrier, Ganz T.
4)Carranza’s clinical periodontology-13th ed.
5)Text book of oral histology-Tencates
6)Text book of histology, leeson, leeson, papard; 5th edition.

75