Wave Optics

▪ Simplified scalar wave theory; describes INTERFERENCE,

DIFFRACTION, phase & group velocities of light waves
Contents of Chapter 3

✔ 3.1 Wave Equation -1-D wave eq., 3.7 Huygen-Fresnel principle

harmonic waveforms in complex 3.8 Fraunhofer diffraction – single
function; plane, spherical & slit, circular aperture, Rayleigh
cylindrical criterion, multiple slits
✔ 3.2 Electromagnetic waves; Doppler (diffraction grating)
effect; Superposition of waves
3.3 Two-beam interference & Young’s
double slit
3.4 Interference in dielectric films
3.5 Multiple beam interference
3.6 Optical interferometry: Michelson
& Fabry-Perot tqydz1
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Ray optics - Wave optics – EM optics
Ray optics

Wave optics CANNOT sufficiently

describe:
● Reflection & refraction of light
Describe light using scalar wavefunction at boundaries between
→ scalar-wave model dielectric media (e.g. Fresnel
eq.)
Wave optics CAN describe: ● Optical phenomena that require
● Interference vector formulation, e.g.
● Diffraction polarization effects
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 3.1 WAVE EQUATIONS
1-D Wave Eqn • Consider 1-D wave pulse of arbitrary (but time-
y’, y
independent) shape, y’=f(x’)
Stationary • Coordinate system O’(x’, y’) moves to the right at
wave pulse y’ = f(x’) uniform speed v relative to fixed coordinate
system O(x, y)
x’
O’ • Pulse shape is maintained when it moves
• Take point P: it can be described by either x or x’,
Wave pulse v where x’ = x − vt
translating x From reference of stationary
at constant P coordinate system, moving
x’
speed pulse is expressed by:
x’
O O’ x y = y’ = f(x’) = f(x − vt)
vt
v

• General form of a traveling wave :

+v when wave moves to the left;
y = f (x ± vt) −v when wave moves to the right;
where f can be any function
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• The partial differential equation that represents wave equation & is satisfied by all
traveling waves is derived as follows:
- starting from y = f (x’) where x’ = x ± vt
- from which and

- using the chain rule, the space derivative is:

- its 2nd derivative is:

- similarly the time derivative and its 2nd derivative are:

and

- Combining the two derivatives will result in the 1-D differential wave equation
any wave of form y = f (x ± vt) must satisfy this wave
equation irrespective of the physical nature of the
wave itself. 4
 3.1.1 Harmonic Waves

Cosine & Sine expressions for harmonic waves:

Constant phase describes motion of a

fixed point on the waveform which
moves with the velocity of the wave, v

• If there exists an initial displacement of phase ϕ0 ; then it is inserted as:

Other expressions:

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 3.1.1 Harmonic Waves In complex notation:
Related descriptions of wave parameters:
Symbol /
Units
relation ▪ Real part:
Period T s
Wavelength λ m
Propagation constant / k = 2π/λ or ▪ Imaginary part:
k = 2π/vT rad/m
angular wave number
Wave velocity v = fλ m/s From Euler’s formula:
Frequency f = 1/T Hz
Angular frequency ω = 2πf rad/s
Wave number κ = 1/λ m−1
Phase (arg of the sin or ϕ = k(x±vt) rad 0
cos function)

Represents number of
waves per unit path length
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 3.1.2 Plane Waves

+x
Definition:
A wave whose surfaces of constant
phase are infinite parallel planes normal
→ wave propagating in +x- to the direction of propagation.
direction

Periodic in space

Periodic in time

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3.1.2 Plane Waves

Plane waves along x-axis.

Surfaces of constant phase
(wavefronts) are planes
with x = constant value
Waves penetrate planes x =
a, x = b, and x = c at the
points as shown.

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3.1.2 Plane Waves Generalization of plane wave (arbitrary direction)

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3.1.2 Plane Waves Generalization of plane wave (arbitrary direction)

General harmonic wave in 3-D expressed in complex form is:

The 3-D partial differential equation satisfied by the 3-D wave equation
is of the generalized form:

where ∇2 ≡ Laplacian operator

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3.1.3 Spherical Waves
• Harmonic disturbances emitted from a
point source in a homogeneous medium
travel at equal rates in all directions.
• Their wavefronts form spherical
surfaces centred at the source.
• Harmonic wave equation:

- solution to the differential wave Eq.

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3.1.4 Cylindrical Waves

y
ymmetr
line of s
ρ is the perpendicular distance from ρ
the line of symmetry to a point on
the waveform.
i.e. if the z-axis is the line of
symmetry, then

Note:
• Wave of this form are not exact solutions to the differential wave equation
and so do not exactly represent physical waves but rather are approximately
valid for large ρ.
• Still they are useful forms that approximate the wave that emerges from a slit
illuminated by a plane wave.
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3.2 Electromagnetic Wave & superposition

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3.2.1 Electromagnetic waves

▪ Fields variation of EM wave can be described by harmonic equations as:

both E and B wave travel with

the same k and frequency ω,
thus, with same wavelength
and speed.

wavefronts for a linearly

polarized plane EM wave.

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3.2.1 Electromagnetic waves

• At any specified time and place, E = cB ;

and velocity c in free space is given by:

ε0 = permittivity of free space = 8.8542 × 10−12 (C-s)2/kg-m3

μ0 = permeability of free space = 4π × 10−7 kg-m/(A-s)2
c = speed of light = 2.998 × 108 m/s

• This wave represents the transmission of energy.

Energy density associated with the E-field in free space is:

Energy density associated with the B-field in free space is:

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3.2.1 Electromagnetic waves
• The two energy densities are equal from

• Energy of EM wave is divided equally between its constituent

electric and magnetic fields. Thus, the total energy density is their
sum:
or

• The power carried by the EM wave is the rate at which energy is transported

Hence, power is

Energy flow of EM wave

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3.2.1 Electromagnetic waves

• But energy density is rewritten as:

• In vector notation, power per unit area is called the “Poynting vector”

[W/m2]

Note: As the Poynting vector involves product of two waveforms, it

doesn’t hold for waveforms written in complex form.

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3.2.1 Electromagnetic waves

• In optical detection, it is more appropriate to use irradiance Ee (time

average of power delivered per unit area) rather than the magnitude
of Poynting vector which varies rapidly with time (VIS ranges in 1014 –
1015 Hz)

(Invariant form) [W/m2]

• In the case of a medium

for
of refractive index n;
free
space • ε0 is replaced by n2ε0
• c is replaced by v = c/n

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3.2.1 Electromagnetic waves

Intensity, Power and Energy

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 Sample Question…

E.g. Laser beam of radius 1 mm carries power 6 kW. What is the

average irradiance and the amplitude of its E and B fields?

Average irradiance: W/m2

Amplitude of E:
V/m

Amplitude of B:
T

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Doppler
effect:
For sound waves, (propagate through material medium)
• frequency shift due to moving source is based physically on change
in transmitted wavelength
• frequency shift due to moving observer is based physically on the
change in speed of sound waves relative to observer
Both the effects above are distinct and described by different equations.

In light waves, (propagates in vacuum)

• because the medium of propagation is removed, there is no physical
basis for distinction between moving observer and moving source
• There is only one relative motion between them that will determine the
frequency shift
• Derivation of Doppler effect for light requires theory of special relativity
(not discussed here)

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Doppler effect (light waves):

• The Doppler-shifted wavelength is given as:

where λ’ = Doppler-shifted wavelength

v = relative velocity between source and observer
+v when both are approaching one another
−v when they are separating from one another
• When v << c, it is
approximated to:

• Doppler effect is used to find the speed of astronomical sources that

emit electromagnetic radiation
• Red shift = shift in wavelength of radiation toward longer wavelengths,
due to a relative speed of source away from us
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 Sample Question…

Example:
Light from a distant galaxy shows the characteristic lines of Oxygen
spectrum, except that the wavelengths are shifted from their
values as measured using laboratory sources. The line expected at
513 nm shows up at 525 nm. What is the speed of the galaxy
relative to the earth?
λ = 513 nm, shifted λ’ = 525 nm.

From

thus, v = − 0.0234c = − 7020 km/s 🡪 moving away from earth

As the shifted wavelength is larger (i.e. the frequency is

smaller), the galaxy is moving away from the earth with a
speed of about 7020 km/s

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 Learning Outcomes
– Can define and distinguish the differential wave
equation
– Can write harmonic wave function in complex
form
– Can distinguish between plane, spherical and
cylindrical waves
– Can describe the properties of EM wave
– Can derive the irradiance of EM wave
– Can describe Doppler effect for light wave

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