PHYSICAL GEOLOGY

刘长江 (Jacky)
E-mail:liuchangjiang@upc.edu.cn
Tel:15066240551
Your score is consisted by three parts:
1 attendance rate and your behavior in class (20%)
2 lab work and reports(20%)
3 final exam (60%)
 Come to class (all the time).
 Buy the textbook and READ the textbook.
(Preferably before you come to class)
 Do the assignments in lecture and lab.
Go to lab.
Study for the exams.

You can meet me at room 641, Engineering Building C

during office hour or Email me at
liuchangjiang@upc.edu.cn
Please provide the following information
on a piece of paper:
1.Your name (first name, last name and your nickname,
your Chinese name if you have one)

2. Your hometown?

3.A recent geologic event that happened in your

hometown or near it.

4. What specific topic interests you about this course?

Imagine walking on a rocky shore.You can see the pounding surf,
hear stones clink together as waves recede, feel the wind blowing
in your hair. But the cliffs don’t move and the ground doesn’t
shake. Even though the Earth appears to be a firm foundation
beneath your feet, it is a dynamic planet. Continents slowly shift
position; mountains rise and then erode away. These motions
escape casual observation because they are generally slow,
although every year events such as volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes remind us that geologic change can be rapid.
 Geology is a science...

...just like chemistry and physics!

Geologists face the special

challenge of not being able to do
experiments in the sense that
chemists and physicists do.
Time ...
Some geologic
features take
seconds to
form!
 Other take
thousands or
millions of
years !

Carr Clifton
The big difference between
geology and other sciences:
TIME (Geologically speaking, not
much happens in a human
lifetime?)
Rates of geologic processes:
µm/year to cm/year
Big earthquakes may displace
the ground several meters in a
few seconds, but they occur
 TIME

The rates of geologic

processes are almost
always slower than the
rates of human effects on
the environment.
The beginning ...
Ch 1 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL
GEOLOGY
THE SCIENCE OF GEOLOGY

Geology is the study of the Earth, including the

materials that it is made of, the physical and chemical
changes that occur on its surface and in its interior, and
the history of the planet and its life forms.
THE EARTH AND ITS
MATERIALS
The Earth’s radius is about 6370 kilometers, its longer than the
distance from Beijing to Karachi, 10 times distance from Qingdao
to Seoul. If you could drive a magical vehicle from the center of the
Earth to the surface at 100 kilometers per hour, the journey would
take more than two and a half days.
Most of the Earth is composed of rocks. Rock outcrops form some of
our planet’s most spectacular scenery: white chalk cliffs, pink
sandstone arches, and the grey granite of Yosemite Valley. Rocks, in
turn, are composed of minerals. Although more than 3500 different
minerals exist, fewer than a dozen are common. Geologists study the
origins, properties, and compositions of both rocks and minerals.

This granite rock is

composed of different
minerals, primarily
quartz, feldspar, and
hornblende. The mineral
grains are a few
millimeters in diameter.
INTERNAL
PROCESSES
Processes that originate deep in the Earth’s interior are called
internal processes. These are the driving forces that raise
mountains, cause earthquakes, and produce volcanic eruptions.
Builders, engineers, and city planners might consult geologists,
asking, “What is the probability that an earthquake or a volcanic
eruption will damage our city? Is it safe to build skyscrapers, a
dam, or a nuclear waste repository in the area?”
SURFACE
PROCESSES
Most of us have seen water
running over the ground during
a heavy rain. The flowing water
dislodges tiny grains of soil and
carries them downslope. If the
rain continues, the water may
erode tiny gullies into a hillside.
A gully may form in a single
afternoon; over much longer
times, the same process forms
canyons and spacious river
valleys
Interacting
Earth Systems
Exogenic

Endogenic
THE
ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is a
mixture of gases, mostly
nitrogen and oxygen. It is
held to the Earth by gravity
and thins rapidly with
altitude. Ninety-nine
percent is concentrated
within 30 kilometers of the This storm cloud over Mt. Robson,
Earth’s surface, but a few British Columbia, is a visible
traces remain even 10,000 portion of the Earth’s atmosphere.
kilometers above the
surface.
THE
BIOSPHERE

The biosphere is the thin zone near the Earth’s surface

that is inhabited by life. It includes the uppermost solid
Earth, the hydrosphere, and the lower parts of the atmosphere.
Land plants grow on the Earth’s surface, with roots
penetrating at most a few meters into soil. Animals live on the
surface, fly a kilometer or two above it, or burrow a few meters
underground. Sea life also concentrates near the ocean surface,
where sunlight is available. Some aquatic communities live
on the deep sea floor, bacteria live in rock to depths of a few
kilometers, and a few windblown microorganisms are found
at heights of 10 kilometers or more. But even at these extremes,
the biosphere is a very thin layer at the Earth’s surface.
Despite atmosphere and biosphere, there are also lithosphere and
hydrosphere :

1 Lithosphere- describes the solid inorganic portion of the Earth

(composed of rocks, minerals and elements). It can be regarded as
the outer surface and interior of the solid Earth. On the surface of
the Earth, the lithosphere is composed of three main types of rocks:
Igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.

2 Hydrosphere - describes the waters of the Earth (see the

hydrologic cycle).

All of these spheres are interrelated to each other by dynamic

interactions, like biogeochemical cycling, that move and exchange
both matter and energy between the four components.
Lithosphere
Hydrosphere
Atmosphere
Biosphere
Earth’s Crust, Lithosphere,
and Asthenosphere
UNIFORMITARIANISM AND
CATASTROPHISM
UNIFORMITARIANI CATASTROPHISM
SM
James Hutton discovered William Whewell agreed that the
that Earth processes acted over Earth is very old, but he argued
a long period of time (1830s). that geologic change was
Hutton proposed that the sometimes rapid. He wrote that the
physical, chemical and geologic past may have “consisted
biological processes observed of epochs of paroxysmal and
on a daily basis, have also acted catastrophic action, interposed
on the Earth over very long between periods of comparative
periods of time. tranquility.” He was unable to give
examples of such catastrophes. He
argued that they happen so
infrequently that none had
occurred within human history.
Today, geologists know that both Hutton’s uniformitarianism and
Whewell’s catastrophism are correct. Thus, over the great
expanses of geologic time, slow, uniform processes are
significant, but improbable, catastrophic events radically
modify the path of slowchange.
Gradual Change
Catastrophic in Earth
Change History
in Earth History
Within the past few
When geologists decades,
study the 4.6geologists haveoflearned
billion years that continents
Earth history, they find
creep across
abundant the Earth’s
evidence surface at aevents
of catastrophic rate ofthat
a feware centimeters every
highly improbable
year. Since the
in a human first steam
lifetime or evenengine was history.
in human built 200For years ago, North
example, giant
America
meteoriteshas migrated
have smashed8 meters westward,
into our a distance enormous
planet, vaporizing a sprinter can
run in 1 second.
volumes of rock Thus continental
and spreading motion
dense dustisclouds
too slowovertothe
be sky.
observed
except withhuge
Similarly, sensitive instruments.
volcanic eruptionsHowever,
have changed if you could watch
conditions a
for life
time-lapse video of
across the globe. the past few
Geologists havehundred million
suggested years—only
that these a small
catastrophic
chunk
events of geologic
have driventime—you
millions ofwould
speciessee continents
into extinction.travel halfway
around the Earth.
GEOLOGIC
TIME
THE GEOLOGIC TIME
SCALE
During the Middle Ages, Clergy tried to explain natural
history by a literal interpretation of the Bible.
In the middle 1600s, Archbishop James Ussher concluded
that therefuted
Hutton moment of biblical
this creation logic
occurred
and atdeduced
noon onthat
October 23, was
the Earth
4004 B.C.
infinitely old. Today, geologists estimate that the Earth is about 4.6
billion years old. In his book Basin and Range, about the geology
of western North America, John McPhee offers us a metaphor for
the magnitude of geologic time. If the history of the Earth were
represented by the old English measure of a yard, the distance from
the king’s nose to the end of his outstretched hand, all of human
history could be erased by a single stroke of a file on his middle
fingernail.
Geologists have divided Earth
history into units displayed
in the geologic time scale. The
units are called eons, eras,
periods, and epochs and are
identified primarily by the types
of life that existed at the various
times.

The
Life two
Living
originated
organisms
earliestduring
eons,
thenthe
Hadean
Archeanand
evolved and
time.
Archean,
proliferated
cover
the
during
firstthe
2.5Proterozoic
billion yearsEon.
of
Earth history.
Then, within an astonishingly short time—perhaps as little as 5
million years—many new species evolved. These organisms were
biologically more complex than their Proterozoic ancestors, and
many had shells and skeletons. The most recent 13 percent of
geologic time, from 538 million years ago to the present, is called
the
Phanerozoic Eon (phaneros is Greek for “evident”). The
Phanerozoic Eon is subdivided into the Paleozoic Era (“ancient
life”), the Mesozoic Era (“middle life”), and the Cenozoic Era
(“recent life”).
THE EARTH’S
ORIGIN
THE EARLY SOLAR
SYSTEM
No one can go back in time to view the formation of the Solar
System and the Earth. Therefore, scientists will never be able to
describe the sequence of events with certainty. But there are
hypothesis.
 (a) The Solar System was
originally a diffuse cloud
of dust and gas. (b) This
dust and gas began to
coalesce due to gravity.

(c) The shrinking mass began to rotate and formed a disk. (d)
The mass broke up into a discrete protosun orbited by large
protoplanets. (e) The Sun heated until fusion temperatures were
reached.The heat from the Sun drove most of the hydrogen and
helium away from the closest planets, leaving small, solid cores
behind.The massive outer planets are still composed mostly of
hydrogen and helium.
 THE MODERN SOLAR
SYSTEM
Heat from the Sun boiled most of the hydrogen, helium, and other
light elements away from the inner Solar System. As a result, the four
planets closest to the Sun—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars—are
now mainly rocky with metallic centers. These four are called the
terrestrial planets because they are “Earthlike.” In contrast,
the four outer planets—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune—are
called the Jovian planets and are composed primarily of liquids and
gases with small rocky and metallic cores. Pluto, the outermost known
planet, is anomalous. It is the smallest planet in the Solar System and
is composed of rock mixed with frozen water and methane.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE MODERN
EARTH
Scientists generally agree that the
Earth formed by accretion of small
particles. They also agree that the
modern Earth is layered. The
center is a dense, hot core
composed mainly of iron and
nickel. A thick mantle, composed
mainly of solid rock, surrounds
the core and contains 80 percent of
the Earth’s volume. The crust is a
thin surface veneer, also
composed of rock.
HOW TO STUDY PHYSICAL
GEOLOGY
The Earth was formed about 4.6 billion (4,600 million) years ago. It
has been changed greatly (from the beginning) and is still changing.
According to the result from the change, geologists want to know the
events happened in the Earth’s history. This is very difficult. Like
detectives and historians, geologists use the result to analyze its
origin, or collect the relic or even traces to reveal the past events.
Thus, geology is a special science, because:
a. The world in which we live is the best laboratory. Either the
scale of space and time needed for the experiments are too large, or
the experiments would cause the environment to change in some
unfortunate way. We must treat nature as the best laboratory and
museum. （ Geologists = fieldwork + laboratory + reasoning ）
b. Geologic theories strongly depend on the basic scientific
disciplines of physics and chemistry, biology and others, depending
on technology advances (progress).
c. The principle of actualism
“The present is the key to the past.” The doctrine is that:
geologic processes and natural laws now operating to modify
the Earth’s crust have acted in the same regular manner and
with essentially the same intensity throughout geologic time,
and that past geologic events can be explained by phenomena
and forces observable today. The doctrine does not imply that
any change has a uniform rate, and does not include minor local
catastrophes. The doctrine is called Uniformitarianism,
originated.
Geology is a young science (only 200 years). It was born under
the demand of industry and military usage for raw materials in
the 18th century. So we have a lot to do in the future.
Geologists use a research strategy called the scientific method.
The scientific method includes the following steps:
1 Observe and measure.
2 Form a hypothesis (a plausible, but unproved, explanation for
the way something happens).
3 Test the hypothesis (by comparing the predictions against the
new observations).
4 Formulate a theory (a generalization about natural phenomena).
5 Formulate a law or principle (statements that some natural
phenomenon is invariably observed to happen in the same way,
and no deviations have ever been observed).
6 Continually reexamine the law or principle in the light of new
evidence.
GEOLOGIC CHANGE AND THE
ENVIRONMENT
HUMAN
INFLUENCES
WeBurning
human are
petroleum
influencing
and coal,
Earth’s
which
external
increases
geologic
the greenhouse
processes.
effect.than 6 billion people.
More
Intensive
Our farming are
daily activities activities,
having which have an
measurable impact
effects on:on soil,
ground and surface water.
Production and release of gases containing chlorine, which
Climate
Rainfall.
Air Polution.
Water sulfur
quality.
destroys
global ozone.
warming vapor acid rain
dioxide
Redistribution of water through the construction of giant
reservoirs, which changes the distribution of weight at Earth’s
surface and alters, slightly but measurably, the rotation of the
Earth on its axis.
The Earth—our only home—smaller, weaker, and more
vulnerable!
Mankind—stronger! =? (selfish, greedy, stupid…)
Clever enough to be in harmony with the nature ？

We need knowledge in Physical Geology!

Geology is the study of the Earth including the materials
that it is made of, the physical and chemical changes that occur
on its surface and in its interior, and the history of the planet
and its life forms.

Most of the Earth is composed of rocks, and rocks are

composed of minerals. Internal processes move continents and
cause earthquakes and volcanoes; surface processes sculpt
mountains and valleys. The hydrosphere consists of water in
streams, lakes, and oceans; in the atmosphere; and frozen in
glaciers. It also includes ground water that soaks soil and rock
to a depth of 2 or 3 kilometers.
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, mostly nitrogen and
oxygen. Ninety-nine percent is concentrated in the first 30
kilometers, but a few traces remain even 10,000 kilometers above
the Earth’s surface. Organisms of the biosphere, including
humans, affect and are affected by Earth’s surface processes and
the compositions of the hydrosphere and atmosphere.
Paleontologists study the evolution and history of life from its
beginning to the present
The principle of uniformitarianism states that geologic change
occurs over a long period of time by a sequence of almost
imperceptible events. Thus, over the immense magnitude of
geologic time, processes that occur too slowly or rarely to have an
impact on our daily lives are important in Earth history. In contrast,
catastrophism postulates that geologic change occurs mainly
during infrequent catastrophic events. Today, geologists know that
both uniformitarianism and catastrophism are correct.

The 4.6-billion-year history of the Earth is divided into eons,

eras, periods, and epochs, which are based on the types of life
that existed at various times.
The Solar System formed from dust and gases that rotated
slowly in space. Within its center, the gases were pulled inward
with enough velocity to initiate nuclear fusion and create the Sun.
In the disk, planets formed from coalescing dust and gases. In the
inner planets, most of the lighter elements escaped, but they are
important components in the outer giants.
The modern Earth is made up of a dense core of iron and nickel,
a rocky mantle of lower density, and a crust of yet lower
density. One hypothesis states that both a core and mantle existed
in the earliest Earth. An alternative hypothesis states that the Earth
was initially homogeneous. The primordial planet was heated by
energy
from the original gravitational coalescence, by radioactive decay,
and by bombardment from outer space. This heat caused all or most
of the Earth to melt, and dense materials settled to the center to
form the core, while less dense rock floated toward the surface to
form the mantle.
Assignments:

1. Give a concise definition of geology.

2. How old is the Earth?
3. In what ways do organisms, including humans, change the
Earth? What kinds of Earth processes are unaffected by
humans and other organisms?
4. In Los Angeles, the risk of death per year from an
automobile accident is 1 in 4000; the risk of death from an
earthquake is about 1 in 50,000. Would you use these data
to argue that additional reinforcement of bridges and
buildings is unwarranted? Why?