What is the Geologic Time Scale?

Standard 8-2.4: Recognize the relationship among the units—era, epoch, and period—into which the geologic time scale
is divided.

What does the time scale represent?

The geologic time scale divides up the history of the earth based on life-forms
that have existed during specific times since the creation of the planet. These divisions
are called geochronologic units (geo: rock, chronology: time).
Most of these life-forms are found as fossils, which are the remains or traces of
an organism from the geologic past that has been preserved in sediment or rock.
Without fossils, scientists may not have concluded that the earth has a history that long
precedes mankind.

 The Geologic Time Scale is divided by the following divisions:

 Eons: Longest subdivision; based on the abundance of certain fossils
 Eras: Next to longest subdivision; marked by major changes in the fossil record
 Periods: Based on types of life existing at the time
Epochs: Shortest subdivision; marked by differences in life forms and
can vary from continent to continent.
Table of Contents 4
 What is the Geologic Time Scale, continued?
Due to the fact that early geologists had no way of knowing how the discoveries of
the Earth were going to develop, geologist over time have put the time scale together
piece by piece. Units were named as they were discovered. Sometimes unit names
were borrowed from local geography, from a person, or from the type of rock that
dominated the unit.
Examples
 Cambrian: From the Latin name for Wales. Named for
exposures of
strata found in a type-section in Wales by British geologist Adam Sedgwick.
Devonian: Named after significant outcrops first
discovered near Devonshire, England
Jurassic: Named for representative strata first seen in the Jura
Mountains by German geologist Humboldt in 1795)
 Cretaceous: From the Latin “creta” meaning chalk by a Belgian geologist
The earliest time of the Earth is called the Hadean and refers to a period of time for which we
have no rock record, and the Archean followed, which corresponds to the ages of the oldest known
rocks on earth. These, with the Proterozoic Eon are called the Precambrian Eon. The remainder of
geologic time, including present day, belongs to the Phanerozoic Eon.
While the units making up the time scale are called geochronologic units, the actual rocks formed
during those specific time intervals are called chronostratigraphic units. The actual rock record of a
period is called a system, so rocks from the Cambrian Period are of the Cambrian system.
 Principles Behind Geologic Time
Nicholas Steno, a Danish physician (1638-1687), described how the position of a rock layer could
be used to show the relative age of the layer. He devised the three main principles that underlie the
interpretation of geologic time:
 The principle of superposition: The layer on the bottom was deposited first and so is the oldest
 The principle of horizontality: All rock layers were originally deposited horizontally.
The principle of original lateral continuity: Originally deposited layers of rock extend
laterally in all directions until either thinning out or being cut off by a different rock layer.

These important principles have formed the framework for the geologic area of stratigraphy,
which is the study of layered rock (strata).
Geologist studying the stratigraphy in
Younger the Copper Basin, Idaho. These rock
layers were deposited horizontally,
and uplifted later so they are now
tilted at an angle (along the red arrow).
Older (Photo contributed by K. McCarney-Castle)

Decades later, other European scientists rediscovered „Steno‟s Laws‟ and began applying them.
Abraham Gottlob Werner became famous for his proposal that all rocks came from the ocean
environment. He and his followers were called “Neptunists.” An opposing view (by Voisins)
argued that all rocks of the earth came from volcanic environments. These scientist were called
“plutonists.” Table of Contents 8
 Principles Behind Geologic Time, continued
James Hutton, a Scottish physician and geologist (1726-1797), thought the surface of the earth
was an ever-changing environment and “the past history of our globe must be explained by what
can be seen to be happening now.” This theory was called “uniformitarianism,” which was later
catch-phrased as “the present is the key to the past.”
William Smith was a surveyor who was in charge of mapping a large part of England. He was
the first to understand that certain rock units could be identified by the particular assemblages of
fossils they contained. Using this information, he was able to correlate strata with the same fossils
for many miles, giving rise to the principle of biologic succession.
 The principle of biologic succession: Each age in the earth‟s history is unique such
that fossil remains will be unique. This permits vertical and horizontal correlation of the
rock layers based on fossil species.

Even though these two outcrops are

Rock Outcrop 1 separated by a large distance, the same
rock layer can be correlated with the
other because of the presence of the
same shark teeth. This lets scientists
know that the two layer were deposited
at the same time, even if the surrounding
rocks look dissimilar from each other.
Rock Outcrop 2

300 km Table of Contents 9

 Principles Behind Geologic Time, continued
During the early 1800‟s, English Geologist, Charles Lyell published a book called “Principles of
Geology,” which became a very important volume in Great Britain. It included all of Hutton‟s
ideas, and presented his own contemporary ideas such as:
The principle of cross-cutting relationships: A rock feature that cuts across another
feature must be younger than the rock that it cuts.
Inclusion principle: Small fragments of one type of rock but embedded in a second type
of rock must have formed first, and were included when the second rock was forming.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was an unpaid naturalist who signed up for a 5-

yr expedition around the world aboard the H.M.S. Beagle. On this trip, he
realized two major points. In spite of all species reproducing, no one species
overwhelmed the Earth, concluding that not all individuals produced in a generation
survive. He also found that individuals of the same kind differ from one another
and concluded that those with the most favorable variations would have the
best chance of surviving to create the next generation.

The theory of natural selection was credited to Darwin (along with Alfred Russel Wallace) and
he went on to write the famous “Origin of Species.” Darwin‟s two goals in that work were:
1. To convince the world that evolution had occurred and organisms had changed over
geologic time
2. The mechanism for this evolution was natural selection. Table of Contents 10
 Relative Age Dating
Standard 8-2.6: Infer the relative age of rocks and fossils from index fossils and the ordering of the rock layers.
“Relative age” means the age of one object compared to the age of another, not the exact age of
an object. This method can only be used when the rock layers are in their original sequence.
All six of the original stratigraphic principles may be applied to determine the age of a rock.
This process is called age dating. Correlation of strata by rock unit type (lithology) or fossil type
(biology) using species, composition, or texture leads scientists to extrapolate relationships over
large areas of land. Because rock layers can be “matched up,” we can guess that they were
formed during the same period, so they usually are the same age.
Using the principles of original horizontality and superposition, we can conclude that oldest
rock is always on the bottom because is was deposited 1st.
Deciphering the sequence of a rock outcrop is sometimes complicated by a features within the
rock record called unconformities, which are specific contacts between rock layers. There are
three types of unconformities that help us determine relative ages of rock layers:

1. Angular: Horizontal beds are uplifted and tilted or

eroded followed by new deposition of horizontal
beds. The figure to the right is an angular
unconconformity. Horizontal bed of
sedimentary rock
2. Disconformity: Episodes of erosion or non-
deposition between layers Tilted bed of
sedimentary rock
3. Nonconformity: Sediment is deposited on top of
eroded volcanic or metamorphic rock (indicates
very long passage of time) Wikipedia (public domain)
Table of Contents 11
 Relative ages can also be determined using Lyell‟s
principle of cross-cutting relationships. In the figure to
the right, both the gray and the yellow horizontal strata
needed to be in place for the pink layer to cut them,
therefore, the pink layer is the youngest. (Image from Plummer/
McGeary, 7th edition, 1996)

Relative Age dating with index fossils

Biostratigraphy is the correlation of stratigraphic units based on fossil content.
Biostratigraphically useful species are known as index fossils (or guide fossils) because they can be
used as guides for recognition of chronostratigraphic units.
Index fossils are widespread, have short temporal durations resulting from rapid life spans, are
abundant throughout their geographic and geologic ranges, and are easily recognized (unique).
Trilobites are a commonly used index fossil because they
are easy to recognize. We know exactly when certain
species became extinct, such that we can compare rock
layers that contain trilobites with a second rock layer and,
based on position, determine if the second rock layer is
younger. The photo to the right is a trilobite from the
Mississippian period (photo courtesy of K. McCarney-Castle)

Fossils found in many rock layers have lived for long

periods of time and cannot be used as index fossils.
Table of Contents 12
 Absolute Age Dating
Absolute ages, or geochronometric ages, of rock can be assigned to the geologic time scale on the
basis of properties of atoms that make up the minerals of a rock. Unlike relative dating, which
relies on sequencing of rock layers (i.e. younger vs. older), absolute dating can produce an actual
age in years.
The number of neutrons in a nucleus of an atom determines the isotope of the element, just like
the number of protons determines the identity of an element.
Some isotopes are unstable and break down into other isotopes through a process called
radioactive decay. Radioactive decay is characterized by beta decay, where a neutron changes into a
proton by giving off an electron, and alpha decay, when isotopes give off 2 protons and 2
neutrons in the form of an alpha particle and changes into a new product. The original isotope is
called the parent and the new isotope product is called the daughter.
 What is a Half-Life?
Each radioactive parent isotope decays to its daughter product at a specific and measurable
rate. This measurement is reported in half-lives. The half-life of an isotope is the time it
takes for ½ of the parent atoms in the isotope to decay.
If an isotope has a half-life of 4000 years, then after 4000 years ½ of the parent isotope
remains. After another 4000 years, ½ of ½ remains, or ¼ of the original amount of parent
isotope. In another 4000 years (12,000 years total), ½ more of the remaining amount decays,
so after 3 half-lives, there only remains 1/8 (½ of ½ of ½) of the original parent isotope.
If a scientist knows the half-life of the parent and measures the proportion of parent
isotope to daughter isotope, he/she can calculate the absolute age of the rock. This valuable
method is called radiometric dating.
Note: Radioactive isotopes can be found in the rock record because radioactive
isotopes are incorporated into the crystals of igneous rock as it cools. Table of Contents 13
 Radioactive Decay
100%
50%
93.75%
Scientists used the proportion of parent
75% 87.5%
material remaining to the proportion of
daughter material produced in order to
50% predict the age of the rock. During each half-
25% life, only one-half of the parent material
12.5%
6.25% decays to the daughter product.
DECAY
PARENT DAUGHTER
 Isotopes with very long half-lives are not suitable for dating rocks younger than ~1 million years
because there are too few daughter atoms to be measured accurately.
Experimental error limits measurements to those rocks younger than about 12 half-lives of the
isotope used.
Radiocarbon Dating
Radiocarbon dating is a common method used to date anything that was once alive (including
plants) and up to 70,000 years old.
All living things take in carbon from the environment in the form of carbon-12 and carbon-14.
When an organism dies, carbon intake stops and the carbon-14 begins to decay at a known rate.
Scientists can determine how much C-14 remains in an organism by measuring radiation emitted
by the C-14 isotopes.
 Carbon dating can be used on wood, plants, humans, and even old paper made out of papyrus.
 The half-life of C-14 is 5,730 years. Because of this, it should not be used with material older than
~70,000 years or 12 half-lives. Table of Contents 14
 Commonly used radioactive isotopes
Parent Daughter half-life Mineral or Material

Uranium238 Lead 206 4.56 BY Zircon, Uraninite, Pitchblende

Uranium 235 Lead 207 704 MY Zircon, Uraninite, Pitchblende

Potassium 40 Argon 40 1.251 BY Muscovite, biotite, hornblende, K-feldspar,

volcanic rock, glauconite, conodonts

Rubidium 87 Sr 87 48.8 BY K-mica, K-feldspar, Biotite, Metamorphics

Thorium 230 Lead 206 75 KY Ocean sediments

Thorium 232 Lead 208 1.39 BY Zircon, Uraninite, Pitchblende

Carbon 14 Nitrogen 14 5730 yr Wood, bone, shell

KY- thousand years. MY- million years. BY- billion years

Uranium-Lead decay series (U-Pb series)

Unlike carbon-14 dating, uranium dating cannot be used to date formerly living things;
however, it is the most commonly used method in igneous rock dating because of the abundance
of zircon minerals.
The subscripts of 235 and 238 are the atomic mass numbers of the element. Though each
isotope has 92 protons in its nucleus, U-235 has 143 neutrons and U-238 has 146 neutrons.
Igneous rocks, or the magma from which it was formed, often intrudes overlying sedimentary
rocks. By dating the magma, one can get at least a minimum age for the sedimentary rock.
Table of Contents 15
 How Old is Old?
From the time of Hutton, scientists were convinced that the earth was much older than the
6000 years predicted by the religious scholars.
Charles Lyell tried to estimate the age of the earth through the amount of evolution
exhibited by marine mollusks in a specific time system.
 Another method was to estimate the rate of deposition for sedimentary rocks.
Sir Edmund Halley proposed to estimate the age of the earth using salt content of the
oceans, assuming that the oceans were once non-saline and that salt addition to the oceans
corresponded in some linear fashion with time.
Lord Kelvin estimated the age of the Earth at 24-40 million years. He proposed that the
Earth has been cooling since it formed, and he calculated the rate of cooling using principles of
heat conduction.
It wasn‟t until Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896 and Madame Curie isolated
radium 2 years later that people realized that the Earth had it‟s own source of heat. Thus it
became one of the most useful tools for future scientists.
 The oldest rocks found so far on Earth (based on zircon grains from Australia) have
been dated at 4.1-4.2 billion years.
Meteorites have also been dated at 4.6 billion years. Meteorites are considered to be
remnants of a plant or asteroid that originally formed at the same time as the Earth, so
that the Earth‟s age is currently estimated to be 4.6 billion years.
The oldest fossils are preserved remains of stromatolites, which are layers of lithified
blue-green algae, dating to approximately 3.5 billion years before present.
Table of Contents 16
Eons:
Precambrian: Earliest span of time
Phanerozoic: Everything since

Eras:
Periods:
Paleozoic
Cambrian
Mesozoic
Ordovician
Cenozoic
Silurian
Paleozoic Devonian
“Age of
Invertebrates” Carbonifero
us
(Missipp. &
Epochs:
Pennsylvanian) Paleocene
Mesozoic Permian Eocene
“Age of Reptiles” Triassic Oligocene
Jurassic
Cenozoic Cretaceous Miocene
“Age of Paleogene Pliocene
Mammals”
Neogene
Quaternary Pleistocene
Holocene
We are living in the Phanerozoic Eon, Cenozoic Era, Quaternary
Period, Holocene Epoch……..BUT
Table of Contents 17
A new concept has been gaining
momentum since it‟s introduction by
Paul Crutzen in 2000. He proposed that
the Holocene Epoch is over and a new
geological epoch called the Anthropocene
has begun.
Mans‟ impact on the Earth‟s climate and
ecosystems since the Industrial
Revolution is quite evident. Support for
this theory comes from data derived from
glacial ice cores showing the growth in
greenhouse gases starting from the
1800‟s.
Does this justify a new Epoch on the
Geological Time Scale? Some scientists
question this, however, there is no doubt
that there has been a shift in Earth‟s
atmosphere and biosphere as we emerge
from the most recent ice age which ended
approximately 10,000 years ago.
This is strong indication that
geologic time is not a thing of the
past!
Photo used with permission from the cover of GSA Today,
Geological Society of America, Vol. 18, 2, Feb.
2008.
Table of Contents 18
 The Earth Through Time
Standard 8-2.5: Illustrate the vast diversity of life that has been present on Earth over time by using the geologic time
scale.

The Proterozoic:
 No life possible as the Earth initially forms 4.6
billion years ago.
Simple, single-celled forms of life appear
3.8 billion years ago, becoming more complex
and successful over the next 3 billion years:
Prokaryotes then Eukaryotes
 Cyanobacteria begins producing free oxygen
(photosynthesis)
Land masses gather to make up a
continent called “Rodinia”
Cambrian:
 Explosion of life
 All existing phyla come into being at this time
Life forms in warm seas as oxygen levels
rise enough to support life
Dominant animals: Marine
invertebrates (trilobites and brachiopods)
 Supercontinent Gondwana forms near
the South
Pole (note position of present-day Florida)
PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher Scotese and are under
copyright of C.R. Scotese, 2002 19

Table of Contents 19
Ordovician:
The 1st animals with bones appear, though
dominant animals are still trilobites, brachiopods
and corals
The beginning of the construction of
South Carolina
A very cold time in Earth‟s history: there was
a great extinction due to ice caps in present-day
Africa
Four main continents: Gondwana,
Baltica, Siberia and Laurentia

Silurian:
 First land plants appear and land animals follow
Laurentia collides with Baltica and
closes Iapetus Sea.
Coral reefs expand and land plants begin
to colonize barren land.
 First millipede fossils and sea scorpions
(Euryptides) found in this period

PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher 20

Scotese and are under copyright of C.R. Scotese,
20
Devonian (Age of the Fish)
Pre-Pangea forms. Dominant
animal: fish
 Oceans still freshwater and fish
migrate from southern hemisphere to
North America.
 Present-day Arctic Canada was at
the
equator and hardwoods began to
grow.
Amphibians, evergreens and
ferns appear
 The Acadian Orogeny, leading to
S.C.
Mississippian:
PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher Scotese and are under
copyright of C.R. Scotese, 2002
metamorphism
 First seed plants appear
Much of North America is
covered by shallow seas and sea
life flourishes (bryoza, brachipods,
blastoids)

Pennsylvanian:
 Modern North America begins
to form
Ice covers the southern
hemisphere and coal swamps
formed along equator.
Lizards and winged insects 21
first appear. Table of Contents 21
Permian:
 Last period of the Paleozoic
Pangea forms. Reptiles
spread across continents.
 The Appalachians rise
90% of Earth‟s species become
extinct due to volcanism in Siberia.
This marks the end of trilobites,
ammonoids, blastoids, and most
fish.

Triassic:
 First dinosaurs appear
 First mammals- small rodents
appear
 Life and fauna re-diversify
 Rocky Mountains form.
 First turtle fossil from this period
 Pangea breaks apart

PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher Scotese and are under
copyright of C.R. Scotese, 2002

Table of Contents 22
Jurassic:
 Pangea still breaking apart
Dinosaurs flourish “Golden age
of dinosaurs”
 First birds appear
 North America continues to rotate
away
from Africa

Cretaceous:
 T-Rex develops
 First snakes and primates appear
Deciduous trees and
grasses common
 First flowering plants
Mass extinction marks the end
of the Mesozoic Era, with the
demise of dinoaurs and 25% of all
marine life.
PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher Scotese and are under copyright of
C.R. Scotese, 2002 Table of Contents 23
Tertiary:
First horses appear and
tropical plants dominate
(Paleocene)
Grasses spread and whales,
rhinos, elephants and other large
mammals develop. Sea level rises
and limestone deposits form in S.C.
(Eocene)
Dogs, cats, and apes
appear (Oligocene)
Horses, mastadons, camels,
and tigers roam free in S.C.
(Miocene)
Hominids develop and the
Grand Canyon forms (Pliocene)

Quaternary:
Modern humans develop and
ice sheets are predominant- Ice age
(Pleistocene)
 Holocene Humans flourish
(Holocene)
PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher Scotese and are under
copyright of C.R. Scotese, 2002
Table of Contents 24
 Adaptation and ‘Survival of the Fittest’
Standard 8-2.1: Explain how biological adaptations of populations enhance their survival in a
particular environment.

Some populations, whether mammals, amphibians, or reptiles are better adapted to living
conditions than others, even within the same species, so they are better at surviving than others.
Because their chances of surviving are increased, their chances of reproducing offspring are better,
and their offspring will possess the same strong traits. This is the basis for natural selection over
long periods of time.
Natural selection refers to the process where over long periods of time, helpful variations can
appear in a species while “unfavorable” one disappear. For example, a group of frogs living on the
rocky side of an island may, over time, adapt a gray skin color to help blend in with their rocky
environment in while a group of frogs living on the more lush, vegetated side of the island may
develop a green skin color to blend in with their particular environment. Even though the frogs are
of the same species, they are able to incorporate different traits to help them survive in their
environments.
The theory of natural selection, sometimes referred to as „Survival of the fittest,‟ started with
Charles Darwin‟s 5-year trip around the world on the HMS Beagle. During this time, he noticed
variations within the same species, especially in the Galapagos Turtles, and noted that some of the
variations were favorable and some were not. He concluded that not all members of a species
survive, which is why the world is not overpopulated by any one species. The practicality of their
adaptation must be a determining factor for who survives and who does not. He published his
findings on his return to England and wrote the classic work “The Origin of Species.”

Table of Contents 25
 Punctuated Events Through Geologic Time
Standard 8-2.3: Explain how Earth’s history has been influenced by catastrophes (including the impact of an asteroid or
comet, climatic changes, and volcanic activity) that have affected the conditions on Earth and the diversity of its life-
forms.

Environmental changes on earth are usually an indicator of a species extinction (or

a species addition). These changes can be brought about by an asteroid or comet
impact, volcanic activity, or climatic changes like the onset of ice ages.

1. Impact:
The most well-known extinction is the extinction of the dinosaurs. Scientists
think that this mass extinction was caused by a large comet that impacted the earth in
present- day Mexico, causing a massive quantity of dust to rise up into the atmosphere,
possibly blocking out the sun and affecting the oxygen levels Earth. Many plants died,
and the animals that depended on those plant for life died as well. In addition, it
may have become very cold in a short period of time.
It took millions of years for the earth to recover, and when it did, the large dinosaurs
were gone forever.
Certain species of birds, however, did survive and began to flourish. Birds are
thought to be direct descendants of dinosaurs.
Table of Contents 26
2. Climate Changes
Climate has always been a constantly changing phenomenon. The earliest atmosphere was
devoid of free oxygen, and it wasn‟t until the earliest life forms evolved that the present-day
atmosphere began to form approximately 600 million years ago.
During the Paleozoic, warm shallow seas and tropical climates were common. Life forms that
could not adapt to these conditions disappeared.
Throughout the Mesozoic era, plate movement shifted the continents and only the animals and
plants with the greatest ability to adapt could survive the extreme changes in temperatures that
occurred as a consequence. Plants with seed coverings and animals with constant internal
temperatures (warm-blooded) lived during this era.
Climate continued to change during the Cenozoic and continues to change to this day, as issues
of “Global Warming” have been on the fore-front for over a decade. It was only ~12,000 years ago
that the world was in an “ice age” mode. Also, many mountain ranges formed during this era,
causing climate differences due to elevation changes.
Ice ages have occurred many times in Earth‟s history. Climate shifts like these may be caused by
magnetic polar reversals or variation in the tilt of the earth (called Milankovitch cycles). Obviously,
not all life can adapt to the extreme cold. Also, not all animals can adapt to the warming climate at
the end of an ice age, which probably contributed to the extinction of the wooly mammoth.
Table of Contents 27
3. Volcanic Activity

Significant volcanic activity, which produced ash clouds in the air and lava flows on the Earth‟s
surface, was common during the Precambrian. It was extremely hot, and most life forms could not
exist in these conditions.
Volcanism is a common byproduct of tectonic plate collision. If one plate collides with another
and is pulled underneath it, a subduction zone is formed underneath the plates and a volcanic arc
forms on the Earth‟s surface. During the Paleozoic and Mesozoic, continents were regularly
colliding with each other and volcanism was common. Plate boundaries are still the most common
sites of volcanoes today.
If volcanism is significant enough to produce
mass quantities of ash and volatile gases, wind can
carry these into the upper atmosphere all around the
world, potentially enveloping the earth in semi-
darkness and reducing insulation on earth.
Obviously, this would have an effect on all living
things on Earth.
A cause and effect phenomenon, catastrophic
events impact life on Earth, whether through an
extinction or creation of new traits for adaptation
to already existing plants and animals.
Table of Contents 28
 Why Extinction?
Standard 8-2.7: Summarize the factors, both natural and man-made, that can contribute to the extinction of a
species.
Extinction of a species occurs when no more members of a particular species remains. Extinction
through time is very common, and, in fact, nearly 90 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth
are now extinct.
Organisms that cannot survive a catastrophic or significant change in earth‟s climate usually
become extinct. Extinctions are a way of clearing the path for new kinds of life that is potentially
more advanced. This is a natural part of life‟s process.
 Natural phenomena that can contribute to the extinction of a species include global climate
changes, volcanic explosions, and celestial impacts.
The influence of humans on the environment do
not include comet impacts or volcanism; however, man
has caused extinctions all the same. Over the past
few hundred years, man has cut rainforests and
woodland forests, destroying natural habitats.
Pollution from industrial plants and vehicles has also
affected the air we breath and contributed to
greenhouse gases, which drive global warming. We are
looking at the potential extinction of many species due
to this warming trend.
In addition to threatening less-adaptive
creatures than ourselves, man is negatively impacting
biological resources that our own species need. Man 29
can adapt to many things with the help of technology. Table of Contents
 Standard 8-2.2 The study of Fossils
Summarize how scientists study Earth’s past environment and diverse life-forms by examining different types of
fossils (including molds, casts, petrified fossils, preserved and carbonized remains of plants and animals and trace
fossils)

 A fossil is the preserved remains of an organism that has died. Fossils tell
scientists,
called paleontologists, about living things such as their biology and environmental
conditions over earth‟s history through the rock record. In addition, they give clues to
the conditions of the earth (i.e. climate) at the time that the fossil was preserved and
possibly relate changes of an organism over time.
 Definitions of fossil types:
 Mold fossils: when sediments bury an organism and the sediment hardens into rock.
The organism decays slowly inside the rock, leaving an cavity in the shape of the organism.
 Cast fossil: The cavity or mold mentioned above can filled in with mud. When
the mud
hardens, it takes on the shape of the organism.
Petrified fossil or permineralized fossil: Minerals like calcium can soak into the buried
remains of an organism. The mineral replaces the remaining bone and changes it into rock.
Carbonized fossil: When organism parts are pressed between layers of mud or clay that
hardens over time, squeezing the decaying organism away and leaving a carbon imprint in
the rock, since all living things contain carbon. Table of Contents 30
 The fossil record, like the rock record, is an important record for understanding life on
earth before the dawn of man.
 Extinctions and new life forms are also found within the fossil record.
Fossils can also show structural similarities and differences in organisms over time
revealing the diversity of life forms on earth. Nearly 90 percent of organisms that have
lived on the earth are now extinct.

A trilobite cast from the

Mississippian Period. Extinct. Brachiopods in a sandstone matrix and an
Carbon imprint of fish individual brachiopod cast. Extinct.
remains, age unknown

Ammonite fossil
(cast), cut and
polished. Related
Belemnite fossil (cast), cut
to present-day
and polished. Related to
snail. Extinct.
present-day squid. Extinct.

Table of Contents 31
 South Carolina Science Academic Standards:
Grade 8
Standard 8-2: The student will demonstrate an understanding of Earth‟s biological diversity over
time. (Life Science, Earth Science)

Indicators
8-2.1 Explain how biological adaptations of populations enhance their survival
in a particular environment.
8-2.2 Summarize how scientists study Earth‟s past environment and
diverse life-
forms by examining different types of fossils (including molds, casts, petrified fossils,
preserved and carbonized remains of plants and animals, and trace fossils).
8-2.3 Explain how Earth‟s history has been influenced by catastrophes (including
the impact of an asteroid or comet, climatic changes, and volcanic activity) that have
affected the conditions on Earth and the diversity of its life-forms.
8-2.4 Recognize the relationship among the units—era, epoch, and period—
into which the geologic time scale is divided.
8-2.5 Illustrate the vast diversity of life that has been present on Earth over time
by using the geologic time scale.
8-2.6 Infer the relative age of rocks and fossils from index fossils and the
ordering of the rock layers.
8-2.7 Summarize the factors, both natural and man-made, that can contribute to
the extinction of a species. Table of Contents 32