CHAP 4 Learning

Chapter 4
Learning Process: Theories,

Principles and Characteristics
Definition
• Learning is both an emotional and an intellectual

process.
• A process resulting in some modification, relatively
permanent, of the way of thinking, feeling, doing,
of the learner.
Importance of Learning
• By learning we change ourselves emotionally, psychologically ,
behaviorally to adopt healthy life-style and practices.
• Learning new gets us access to new and different opportunities.
• Learning a new and appropriate skill
• New skill will influence the way we do things day to day and
make doing things quicker and easier, saving time, energy and
stress.
• Learning across our lives is essential for staying up to date in an
ever-changing world.
• Trying anything different ensures we meet new people, make
new friends and really enhance our social or work life.
Ten Principles of Learning
-Learning is an experience, which occurs inside the learner and is
activated by the learner.
-Learning is a discovery of the personal meaning and relevance
of ideas.
-Learning (Behavioral change) is a consequence of experience.
-Learning is a cooperative and collaborative process. Cooperation
fosters learning.
-Learning is an evolutionary process.
Ten Principles of Learning
Learning is sometimes a painful process.

-One of the richest resources of learning is the learner himself.
-The process of learning is both emotional and intellectual.
-The process of problem solving and learning are highly unique
and individual.
-Learning is a process of actively constructing knowledge.
Laws of Learning
Edward Thorndike developed the first three "Laws of learning:" readiness, exercise,
and effect. Since Edward set down his basic three laws in the early part of the
twentieth century, five additional principles have been added: primacy, recency,
intensity, freedom and requirement.
Readiness
Readiness implies a degree of concentration and eagerness. Individuals learn best
when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn, and do not
learn well if they see no reason for learning.
Exercise
The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best
remembered. It is the basis of drill and practice. It has been proven that students
learn best and retain information longer when they have meaningful practice and
repetition.
Five additional principles
Effect
The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of
the student. It has a direct relationship to motivation. The
principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when
accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that
learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant
feeling.
Primacy
Primacy, the state of being first, usually creates a strong and durable impression.
Things learned first are usually learned easily and remain, without effort, in the
mind of the student.
Recency
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best
remembered. Conversely, the further a student is removed time-wise from a new
fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember.
Intensity
The more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be retained. A sharp,
clear, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or
boring experience.
Freedom
The principle of freedom states that things freely learned are
best learned. Conversely, the further a student is coerced, the
more difficult is for him to learn, assimilate and implement
what is learned.
Requirement
The law of requirement states that "we must have something to
obtain or do something." It can be an ability, skill, instrument
or anything that may help us to learn or gain something.
The characteristics of learning
Learning is-
• Producing a behavioral change in the learner
• Leading to a relatively permanent change that is
also gradual,
• Adaptable and selective
• Resulting from practice, repetitions and
experience
• Not directly observable
Conditions that facilitate learning
An Atmosphere that:
-Encourages people to be active.
-Facilitates the individual’s discovery of the personal meaning of
ideas.
-Emphasizes the uniquely personal and subjective nature of
learning.
-Consistently recognizes the right to make mistakes.
-Tolerates ambiguity.
-In which people are encouraged to trust in themselves as well as in
external sources.
-In which people feel they are respected.
-In which people feel they are accepted.
Learning
Process:
Kolb's (1984) ‘Experiential Learning Style Theory’ is typically
represented by a four STAGES learning cycle in which the learner
'touches all the bases‘.
Four Learning Styles
• Concrete experience (Feeling): A new experience of situation is

encountered, or a reinterpretation of existing experience.
• Reflective observation (Watching): Any inconsistencies between
past experience and understanding of new experience.
• Abstract conceptualization (Thinking): Creating theories to
explain observations. Gives rise to a new idea, or a modification
of an existing abstract concept.
• Active experimentation (Doing): The learner applies them to
the world around them to see what results. Using new theories
to solve problems, make decisions.
From this continuum, Kolb developed four learning
styles:
-Diverger,
-Assimilator,
-Converger, and
-Accommodator.
Accommodators - (Concrete experience/Active experimenter)
Feeling-Doing:
These students are motivated by the question, "What would
happen if I did this?" They look for significance in the learning
experience and consider what they can do, as well as what
others have done previously. These learners are good with
complexity and are able to see relationships among aspects of a
system.
These teaching methods would work well for an Accommodator:
• Anything that encourages independent discovery is probably
the most desirable.
• Accommodators prefer to be active participants in their
learning.
Assimilator - (Abstract conceptualization/Reflective observer)
Thinking-Watching:
These students are motivated to answer the question, "What is
there to know?" They like accurate, organized delivery of
information and they tend to respect the knowledge of the
expert. They like to get the right answer to the problem.
Instructional methods that suit Assimilators include:
-Lecture method (or video/audio presentation)--followed by a
demonstration.
-Exploration of a subject in a lab, following a prepared tutorial
and for which answers should be provided.
-They will carefully follow prepared exercises.
The Assimilating learning preference is for a concise, logical
approach. Ideas and concepts are more important than people.
These people require good clear explanation rather than practical
opportunity. They excel at understanding wide-ranging information
and organizing it in a clear logical format.
People with this style are more attracted to logically sound theories
than approaches based on practical value.
This learning style is important for effectiveness in information and
science careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style
prefer readings, lectures, exploring analytical models, and having
time to think things through.
Convergers (Abstract conceptualization / Active
experimenter)
Thinking-Doing:
These students are motivated to discover the "how"
of a situation. Application and usefulness of
information is increased by understanding detailed
information about the system's operation.
Instructional methods that suit Convergers include:
• Instruction should be interactive, not passive.
• Computer-assisted instruction is a possibility.
• Problem sets or workbooks can be provided for
students to explore.
People with a converging learning style can solve problems
and will use their learning to find solutions to practical
issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned
with people and interpersonal aspects. People with a
converging learning style are best at finding practical uses
for ideas and theories.
People with a converging style like to experiment with new

ideas, to simulate, and to work with practical applications.
Divergers (Reflective observer/Concrete Experience)
Feeling-Watching:
These students are motivated to discover the "why" of a
situation. They like to reason from concrete, specific
information and to explore what a system has to offer,
and they prefer to have information presented to them in
a detailed, systematic, reasoned manner.
Instructional methods that suit Divergers include:
• Lecture method--focusing on specifics such as
the strengths, weaknesses and uses of a system.
The instructor would be best to mingle with the students,
answering questions and making suggestions.
These people are able to look at things from different perspectives.
They are sensitive. They prefer to watch rather than do, tending to
gather information and use imagination to solve problems.
Kolb called this style 'diverging' because these people perform
better in situations that require ideas-generation, for example,
brainstorming.
They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and
emotional, and tend to be strong in the arts. People with the
diverging style prefer to work in groups, to listen with an open
mind and to receive personal feedback.
Types of Learning (As in K. Park)
• Affective/Subjective Learning (Attitude)

• Cognitive Learning (Knowledge)
• Psychomotor Learning (Skill)
Cognitive: Mental skills (knowledge). Affective: Growth in

feelings or emotional areas (attitude or self).
Psychomotor: Manual or physical skills (skills)
Learning Domain
Theories of Learning
Behavioris
m
Definition
Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory

of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired
through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction
with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses
to environmental stimuli shape our actions.
Behaviorism
Behavioral Learning Theory
There are three types of behavioral learning theories:
• Contiguity theory
• Classical or respondent conditioning
theory
• Operant or instrumental conditioning
theory
Contiguity Theory
Contiguity theory is based on the work of E. R. Guthrie.
It proposes that any stimulus and response connected

in time and/or space will tend to be associated.
Contiguity Theory (In Psychology)
Example
•A student making a good grade on a test after trying a

new study technique makes an association between the
stimulus of studying and the response of getting a good
grade.
Classical Conditioning Theory
Pavlov was studying the digestive system of dogs and

became intrigued with his observation that dogs deprived
of food began to salivate when one of his assistants
walked into the room.
He began to investigate this phenomena and established

the laws of classical conditioning.
Classical Conditioning Theory
Example:
•Child is harassed at school
•Child feels bad when harassed
•Child associates being harassed and school
•Child begins to feel bad when she thinks of school
•Result is: CHILD DOES NOT WANT TO GO TO SCHOOL
In order to extinguish the associated of feeling bad and thinking of
school, the connection between school and being harassed must be
broken.
Operant Conditioning
•Operant conditioning is the study of the impact

of consequences on behavior.
•With operant conditioning we are dealing with
voluntary behaviors.
●
Example
:
Positive Punishment- Example:
Negative Punishment- Example:
Note: Time out means "an imposed temporary suspension of activities, especially
the separation of a misbehaving child from the others as a disciplinary measure."
Response to Reinforcement and Punishment
Punishment Pattern- Recommended
Punishment should be:

1. Mildly unpleasant
2. Short in duration
3. Applied as soon as possible after the
behavior
Examples of Effective Punishment

- Time Out
- Response Cost
- Verbal Reprimand
- In-house Suspension
Punishment Pattern- Recommended
Examples of Punishment to Avoid:
-Physical Punishment
-Psychological Punishment
-Extra Classwork
-Suspension from School
Guidelines for Using Punishment:

•Choose punishment strong enough to discourage the behavior
but not overly severe
• Dont Bluff
• Explain why the behavior is unacceptable
• Teach and reinforce desirable alternative behaviors
Rewards- Recommendation
•Praise, if used correctly, can increase intrinsic motivation by

being informational
• Give unexpected rewards
• Avoid tangible rewards (eg. Money)
•Rewards may decrease intrinsic motivation when given for

simply engaging in an activity.
Behaviorism in Class-Room
• Reward and punishments
• Responsibility for student-learning rests
squarely with the teacher
• Lecture-Based and highly structured.
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Chapter 4

Learning Process: Theories,

• Learning is both an emotional and an intellectual

Learning is sometimes a painful process.

• Concrete experience (Feeling): A new experience of situation is

People with a converging style like to experiment with new

• Affective/Subjective Learning (Attitude)

Cognitive: Mental skills (knowledge). Affective: Growth in

Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory

There are three types of behavioral learning theories:

Contiguity theory is based on the work of E. R. Guthrie.

It proposes that any stimulus and response connected

•A student making a good grade on a test after trying a

Pavlov was studying the digestive system of dogs and

He began to investigate this phenomena and established

•Operant conditioning is the study of the impact

Negative Punishment- Example:

Punishment should be:

Examples of Effective Punishment

Guidelines for Using Punishment:

•Praise, if used correctly, can increase intrinsic motivation by

• Give unexpected rewards

• Avoid tangible rewards (eg. Money)

•Rewards may decrease intrinsic motivation when given for

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