The Functional Aspect of Speech Sounds.

1. The Phoneme.
1.1. The definition of the phoneme.
1.2. The phoneme as a unity of three aspects.
2. Phonological and phonetic mistakes in pronunciation.
3. Main Trends in the Phoneme Theory.
4. Methods of Phonological Analysis.
4.1. The aim of phonological analysis.
4.2. Distributional method of phonological analysis.
4.3. Semantically distributional method of phonological analysis.
4.4. Methods of establishing the phonemic status of speech sounds in weak positions.
Morphonology.
5. Aspects of speech sounds. Speech sounds as articulatory units and the problem of their
classification.
6. Three functions of the phoneme. The system of oppositions. Vowel and consonant
adjustments in connected speech: coarticulatory phenomena.
1. The Phoneme.

1.1. The definition of the phoneme.

The phoneme is a minimal abstract

linguistic unit realized in speech in the
form of speech sounds opposable to other
phonemes of the same language in order to
distinguish the meaning of morphemes
and words.
 1.2. The phoneme as a unity of three
aspects.

The phoneme is a dialectal unity of three

aspects:
1) material, real and objective,
2) abstractional and generalized,
3) functional.
 2. Phonological and phonetic mistakes in
pronunciation.

If an allophone is replaced by an allophone of a

different phoneme the mistake is called phonological,
because it affects the meaning of words:
bit: [bi:t] vs. [bıt].
If an allophone of the phoneme is replaced by another
allophone of the same phoneme the mistake is called
phonetic, because the meaning of the word does not
change: [phıt] / [pıt].
 3. Main Trends in the Phoneme Theory.

I. The psychological view regards the phoneme as

an ideal ‘mental image’ that the speaker bears in
mind when pronouncing allophonic variants.

The founders of the phoneme theory Ivan

Olexandrovych Baudauin de Courtenay,
Edward Sapir, Alf Sommerfelt, Mark Tatham.
This conception is rejected by Leonard Bloomfield
and Daniel Jones on the basis that it’s impossible to
establish ideal sounds which don’t exist in reality.
 II. The functional view regards the phoneme
as the minimal sound unit by which meanings
can be differentiated.
For example, the words ladder and latter are
said to differ only in one feature of the third
sound: lenis or fortis characteristics [ d – t].
This view is shared by Nikolai Sergeyevich
Trubetzkoy, Roman Osipovich Jacobson,
Leonard Bloomfield, and others.
 III. The abstract view regards phonemes as
units which are independent of speech
sounds.
This approach was originated by Ferdinand
de Saussure and advocated by Louis
Hjelmslev and Hans Jorgen Uldall .

NB: The second and third views are rejected as

purely idealistic conceptions which do not take into
consideration the real human speech.
 IV. The physical view regards the phoneme as a family
of related sounds that have phonetic similarity and do
not occur in the same phonetic context.

This conception was proposed by Daniel Jones and

shared by American linguists Bernard Bloch and George
Trager.

The lack of this approach is that it studies the phoneme

from the point of view of its articulatory characteristics
only without any regard to its functional aspects.
 V. According to the materialistic view, originated by
Lev Volodymyrovych Shcherba, the phoneme is
defined as a real, independent distinctive unit which
has its material manifestation in the form of
allophones.

This view is widely recognized in modern phonology, its

followers are Leo Zinder, Margaret Matusevich, Maria
Sokolova and others.
4. Methods of Phonological Analysis.

4.1. The aim of phonological analysis.

The aim of phonological (phonemic) analysis

is to determine phonemic (functional) and non-
phonemic (articulatory) differences of speech
sounds and to identify the inventory of language
phonemes.
The phonological analysis can be fulfilled within
two steps:
•The first step is to •The second step is to
identify the minimal arrange the sounds into
segments of speech functionally similar
continuum and record groups in order to find
them graphically by contrastive phoneme
means of allophonic sounds and allophones
transcription. of the same sounds.
4.2. Distributional method of phonological analysis.

Phonemes of any language are discovered by rigid classification

of all the sounds pronounced by native speakers according to the
following laws of phonemic and allophonic distribution:

•allophones of different •allophones of the same

phonemes occur in the same phoneme(s) never occur in
phonetic context and their the same phonetic context,
distribution is contrastive; their distribution is
complementary and the
choice depends on phonetic
environment.
 4.3. Semantically distributional method of phonological
analysis.
The semantic method is based on the functional rule
that phonemes can distinguish words and morphemes
when opposed to one another. It consists in the systemic
substitution of one sound for another in the same phonetic
context in order to find cases in which such a replacement
leads to the change of meaning.
This procedure is called the commutation test and it
helps to establish minimal oppositional pairs of words and
word-forms presenting different meaning.
 4.4. Methods of establishing the phonemic status of speech
sounds in weak positions. Morphonology.
According to Sokolova M., morphonology is concerned with the
way in which sounds can alternate as different re­alization of one
and the same morpheme.
To establish the phone­mic status of speech sounds we should
consider the cases when the sounds are in the weak position, or the
position of neutralization:
1) “wind+y", "dust+y", "sunn+y“ have two morphemes and the function
of the morpheme "-y" is to convert a noun into an adjective. This morpheme
has a grammatical meaning.
2) malice |ˈmælɪs| - malicious |məˈlɪʃəs|; active |ˈæktɪv| - activity |
akˈtɪvɪti| exemplify a sound alternation in one and the same morpheme of
two different parts of speech (nouns and adjectives).
5. Aspects of speech sounds. Speech sounds as articulatory units and the
problem of their classification.

1) The articulatory/sound production aspect: from the articulatory point of

view every speech sound is a complex of definite coordinated and
differentiated movements and positions of speech organs.
2) The acoustic aspect: every speech sound is a complex of acoustic effects
and has its physical properties - it is a physical phenomenon, a kind of
moving matter and energy. The physical (acoustic) properties of speech
sounds consist of: frequency, spectrum, intensity, duration.
3) The auditory/sound-perception aspect involves the mechanism of hearing.
It is a kind of psychological mechanism which (1) reacts to the physical
properties of speech sounds, (2) selecting from a great amount of
information only the one which is linguistically relevant.
4) The functional/linguistic/social aspect is called so because of the role the
sounds of language play in its functioning as medium of human
communication
 Differences between
VOWELS (V) and CONSONANTS (C)
1) The most substantial articulatory difference between vowels and
consonants is that in the articulation of V the air passes freely through
the mouth cavity, while in making C an obstruction is formed in the
mouth cavity and the airflow exhaled from the lungs meets a narrowing
or a complete obstruction formed by the speech organs.
2. From the acoustic point of view, vowels are called the sounds of
voice, they have high acoustic energy, and consonants are the sounds of
noise which have low acoustic energy.
3. Functional differences between Vs and Cs are defined by their role
in syllable formation: Vs are syllable forming elements, Cs are units
which function at the margins of syllables, either singly or in clusters.
 Heinz Giegerich [1992], Martha Carswell Pennington
[1996] use a set of basic binary (two-way) distinctions
to classify the sounds of a language in terms of:
1) phonation (the behavior of the vocal cords in the
glottis during the production of the sound);
2) oro-nasal process (the modification of that flow of
air in the vocal track, from the glottis to the lips and
nose);
3) manner of articulation (the configuration and
interaction of the articulators (speech organs such as the
tongue, lips, and palate) when making a speech sound).
1) Phonation 2) Oro-nasal process 3) Manner of articulation
Sonorants
Oral
Obstruents Stops (plosives)
Nasal
(noise consonants)

Continuants: vowels and three

consonant types
- fricatives,
- affricates,
- approximants:
[r, w, j] are central approximants;
[1] is called a lateral approximant;
[h] is a glottal approximant;
OR
semi-consonants [1, r];
semi-vowels [w, j].
 Articulatory classification organizes English
consonants into certain groups according to distinctive
changes in

the degree of noise,

the manner of articulation,
the place of articulation,
the presence of voice ,
the position of the soft palate.
A minimum vowel system of any language

[
a]

[i] [u]
The most common vowel system
with 5 vowels

[a]

[e] [o]

[i] [u]
 The British linguist D. Jones tried to establish a broader
classification of vowels for all languages. He devised the system
of eight Cardinal Vowels on the physiological basis with the help
of X-ray photography of the tongue positions. This system is
recognized by most foreign linguists and serves the basis of the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
Articulatory classification of English vowels describes
distinctive changes in
 the stability of articulation,
 the tongue position,
 the lip position,
 the vowel length,
 the vowel tenseness,
 the character of the vowel end.
 6. Three functions of the phoneme. The system of
oppositions. Vowel and consonant adjustments in
connected speech: coarticulatory phenomena.

The phoneme is viewed as a functional, material and

abstract unit, which performs three functions:
 distinctive,
 constitutive,
 recognitive.
1. The phoneme as a functional unit performs the distinctive
function. It distinguishes different sounds in a contrastive
sense and serves as the smallest language unit that
discriminates between larger language units. Thus, the
opposition of phonemes in the same phonetic environment
differentiates the meaning of morphemes, words and even
sentences.

E.g., sleeper — sleepy;

bath — path, light — like;
He was heard badly — He was hurt badly.
 2. The phoneme is a material, real and objective unit that
performs the constitutive function. The phoneme is
realized in speech in the form of its variants or allophones,
which do not make meaningful distinctions and serve to
constitute the material form of morphemes.

E.g., cap [khæph] / [khæp]

— the loss of plosion in the final phoneme [p] doesn’t

bring any change of meaning.
 3. The phoneme is also an abstract and generalized
unit, which performs the recognitive function. The
phoneme serves to distinguish and understand the
meaning, because the use of the right allophone in the
certain phonetic context helps the listener to
understand the message and thus facilitates normal
recognition.
E.g., take it — tape it
— the difference in two phrases is understood by
two different phonemes.
Nikolai Sergeyevich Trubetzkoy has worked out the classification of
phonological oppositions which is based on the number of distinctive
features.
1. A single phonological opposition is established on the basis of a single
difference in the articulation of two speech sounds:
‘pen — ben’ - common features (occlusive, labial), differentiating feature
(fortis vs. lenis).
2. A double phonological opposition marks two differences in the articulation
and presents a sum of two single oppositions:
‘pen — den’ - common feature (occlusive), differentiating features (labial vs.
lingual, voiceless-fortis vs. voiced-lenis).
3. A triple phonological opposition has three articulatory differences,
presenting a sum of three single oppositions:
differentiating features in ‘pen — then’ (occlusive vs. constrictive, labial vs.
dental, voiceless-fortis vs. voiced-lenis).
 Sound adjustments in connected speech
can be summarized as follows:
Types of adjustments Kinds of adjustments
1 Adjustments related to 1. Assimilations = modifications of a C under the influence of a
C-C linking neighboring C, for ex.: ten mice [tem mais]
2 Adjustments related to 1. Liaison = connecting of the final sound of one word or syllable
V-V, C-V, V-C linking to the initial sound of the next, for ex.: a phrase such us far
away, far out is usually pronounced with [fa:r].

2. Accommodation (adaptation) = modifications of C under the

influence of the adjacent V or vice versa: e.g. two =
labialized [t] under the influence of the rounded [u]; let = more
open [e] after [l].

3. Glottal stop / hard attack, symbolized [?], is a plosive made at

the glottis by the vocal folds. For ex.: atmospheric [,ætməs'ferik] –
[,æ?mǝs-].
3 Adjustments related 1. Elisions (elipsis or omission) = deletion of a sound in
to sound deletion / rapid or careless speech.
insertion For ex.: a phrase, such as next thing, next question, is often
pronounced with elision of the [t] in [neks].

2. Epenthesis = inserting of a V or C segment within an

existing string of segments.
For ex.: in RP, however, as in other non-rhotic accents (some
of New England accents and in New York City) speakers
tend to add an intrusive [r] to V+V sequence even when there
is no [r] in the spelling of the preceding word, e.g. comma
['kɔmər], ['ka:mər]. In isolation, the RP form is ['kɔmə]. But
in a phrase such put a comma in, it is often pronounced
['kɔmər]. In GenAm it is always ['ka:mər], whatever the
environment.

3. Smoothing = a diphthong optionally loses its second

element before another vowel, or it is monophthongized:
E.g.: fire ['faiə -'faə - 'fa:].
4 Adjustments Compression when two syllables, usually both
on the weak, optionally become one. Applies only to
syllable level [i], [u], syllabic consonants: [i] becomes like [j],
e.g. lenient ['li:niənt] - ['li:njənt], etc.

5 Weakening Weakforms are alternate forms of words so

reduced in their articulation that they consist of
a different set of phonemes.
Weakforms differ from strongforms by
containing a weak vowel resultant from
reduction or by elision of one or more of
its phonemes, e.g. can [kən], [kn]